Agilent Spectrum

Analyzer Series
Application Note 150-2

Spectrum Analysis…Pulsed RF
 Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
The basic pulse spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Chapter 2. “Line” Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
General rules and explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Pulse desensitization aL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Transition to the pulse response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Chapter 3. “Pulse” Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
General rules and explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Why use a "pulse" spectrum display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Peak pulse response -pulse desensitization ap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Very short RF pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Chapter 4. Summary of pulsed spectra characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Common pulse spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Appendix A. Table of important transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Explanation of the table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Properties of transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
IF amplifier response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

2
Chapter 1 – Introduction

The basic pulse spectrum

The spectrum analyzer was originally designed to look at the wave. The fundamental frequency determined the square wave rate,
output of radar transmitters. A pulse radar signal is a train of RF and the amplitudes of the harmonics varied inversely to their number.
pulses with a constant repetition rate, constant pulse width and
shape, and constant amplitude. By looking at the characteristic A rectangular pulse is merely an extension of this principle, and by
spectra, all-important properties of the pulsed signal such as pulse changing the relative amplitudes and phases of harmonics, both
width, occupied bandwidth, duty cycle, peak and average power, odd and even, we can plot an infinite number of wave shapes. The
etc., can be measured easily and with high accuracy. Perhaps an spectrum analyzer effectively "unplots" waveforms and presents
even more important application of the spectrum analyzer is the the fundamental and each harmonic contained in the waveform.
detection of transmitter misfiring and frequency pulling effects.
This application note is intended as an aid for the operation of Consider a perfect rectangular pulse train as shown in Figure 1a,
the spectrum analyzer and the interpretation of the displayed perfect in the respect that rise time is zero and there is no overshoot
pulse spectra. or other aberrations. This pulse is shown in the time domain and
we wish to examine its spectrum so it must be broken down into
The formation of a square wave from a fundamental sine wave its individual frequency components. Figure lb superimposes the
and its odd harmonics is a good way to start an explanation of the fundamental and its second harmonic plus a constant voltage
spectral display for nonsinusoidal waveforms. You will recall perhaps to show how the pulse begins to take shape as more harmonics
at one time plotting a sine wave and its odd harmonics on a sheet are plotted. If an infinite number of harmonies were plotted, the
of graph paper, then adding up all the instantaneous values. If resulting pulse would be perfectly rectangular. A spectral plot of
there were enough harmonics plotted at their correct amplitudes this would be as shown in Figure 2.
and phases, the resultant waveform began to approach a square

T Sum of fundamental,
2nd harmonic and
τ Average Fundamental average value
value of
wave 2nd harmonic

E A

Time

Figure 1a. Periodic rectangular pulse train Figure 1b. Addition of a fundamental cosine wave and its
harmonics to form rectangular pulses

3
 Aτ
T Spectral lines PRF

f
1
T -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
DC 1 2 3 4
∞ τ τ τ τ τ τ τ τ
τ τ τ τ fc
Frequency, f

Figure 2. Spectrum of a perfectly rectangular pulse. Amplitudes and Figure 3. Resultant spectrum of a carrier amplitude modulated with a
phases of an infinite number of harmonics are plotted, resulting in rectangular pulse
smooth envelope as shown.

The envelope of this plot follows a funtion of the basic form: pulse repetition frequency with its harmonics. Thus, the lines will
sin x be spaced in frequency by whatever the pulse repetition frequency
y= x might happen to be. The spectral line frequencies may be
expressed as:
There is one major point that must be made clear before going
into the analyzer display further. We have been talking about a FL = Fc ± n x PRF
square wave and a pulse without any relation to a carrier or mod- where Fc = Carrier frequency
ulation. With this background we now apply the pulse waveform PRF = Pulse repetition frequency
as amplitude modulation to an RF carrier. This produces sums n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . .
and differences of the carrier and all of the harmonic components
contained in the modulating pulse. The “mainlobe” in the center and the “sidelobes” are shown as
groups of spectral lines extending above and below the baseline.
We know from single tone AM how the sidebands are produced For perfectly rectangular pulses and other functions whose
above and below the carrier frequency. The idea is the same for derivatives are discontinuous at some point, the number of
a pulse, except that the pulse is made up of many tones, thereby sidelobes is infinite.
producing multiple sidebands that are commonly referred to as
spectral lines on the analyzer display. In fact, there will be twice The mainlobe contains the carrier frequency represented by the
as many sidebands or spectral lines as there are harmonics longest spectral line in the center. Amplitude of the spectral lines
contained in the modulating pulse. forming the lobes varies as a function of frequency according to the
expression sin ω τ for a perfectly rectangular pulse.
Figure 3 shows the spectral plot resulting from rectangular 2
amplitude pulse modulation of a carrier. The individual lines ω τ
represent the modulation product of the carrier and the modulating 2

4
Thus, for a given carrier frequency the points where these lines go Figure 4 compares the spectral plots for two pulse lengths, each
through zero amplitude are determined by the modulating pulse at two repetition rates with carrier frequency held constant.
width only. As pulse width becomes shorter, minima of the enve-
lope become further removed in frequency from the carrier, and Notice in the drawings how the spectral lines extend below the
the lobes become wider. The sidelobe widths in frequency are baseline as well as above. This corresponds to the harmonics in
related to the modulating pulse width by the expression f = 1/τ the modulating pulse, having a phase relationship of 180 ° with
Since the mainlobe contains the origin of the spectrum (the carrier respect to the fundamental of the modulating waveform. Since the
frequency), the upper and lower sidebands extending from this spectrum analyzer can only detect amplitudes and not phase, it
point form a main lobe 2/τ wide. Remember, however, that the will invert the negative-going lines and display all amplitudes
total number of sidelobes remains constant so long as the pulse above the baseline.
quality, or shape, is unchanged and only its repetition rate is varied.

4a. Narrow pulse width causes wide spectrum lobes, Figure 4b. Wider pulse than 4a causes narrower lobes,
high PRF results in low spectral line density. but line density remains constant since PRF is
unchanged.

Figure 4c. PRF lower than 4a results in higher spectral Figure 4d. Spectral density and PRF unchanged from 4c,
density. Lobe width is same as 4a since pulse widths but lobe widths are reduced by wider pulse.
are identical.

5
 Because a pulsed RF signal has unique properties we have to be signal, and the "line" and "pulse" spectrum refer solely to the
careful to interpret the display on a spectrum analyzer correctly. response or display on the spectrum analyzer.
The response that a spectrum analyzer (or any swept receiver)
can have to a periodically pulsed RF signal can be of two kinds, We will discuss both types of response to a signal with the basic
resulting in displays that are similar but of completely different appearance as shown in Figure 5 with the aid of pictures, and
significance. One response is called a "line spectrum" and the then summarize all formulas and rules for proper operation of the
other is called a "pulse spectrum." We must keep in mind that analyzer.
these are both responses to the same periodically pulsed RF input

τeff
Ep

t 1 = PRF
T

t=o p(t) cos ωot

p(t) dt
τeff = Width of Rectangular Pulse of same height and area as pulse applied to analyzer = fot Ep

Figure 5. Basic RF pulse

6
Chapter 2. “Line” Spectrum

General rules and explanation

A “line” spectrum occurs when the spectrum analyzer's 3 dB We will now look at the CRT images on page 9 of a pulsed RF
bandwidth B is narrow compared to the frequency spacing of signal to see how different scan times, scan widths, and IF band-
the input signal components. Since the individual spectral widths of the spectrum analyzer influence the appearance of the
components are spaced at the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) signal on the display.
of the periodically pulsed RF, we can say:
B < PRF (1) A carrier signal with a CW amplitude of -30 dBm (Figure 7) is
modulated by a pulse train with a PRF of I kHz and an effective
In this case all individual frequency components can be resolved. pulse width τeff of 0.1 ms (Figure 8). In Figure 9 we see the resulting
Only one is within the bandwidth at a time as shown in Figure 6. pulse spectrum in a linear display. The analyzer bandwidth is
100 Hz, one-tenth of the PRF.
The display is a frequency domain display of the actual Fourier
components of the input signal. Each component behaves as a The logarithmic display (Figure 10) allows a much better evaluation
CW signal. The display has the normal true frequency domain of the signal spectrum, because the lower amplitudes of the higher
characteristics: order sidelobes can now be easily measured.

1. The spacing between lines on the display Will NOT change Each Fourier component is resolved and the line spacing is measured
when the analyzer scan time (“sec/Div”) is changed. as 1 kHz, which is the PRF. We can also see that the spacing of
the sidelobe minima is 10 kHz, according to the relation
2. The amplitude of each line will not change when the band
1 1
width B is changed as long as B remains considerably τeff = 0.1 ms = 10 kHz.
below the PRF.

B < 1 or B < PRF

T

Figure 6. IF bandwidths smaller than PRF.

7
 We thus can count ten spectral lines in each sidelobe or twenty The last point reveals a very important fact which has not been
lines plus the carrier line in the mainlobe, according to the duty mentioned yet, but can easily be seen in the pictures of the
cycle of the pulsed signal. calibrated logarithmic displays on page 7A: The amplitude of the
carrier component (highest amplitude in the spectrum envelope)
τeff or
T
τeff x PRF = 0.1 of a pulse modulated signal is considerably lower than the CW
amplitude of the unmodulated carrier. This effect is commonly
called pulse desensitization.
(The fact that the amplitude of the spectral lines on the lobe
minima reach zero for each integer ratio of τeff can be used to
adjust the duty cycle very accurately.) T Pulse Desensitization αL
The display in Figure 10 does not change for different scan times, The expression “pulse desensitization” is quite misleading since
unless we select a scan time too short for the given scan width the sensitivity of the spectrum analyzer is not reduced by a pulse
and bandwidth. modulated signal. The apparent reduction in peak amplitude can
be explained in the following manner: pulsing a CW carrier results
The new Agilent spectrum analyzer systems have a built-in logic in its power being distributed over a number of spectral compo-
with a warning light that enables us to avoid any wrong combina- nents (carrier and sidebands). Each of these spectral components
tion of these control settings. then contains only a fraction of the total power.
τ
For spectrum analyzers without this feature we have to satisfy an In Figure 10, where we have a duty cycle eff of 0.1, we measure a
additional equation to avoid display errors: T
display ampli-tude which has a difference of -20 dB compared to
Scan width [Hz/Div] the CW amplitude of the carrier. In Figure 13, with a duty cycle of
Scan time [sec/Div] < (B[Hz]) (2)
2
0.05, we measure -26 dB. This leads to the equation for the line
(See Appendix B) spectrum pulse desensitization factor αL:
τeff
In Figure 11 the bandwidth of the analyzer has been changed to αL [dB] = 20 log10
T
300 Hz. Although the resolution of the spectral lines is reduced
(minima) we still have a true Fourier line spectrum display. From τ
= 20 log10 Teff x PRF (4)
this experience we can derive a rule of thumb for the analyzer's
bandwidth to obtain a line spectrum:
This relation is only valid for a true Fourier line spectrum (B < 0.3 PRF).
B < 0.3 PRF (preferably B < 0.1 PRF) (3) τ
We can see that αL is only dependent on the duty cycle eff of the
T
pulsed signal.
This rule is valid for the shape factors (10:1 to 30:1) of the IF filters
used in Agilent spectrum analyzers. The average power Pavg of the signal is also dependent on the
duty cycle:
In Figure 12 we have changed the spectrum width from 100 kHz
τ
(10 kHz/Div) to 50 kHz (5 kHz/Div). We see that the spectrum Pavg = Ppeak x eff or Pavg = Ppeak x τeff x PRF
T
envelope and the line spacing have changed, but the number of
lines in each lobe remains constant. Written as a ratio in dB:

Pavg
In Figure 13 the pulse width has been altered from τeff = 0.1 ms to
Ppeak [dB] = 10 log10τeff x PRF (4a)
τeff = 0.05 ms. Comparing with Figure 10 (same control settings
on the analyzer), we find three differences:
Figure 14 represents Equations 4 and 4a in a diagram.
1. The side-lobe minima are spaced by 20 kHz.

2. The number of lines in each side-lobe is 20. (The line

spacing is still I kHz since we did not change the PRF.)

3. The amplitude of the spectrum envelope is 6 dB lower.

8
Line Spectra of a Pulsed Modulated 50 Mhz Carrier

Figure 7. CW signal 50 MHz, -30 dBm, Figure 8. Time domain display of the 50 MHz Figure 9. Line spectrum of the pulsed 50 MHz
scan width 10 kHz/Div, bandwidth 100 Hz, signal pulse modulated with τeff = 0.1 ms and signal. Linear display 100 µV/Div,
Log Ref. -20 dBm, 10 dB/Div. PRF = 1 kHz (0.5 ms/Div). scan 10 kHz/Div.

Figure 10. Same spectrum in logarithmic display Figure 11. Same spectrum with 300 Hz analyzer Figure 12. Same signal but scan width
scan width 10 kHz/Div, bandwidth 100 Hz, bandwidth. Scan width 10 kHz1 Div, changed to 5 kHz/Div. Bandwidth 100 Hz,
Log Ref. -20 dBm, 10 dB/Div. Log Ref. -20 dBm, 10 dB/Div. Log Ref. -20 dBm, 10 dB/Div.

Pavg
αL [dB] [dB]
Ppeak
– 80 – 40

– 70

– 60 – 30

– 50

– 40 – 20

– 30
Figure 13. Carrier now modulated with a pulse
width of τeff = 0.05 ms (PRF = 1 kHz), – 20 – 10
scan width 10 kHz/Div, bandwidth 100 Hz,
Log Ref. -20 d8m, 10 dB/Div. – 10

0 0
10 – 4 10 – 3 10 – 2 10 – 1 1
τ or τ x PRF
T
Figure 14. Pulse desensitization αL (line spectrum).

9
 Transition to the "Pulse" Response
We read from the diagram that for a duty cycle of 0.1 we will get If we increase the IF bandwidth in our example further to I kHz,
a display desensitization of -20 dB, and for a ratio of 0.05 we get we get the display shown in Figure 15. We notice that the analyzer
-26 dB as shown in Figure 10 and Figure 13. The diagram also has lost the ability to resolve the spectral lines since B = PRF. The
shows that the desensitization factor αL becomes very large for lines now displayed are generated in the time domain by the single
low duty cycles. In this case, the sensitivity of the analyzer and pulses of the signal. We also see that the displayed amplitude of
the maximum signal level at the broadband front end mixer the spectrum envelope has increased. This is due to the fact that
become important factors. We shall describe the necessary the IF filter is now sampling a broader part of the spectrum at a
considerations for these analyzer properties in the next chapter time, thus collecting the power of several spectral lines.
about the more important “pulse” spectrum display.
A pulse repetition rate equal to the resolution bandwidth is the
demarcation line between a true Fourier-series spectrum, where
each line is a response representing the energy contained in that
harmonic, and a “pulse” or Fourier-transform response.

Figure 15. Bandwidth 1 kHz = PRF.

10
Chapter 3 – “Pulse” Spectrum

General rules and explanation

A “pulse” spectrum occurs when the bandwidth B of the spec- 2. The spacing between the lines will not change when the scan
trum analyzer is equal to/or greater than the PRF. The spectrum width ("MHz/ Div" or "kHz/Div") is changed. The spectrum enve-
analyzer in this case cannot resolve the actual individual Fourier lope will change horizontally as we would expect.
frequency domain components, since several lines are within its
bandwidth. However, if the bandwidth is narrow compared to the 3. The amplitude of the display envelope will increase linearly as
spectrum envelope, then the envelope can be resolved (Figure 16). the bandwidth B is increased. This means an amplitude increase
The resultant display is not a true frequency domain display, but a of 6 dB for doubling B.
combination of time and frequency display. It is a time domain dis-
play of the pulse lines, since each line is displayed when a pulse This is true as long as B does not exceed τ0.2 . When the bandwidth
eff
occurs, regardless of the frequency within the pulse spectrum to
equals 1 (or 1/2 of the main-lobe width), the display amplitude is
τeff
which the analyzer is tuned at that moment. It is a frequency
domain display of the spectrum envelope. The display has three practically the peak amplitude of the signal. At this point the IF
distinguishing characteristics: filter covers nearly all significant spectral components. But then
we have lost the ability to resolve the spectrum envelope.
1. The spacing between the pulse lines and their number will
change when the scan time of the analyzer is changed. The lines
are spaced in real time by 1/PRF. The shape of the spectrum enve-
lope will not change with the scan time.

B < 1 or B < PRF

T

Figure 16. If bandwidth greater than PRF.

11
 We show these characteristics in the following pictures: Some additional rules of thumb are of importance:

In Figure 17 we modulate the –30 dBm CW carrier by a pulse train 1. For a sufficient resolution of the spectrum envelope the
bandwidth should be less than 5% of the mainlobe width or:
with a PRF of 100 Hz and τeff = 1 = 100 µs. The analyzer's
10 kHz
0.1 B < τ0.1 (5)
IF bandwidth is 1 kHz; i.e., B = τ . eff
eff
For higher resolution into the lobe minima (20 to 30 dB) we
We can see the spectrum envelope with the mainlobe and side- should use:
lobes and the minima in between. The lines that form the enve-
lope are not spectral lines but pulse lines in the time domain. B < 0.03
τ (6)
eff
We can verify this by changing the scan time (Figure 18). If we 2. The system must respond to each pulse independently.
reduce the scan time further, we lose the information about the The effects of one pulse must decay out before the next
shape of the spectrum envelope; i.e., the frequency domain infor- pulse occurs. The IF amplifier decay time constant is
mation. But we now can easily measure the PRF in the time approximately 0.3/B. A decay of the pulse effect down
domain (Figure 19 and Figure 20). to 1% (-40 dB) requires five time constants. This leads
to the rule:
In Figure 21 we changed the scan/width to 5 kHz/Div. The scan
time is the same as in Figure 18. We can see that the spectrum B > 1.5 PRF (7)
envelope changed (frequency domain), but the line spacing
remains constant (time domain). However, we get less than 1 dB error if B = PRF, where the
baseline is only 20 to 25 dB below the spectrum envelope
In Figure 22 we use an IF bandwidth of 300 Hz. We can measure (see Figure 15). The range between B < 0.3 PRF (line
an amplitude decrease of approximately 10 dB compared to Figure spectrum) and B > PRF (pulse spectrum) shows properties
17, which shows the linear relationship between IF bandwidth and of both response types and should be avoided.
display amplitude. We also can see that the minima are better
resolved than in Figure 17. In Figure 23 the bandwidth is increased 3. The number of pulse lines that form the spectrum envelope
to 3 kHz. The display amplitude increase compared to Figure 22 is display is determined by the PRF and the scan time. For a
not 20 dB but only 18 dB. We lost the linear relationship between display with useful resolution, i.e., a sufficient number of
bandwidth and display amplitude because B is greater than 0.2 lines, the scan time should be selected to:
τeff
in this case. Also the resolution of the sidelobes is lost to a great scan time [s/Div] ≥ 10
extent. PRF [ Hz]

1
If we increase B to 10 kHz (which is equal to τeff ), we get a display We then have more than 100 lines forming the spectrum envelope,
with an amplitude practically equal to the peak amplitude of the thus assuring that the mainlobe peak is displayed on each scan
pulsed signal (Figure 24). (see Figure 18 and Figure 22).

The signal in the center of the displays (baseline lift) is the residual
carrier that is still present during the "off" periods of the pulsed
signal. Because it is essentially a CW signal, the on-off ratio of the
pulse modulator can only be measured directly if B ≥ τ1 as
eff
shown in Figure 24. We measure an on-off ratio of 38 dB

In the other displays where B < τ1 we again have to consider a

eff
“pulse desensitization” factor since we compare a CW signal with
a pulsed signal. This factor will be extensively discussed later.

12
Pulsed RF signal in "pulsed" spectrum display
(All Pictures Show the Same Log Ref of -20 dBm).

Figure 17. Signal (peak amplitude –30 dBm) Figure 18. Same signal, but scan time changed Figure 19. Same signal with a scan time of
pulsed with PRF = 100 Hz, to 0.1 s/Div. 20 ms/Div.
τeff = 1/10 kHz = 100 ˜µs. Scan width 10 kHz/Div,
B = 1 kHz scan time 0.5 s/Div

Figure 20. Same signal, but B = 300 kHz and Figure 21. Same signal with scan width Figure 22. Same signal with B = 300 Hz scan
scan time 2 ms/Div. The PRF can be measured 5 kHz/Div, B = 1 kHz, scan time 0.1 s/Div. width 10 kHz/Div, scan time 0.2 s/Div.
to 1/10 ms = 100 Hz

Figure 23. Same signal with B = 3 kHz. Figure 24. Same signal with B = 10 kHz.

13
 Why use a “pulse” spectrum display?
In many instances, it is neither possible nor desirable to make a
fine grain line-by-line analysis of a spectrum. A good example of
such a case is a train of short RF pulses at a low repetition frequency
as normally used in radar transmitters. Not only must the IF band-
width become inconveniently narrow, but often the frequency
modulation on the pulsed carrier is so excessive that the resulting
display is confusing.

In the "pulse" spectrum mode we can get all information we need:

the spectrum envelope and amplitude in the frequency domain
and the PRF in the time domain. We also have two advantages
over the “line” spectrum display:

1. We can use shorter scan times because of the greater bandwidth.

2. We can increase the display amplitude of the pulsed signal by

choosing a broader bandwidth. We know that the display ampli-
Figure 25. A carrier with –50 dBm amplitude is modulated by a pulse
tude increases linearly with the bandwidth B. The noise level of
train with PRF = 400 Hz, teff = 3/µs. The bandwidth B = 3 kHz, scan
the analyzer increases only proportional to √B. So we can width = 0.5 MHz/Div, scan time = 0.1 s/Div. Only the low order
increase the signal-to-noise ratio proportional to √B. side-lobes can be seen but not measured accurately. Log Ref. – 40 dBm.

This is opposite to the CW and “line” case where we have to use

narrower bandwidths to decrease the noise level, thus increasing
the signal-to-noise ratio. Figure 25 and Figure 26 show these
effects clearly.

From the preceding discussion about the “pulse” spectrum

response we can find another important fact: The spectrum
analyzer must provide independent controls for bandwidth,
scan width, and scan time to optimize the display according
to the rules of thumb given for this type of response. Also the
variable persistence CRT offers a great advantage if we want
to have a flicker-free display of pulsed signals with low PRF.

Figure 26. The same signal displayed with 30 kHz bandwidth. The
noise level increased by 10 dB, but the signal level by 20 dB. The
lobes and minima can be measured easily. Log Ref. –40 dBm.

14
Peak pulse response - pulse desensitization αp
In the "pulse" spectrum just described, the response of the
spectrum analyzer to each RF input pulse is in essence the pulse Bimp
response of the analyzer's IF amplifier.
E
The peak pulse response of the Agilent Spectrum Analyzers has
been established and is relatively independent of pulse shape and
pulse repetition frequency (for B > PRF). The expression relating B3dB
the peak pulse response to a CW signal response is the pulse
desensitization factor αp.

This factor αp for the "pulse" response depends on different

physical conditions compared to αL in the "line" spectrum:

αp = 20 log10 x τeff x Bimp [dB] f

In this equation we find a new expression: the effective impulse

bandwidth, Bimp. This can be visualized as the bandwidth of an Figure 27. Equivalent Bimp of Gaussian filter.
ideal, rectangularly shaped filter with a pulse response equivalent
to the actual filter with the 3 dB bandwidth B (Figure 27). Since There are several conditions which must be satisfied if Equation
the impulse bandwidth Bimp of the IF amplifier is not the same as 10 is to be valid:
its 3 dB bandwidth B, a correction factor K has been introduced.
This factor K represents an empirical approach defining Bimp 1. The IF bandwidth-pulse width product must be less than
relative to B: two-tenths:
Bimp
K= (9) B x τeff < 0.2 or B < τ0.2
B eff

K can be determined with a pulsed signal with known properties 2. The normalized scan rate (NSR) of the analyzer must be
(AN 142, "EMI Measurement Procedure," p. 125). less than one:

NSR = Scan Width [Hz/Div]

For synchronuously tuned filters as used in Agilent ESA Series,
856x, and 859x IF sections, the value of K has been measured as Scan Time [s/Div] x (B[Hz])2 < 1
approximately 1.617. For the Agilent PSA Series and 8552A/B IF 3. The IF bandwidth must be greater than the PRF: B > PRF
sections, K has been measured as approximately 1.51. The error
introduced by different shape factors of the IF filter and different The conditions in 1 to 3 are automatically accomplished if the
pulse shapes is normally less than 1 dB. Equations 5, 8, and 7 are satisfied.

We can now write: 4. The peak pulse amplitude at the broadband input mixer
of the analyzer must stay below the saturation point
αp [dB] = 20 log10 x τeff x K x B; K = 1.5 or 1.617 (10) (1 dB compression). The typical saturation point for Agilent
spectrum analyzers is between -10 dBm and -5 dBm:

Ppeak ≤ –10 dBM (11)

1. If the 300 kHz filter is used in the 8552A/B IF sections, a measurement

of its impulse bandwidth is recommended, since a number of these
plug-ins have a Bimp smaller than 450 kHz (1.5 X 300 kHz). This results
in an additional desensitization of 1 to 2 dB. A quick and simple check
can be made by measuring the 6 dB bandwidth, which is
approximately equal to Bimp.
15
 Figure 28 is a diagram showing the pulse desensitization αp in 1. We assume a pulsed signal with the following characteristics:
relation to IF bandwidth B and pulse width τeff. We see that the Ppeak = –30 dBm, teff = 1 µs, PRF = 1 kHz. The noise level
PRF does not appear, since it is of no significance for the display of the analyzer is N = –100 dBm for 1 kHz bandwidth. We
amplitude as long as B > PRF. The shaded area between the find on the diagram for teff = 1 µs an optimum bandwidth
of 100 kHz (& B > PRF). We then can read a pulse
B = 0.03 0.1
τ and B = τ represents the optimum bandwidth desensitization of αp ≈ –16 dB. The displayed amplitude of
eff eff
the spectrum envelope will be ≈ –46 dBm. We also read
range for an analysis of a pulsed signal. There are also three from the crossing point of the line for N = –100 dBm and
dotted lines that show different noise levels of an analyzer for a the line for B = 100 kHz a resultant noise level of –80 dBm.
fast determination of the dynamic range. We thus get a usable display range (S/N ratio) of only 34 dB.
Although this range is sufficient in most cases for evaluation
We will now take a few examples to show how the diagram of the pulse spectrum, this example shows how important
is used: a spectrum analyzer with a low noise level is.

αp [dB]
N [dB]
110 dBm noise level N of analyzer (B = 1 kHz)
–110
–100 dBm
–100
–90 dBm
–90 B > 1.7 PRF

–80
B
=
–70 1k
3k Hz
10 Hz
–60 kH
30 z
10 kH
–50 z
0k
30 Hz
–40 0k
1M Hz
–30 3 M Hz
B = 0.03
Hz τeff
–20
B = 0.1
τeff
–10

0
0.1 1 ns 10 100 1 µs 10 100 1 ms
τeff
10 GHz 1 GHz 100 MHz 10 MHz 1 MHz 100 kHz 10 kHz
main lobe width

Figure 28. Pulse desensitization αp (pulse spectrum).

16
 Very short RF pulses
2. Pulse power measurements: We see on the spectrum analyzer We know from the diagram for αp (Figure 28) that the desensitization
display the spectrum envelope of a pulsed signal with the of the analyzer display becomes very high for very short RF pulses,
following characteristics: the display amplitude is –50 dBm, even with the widest bandwidth. If we assume that we can provide
the mainlobe width is 10 MHz. The analyzer's bandwidth is the maximum usable input signal level of –10 dBm (which is
300 kHz. What are the peak and the average powers of the normally possible when we measure in the proximity of the radar
signal? transmitter to be investigated), we are then limited only by the
sensitivity of the analyzer. For a sufficient evaluation of a pulsed
The effective pulse duration teff is calculated from the lobe RF signal we should have a display range of at least 30 dB above
width or read from the diagram: the noise level. Figure 29 is a diagram which shows the maximum
usable display range as a function of pulse width and analyzer
2
τeff = 10 MHz = 0.2 µs or 200 ns sensitivity for a maximum input level of –10 dBm and a bandwidth
of 300 kHz.*
In the diagram, we find a pulse desensitization of –21 dB
for τeff = 200 ns and B = 300 kHz. The peak power is 21 dB We can easily see that for a pulse width of, for example, 1 ns,
greater than the displayed amplitude, and we can calculate an analyzer must have a sensitivity of –110 dBm (specified for
the peak power to Ppeak = –29 dBm. B = 300 kHz) or better to yield a usable display. It is not possible
to improve the signal-to-noise ratio with a low noise preamplifier,
To find the average power, we first have to measure the since we are already limited by the saturation level of the input
PRF. This is done by reducing the scan time until we can mixer. The new generation of Agilent spectrum analyzers offers
easily measure the pulse line spacing in time domain. exceptionally high sensitivities that allow measurements of
Assume we measured the line spacing to 1 µs which extremely short RF pulses.
equals a PRF of 1 kHz, we then can calculate the average
power Pavg = Ppeak x τeff x PRF. *See note on page 15.

τeff x PRF = 2 x 10 –7 sec x 10 3 Hz = 2 x 10 –4

Using the diagram for αL, Figure 14 on page 9, we find a

Pavg 60
factor of –37 dB. Thus, with the peak power Ppeak of
Ppeak Hz
50 0 0k
–29 dBm and the factor of –37 dB, we can calculate the /3
Bm
average power Pavg = –66 dBm. 0d
Bm
display range [dB]

2
40
= –1 0d
1
3. We want to calculate the peak power of a signal displayed
N –1 Bm
30 0 0d m
with an amplitude of –30 dBm and a mainlobe width of –1 dB
0
100 MHz. The analyzer bandwidth is 300 kHz. The signal –9
20
2
has a pulse duration τeff = = 20 ns. We find a Ppeak = –10 dBm
100 MHz
10 B = 300 kHz
desensitization factor of –41 dB.

This would yield a signal peak power of +11 dBm, far beyond 0
0.1 1 10 100
the saturation level of –10 dBm. Thus, the calculation is not
τeff [ns]
valid. We have to insert at least 20 dB attenuation before
the input mixer. Figure 29. Display range vs. sensitivity

To check that the input signal level at the front end mixer is
below the saturation point, we have to observe that for a
10 dB step of the input attenuator the display amplitude
must also change by exactly 10 dB.

17
 Chapter 4
Summary of Pulse Spectra Characteristics

τeff
Ep

t=o p(t) cos ωot

Type of response "Line" spectrum (Fourier series) "Pulse" spectrum (Fourier transform)
Requirements for each B > 1.7 PRF
Type of spectrum:
Bandwidth B < 0.3 PRF B < 0.1
τeff
Scan time Ts > Fs2 Ts > IO/PRF
B
Peak input power Ppeak ≤ –10 dBm Ppeak ≤ –10 dBm

τeff
Desensitization factor αL= 20 log10 x αp = 20 log10 x τeff x K x B
T

τeff
Amplitude of spectrum display at ω = ωo A = E’p x
T
= E’p x τeff x PRF A = E’p x τeff x K x B

Type of display used Fourier or spectral lines Pulse repetition rate lines
τeff
for duty cycle of >0.05 < 0.05
T

Number of lines/Division Changes with scan width not scan time Changes with scan time not scan width

E’p = response on CRT due to CW signal Ep cos ωot B = IF bandwidth (3 dB)

Ts = scan time in sec/Div K = constant of IF amplifier (K _ 1.5 or 1.617)

Fs = scan width in Hz/Div τeff = width of rectangular pulse of same height and area as pulse
t p(t) dt
applied to analyzer = ∫
PRF = 1 = Pulse repetition frequency in Hz o E’p
T

18
Common pulse spectra
Figure 30 shows some examples of typical spectrum displays for PULSE SPECTRUM IN THE PRESENCE OF FM: A symmetrical pulse
pulse signals with different pulse shapes and with the presence of with linear coherent FM will produce a symmetrical spectrum with
AM and FM. An extensive mathematical treatment of different increased sidelobe amplitude and minima not reaching zero, (c), (d).
pulse forms and their spectra can be found in Appendix A.
If incidental FM (FM due to amplitude modulation) or coherent FM
The ideal rectangular RF pulse free of FM will produce a symmetrical is introduced together with an unsymmetrical pulse, an unsym-
pulse spectrum as shown in (a). When the pulse is changed to metrical pulse spectrum with the minima not reaching zero will be
a triangular shape, the spectrum remains symmetrical with produced, (e), (f). This is also true for a symmetrical pulse with
decreased amplitude of the sidelobes (b). The pulse spectrum nonlinear coherent FM.
will remain symmetrical even if the pulse shape is distorted or
unsymmetrical. Pictures of the pulse spectra produced by actual radar transmitters
can be found on pages 20 to 23.

1.0 Ampl.
1 µs ∆ F = 2Mc/sec
spectrum amplitude

0.8 A f Freq.
Ampl. Freq. Fo
F
0.6 t t O
0.4
1.0 µs 1.0 µs
0.2
∆F=2

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
(b) (c)
(a)

Spectrum of rectangular pulse without AM Triangular pulse spectrum without FM Spectrum of rectangular pulse with linear
or FM occurring during pulse. Shape is that during pulse. Effective pulse width is FM resulting in increased sidelobe amplitude
t shorter than (a) causing minimas to occur and minimas not reaching zero.
sin ω 2
of function. at wider intervals of frequency.
ωt
2

∆ F = 4Mc/sec .73A
∆ F = 2Mc/sec
Fo .73A Fo
∆ F = 2Mc/sec A
O Fo O
A
1 µs O

∆f=4 ∆f=2 ∆f=6

(d) (e) (f)

Same pulse spectrum as (c) with more Effect of linear AM and FM during pulse. More severe case of FM and AM occurring
severe FM. Note loss in symmetry due to pulse during pulse.
amplitude slope.

Figure 30. Common pulse spectra

19
 30 MHz/Div 10 MHz/Div

3 MHz/Div 1 MHz/Div

The above is a typical spectrum signature of the fundamental pulse width. The above pictures were made with a 10 kHz band-
frequencies of an “L” band radar with an approximate 1.0 µsec width. Note transients from magnetron along with extreme FM.

This is the third harmonic output of a radar operating at a pulse (2 to 4 GHz) was used to trap out the fundamental. The sweep
width of 4.5 µsec and fc of 1300 MHz. An interdigital filter width is 3 MHz/Div.

20
 10 MHz/Div 3 MHz/Div

1 MHz/Div

Here is a radar where the magnetron is moding rather badly. frequency. Only a high speed photographic record would
Note the transients occurring on the high side of the carrier show this.

L Band Radar 300 pps/4.5 µsec. 3 MHz/Div spectrum width Same conditions as at left except 1 MHz/Div spectrum width
log display

Here is a spectrum display of one of the cleanest radars noted. for conventional magnetron.
Note the absence of moding. The FM present seems to be normal

21
 Channel A; 1 MHz/Div Channel B; 1 MHz/Div

Magnetron output; 100 MHz/Div Duplexer output; 100 MHz/Div

This is another radar that employed two channels. Channel “A” up which did not show up on the duplexer output. Note the one
operated normally, but Channel “B” had marginal FM. The picture when the baseline dimmer was not used. When baseline
magnetron output had considerable noise and spikes showing dimmer is used, the true base level remains at zero.

22
 4.5 µsec 1 µsec

These are spectra of a radar when the pulse width is changed bandwidth of 10 kHz and sweep width of 10 MHz/Div was used.
from 4.5 µsec to 1.0 µsec. Note the change in spectrum. An IF Note the increased transient effects on narrow pulse operations.

1 Megawatt radar

This is a display of a 1 megawatt radar at mid-L band showing 10 dB/Div. Some emitted broadband output is only 20 dB down
spurious radiation over 300 MHz below the main carrier and from carrier (10 kW).
interfering in TACAN channels. Horizontal 100 MHz/Div, vertical

23
 Appendix A. Table of Important Transforms

Explanation of the table

The time functions and corresponding frequency functions in this Again, upon multiplication by a constant having appropriate
table are related by the following expressions: dimensions, the frequency functions become filter transmissions.
∞ Thus, if pair 1 is multiplied by α, the frequency function represents
F(ω) = ∫ f(t) e–iwt dt (Direct transform) a simple RC cutoff. A one-coulomb impulse (pair 1S) applied to
–∞ this filter would produce an output (impulse response) with the
∞
f(t) = 1 ∫F(ω) e–iwt dω
spectrum p α
(Inverse transform)
2π –∞ + α x 1 coulomb, representing the time function
The 1/2 π multiplier in the inverse transform arises merely αe –ατ coulombs (which has the dimensions of amperes). Or a
because the integration is written with respect to ω, rather than 1 volt step function (pair 2S) would produce the output spectrum
cyclic frequency. Otherwise the expressions are identical except α x 1 volts, which represents the time function (1 – e –ατ)
for the difference of sign in the exponent. As a result, functions p+α p
and their transforms can be interchanged with only slight modifi- volts (pair 4S).
cation. Thus, if f (ω) is the direct transform of f (t), it is also true
that 2π f (–ω) is the direct transform of f (t). For example, the The entries 1S through 6S in the table (page 27) are singular functions
spectrum of a sinx x pulse is rectangular (pair 6, page 25) while the for which the transforms as defined above exist only as a limit. For
example, 1S may be thought of as the limit of pair 7 (multiplied
spectrum of a rectangular pulse is of the form sin x (pair 7, page 26).
x by 1 ) as τ & 0.
τ
Likewise pair 1S is the counterpart of the well-known fact that
the spectrum of a constant (d–c) is a spike at zero frequency.
Properties of transforms
The frequency functions in the table are in many cases listed
both as functions of ω and also of p. This is done merely for There are a number of important relations which describe what
convenience. F(p) in all cases is found by substituting p for iω in happens to the transforms of functions when the functions
F(ω). (Not simply p for ω as the notation would ordinarily indicate. themselves are added, multiplied, convolved, etc. These relations
That is, in the usual mathematical convention one would write state mathematically many of the operations encountered in
p communications systems: operations such as linear amplification,
F(ω) = F( ) = G(p) where the change in letter indicates the
i mixing, modulation, filtering, sampling, etc. These relations are all
resulting change in functional form. The notation used above has readily deducible from the defining equations above; but for ready
grown through usage and causes no confusion, once understood.) reference some of the more important ones are listed in the
Thus, in the p-notation properties of transforms on the last page of this appendix.
∞ i∞
F(p) = ∫ f(t) e–pt dt f(t) = 1 ∫ F(p) e pt dp Again, because of the similarity of the direct and inverse transforms,
–∞ 2πi –i∞
a symmetry exists in these properties. Thus, delaying a function
The latter integral is conveniently evaluated as a contour integral multiplies its spectrum by a complex exponential; while multiplying
in the p-plane, letting p assume complex values. the function by a complex exponential delays its spectrum.
Multiplying any two functions is equivalent to convolving their
The frequency functions have been plotted on linear amplitude spectra; multiplying their spectra is equivalent to convolving the
and frequency scales, and where convenient, also on logarithmic functions; etc.
scales. The latter scales often bring out characteristics not evi-
dent in the linear plot. Thus, many of the spectra are asymptotic Many of the pairs listed in the table of transforms can be obtained
to first or second degree hyperbolas on a linear plot. On a log plot from others by using one or more of the rules of manipulation listed
these asymptotes become straight lines of slope –1 or –2 (i.e., –6 in the properties of transforms. For example, the time function in
or –12 dB/octave).
pair 8, page 26 is 1 times the convolution of that in pair 7 with itself.
τ
The time functions in the table have all been normalized to con- The spectrum should therefore be τ1 times the product of that in
venient peak amplitudes, areas or slopes. For any other amplitude,
multiply both sides by the appropriate factor. Thus, the spectrum pair 7 with itself, as it indeed is. Further, by using these properties,
of a rectangular pulse 10 volts in amplitude and 2 seconds long is many pairs not in the table can be obtained from those given. For
example, the spectrum of f(t) = (1 – ατ) e–ατ is (by the addition
(from pair 7, page 26) 20 sinωω volt-seconds. α p
property) F(p) = p +1 α – = .
(p + α)2 (p + α)2

24
Table of Important Transforms

25
 Table of Important Transforms

26
Table of Important Transforms

27
 Properties of Transforms

Time operation Frequency operation Significance

Linear addition Linear addition Linearity and superposition apply in both domains. The spectrum of a linear sum of
af(t) + bg(t) aF(ω) + bG(ω) functions is the some linear sum of their spectra (if spectra are complex, usual rules of
addition of complex quantities apply). Further, any function may be regarded as a sum of
component parts and the spectrum is the sum of the component spectra.

Scale change Inverse scale change Time-bandwidth invariance. Compressing a time function expands its spectrum in
f(kt) 1 ω frequency and reduces it in amplitude by the some factor. The amplitude reduces because
| k|
F()k less energy is spread over a greater bandwidth. For some energy pulse as for k = 1, multiply
both functions by √|k|. The case where k = –1 reverses the function in time. This merely
interchanges positive and negative frequencies; so for real time functions, reverses the
phase.

Even and odd Even and odd

2 [ ]
Any real function f(t) may be separated into an even part 1 f(t) + F(–t) and an odd part
partition partition
[
1 f(t) ± f(–t)
] [
1 F(ω) ± F(–ω)
] 2[ ] 2 [ ]
1 f(t) – f(–t) . The transform of the oven part is 1 F(ω) + F(–ω) which is purely real and
2 2
[ ]
involves only even powers of ω. The transform of the odd part is 1 F(ω) – F(–ω) which is
2
purely imaginary and involves only odd powers of ω. Note: for f(t) real, F(–ω) = F(ω).

Delay Linear added phase Delaying a function by a time to multiplies its spectrum by e –iωt o, thus adding a produces
f(t – to) e–iωt o F(ω) a delay of θ = –ωt o to the original phase. Conversely a linear phase filter produces a delay
of – dθ = t o.
dw

Complex modulation Shift of spectrum Multiplying a time function by e iωot “delays” its spectrum, i.e., shifts it to center about
e iω ot f(t) F(ω–ωo) ωo rather than zero frequency. Ordinary real modulation — by cos, ωot say — produces

[
the time function 1 (eiωot + e –iωot)f(t) with the spectrum 1 F(ω – ωo) + F(ω + ωo) .
2 2 ]
Convolution Multiplication The spectrum of the convolution of two time functions is the product of their spectra. In
∞ (filtering) convolution one of the two functions to be convolved is reversed left-to-right and displaced.

–∞
∫f(τ)g (t – τ)d τ F(ω)G(ω) The integral of the product is then evaluated and is a new function of the displacement.
Convolution occurs whenever a signal is obtained which is proportional to the integral of
the product of two functions as they slide post each other-in other words, in any scanning
operation such as in optical or magnetic recording or picture scanning in television.
Transform theory states that such scanning is equivalent to filtering the signal with a filter
whose transmission is the transform of the scanning function (reversed in time).
Conversely, the effect of an electrical filter is equivalent to a convolution of the input with
a time function that is the transform of filter characteristic. This function, the so-called
"memory curve" of the filter, is identical with the filter impulse response, aside from
dimensions. (Note: the convolution of a time function with a unit impulse gives the some
function times the dimensions of the impulse.)

28
Properties of Transforms

Time operation Frequency operation Significance

Multiplication Convolution The spectrum of the product of two time functions is the convolution of their spectra.
f(t)g(t) ∞ This is the more general statement of the modulation property. For example, sampling a
1
2π –∞∫
F(s)G(ω –s)ds signal is equivalent to multiplying it by a regular train of unit area impulses. The spectrum
of the sampled signal consists of the original signal spectrum repeated about each
component of the (line) spectrum of the train of impulses (see pair 6S, page 27). For
no overlap, highest frequency in signal to be sampled must be less than half sampling
frequency. If this is true original signal spectrum (hence signal) can be recovered by
low pass filter (sampling theorem).

Differentiation Multiplication The spectrum of the nth derivative of a function is (iω)n times the spectrum of the function.
dnf(t) by p A “differentiating network” has (over the appropriate frequency range) a transmission
dtn pnF(p) K ωP where K is dimensionless or has the dimentions of impedance or admittance.
o
Thus, the output wave is proportional to the derivative of the input.

Integration Multiplication The spectrum of the nth integral of a function is (iω)– n times the spectrum of the
t t function. Thus, the response of any filter to a step function is the integral of its impulse
by 1
∫
–∞
∫
– – – – f(τ)(dτ)n
–∞
P response. An “integrating network” has (over the appropriate frequency range) a trans-
mission K ωpo , where K is dimenions or has the dimenions of impedance or admittance.
1 F(p)
?

n pn
Thus, the output is proportional to the integral of the past of the input.

29
 Appendix B.

IF Amplifier Response
Mention was made in the test of the phenomenon of decreased
sensitivity and resolution that results when a CW signal is swept
by the IF amplifier at a high rate compared to the bandwidth
squared. Assuming a Gaussian response for the amplifier, the
resulting transient can be determined as follows:

A sweep frequency signal as illustrated in Figure B-1 can be Substituting back for τ and simplifying
represented by
δ2Ts
s(t) = e jπ(Fs /Ts)T

using pair 10 of Appendix A

2
(B-1) y(t) =
[ 1–j
1
2πFs
Ts δ2
1/2
]
exp
[ ]
–
1–j
2πFs δ 2T 2
1 + Ts δ
( )
2πFs
2 2 2
(B-6)

S(ω) = τ√2π e –1/2(τω)2

where τ = √(j Ts)/2πFs (B-2) The envelope of y(t) is then

δ2 t2
If we assume a Gaussian response, 1 2
y(t) = exp – (B-7)
Ts δ2 2
H(ω) = e –1/2(ω/δ)2 (B-3) [ ( )]
1+
2πFs
Ts δ2
2 1/4
1+
2πFs ( )
the product of S(ω) H(ω) gives
Note that for low sweep rates

2 [ (
Y(ω) = S(ω) H(ω) = τ√2π exp – 1 τ 2 + 12 ω 2
δ
) ] (B-4)
Ts 1 (B-8)
® 2
The output transient is the inverse transform of this function, 2πFs δ
again using pair 10

τexp – 1 t2
[ ( )t]
y(t) = exp – 1 2πFs
2 δTs
2 2

y(t) =
√
τ + 2
2 1
δ
2
[ ( )]
τ2 + 12
δ
(B-5)

This, as was stated earlier, is a plot of the frequency response of

the IF amplifier.

F sweep width
slope = s =
Ts sweep time

Figure B-1. A sweep frequency signal

30
Distortion
If the condition on (B-8) is not satisfied, the resulting transient In a like manner, the 3 dB bandwidth of the function (B-7) is
will be altered in both width (time duration) and amplitude. The
2√1n 2 2 1/2
reduction in amplitude will be ∆t’ =
δπ
1+
Ts d
2πFs [ ( )] (B-12)

α= 1 (B-9)
1 + 2πFs 2 1/4 The ratio of these times is
[ ( )]
Ts d2
∆t’ 2πFs 2 1/2
Noting that δ = (π/√1n2) Bf where Bf is the 3 dB bandwidth, [ ( )]
∆t = 1 + Ts d2 (B-13)

This is the ratio of the effective resolving bandwidth of a spectrum

1 analyzer to the bandwidth of the IF amplifier as a function of
α= (B-10)
21n2 2 Fs 2
[ ( ) ( )]
1+ π Ts B2
sweep rate. Rewritten in terms of 3 dB bandwidth B.

2 1n2 2 Fs 2 1/2

A plot of this function in dB versus –Fs/(Ts B2) is included as

Beff
B [ ( ) ( )]
= 1+
π Ts∆f 2
(B-14)

Figure B-2.
This function is plotted in Figure B-2.
If we solve for the 3 dB time duration Dt from equation (B-8) by
setting the function to 1/√2 and solving for the appropriate ∆t, Fs = Sweep width
we get Ts = Sweep time
B = 3 dB IF bandwidth
2 Beff = Effective bandwidth
∆t = 2√1n dT (B-11)
2πfs

1000
Loss in amplitude and sensitivity a (dB)

Beff
B
Normalized effective bandwidth

0 100

5
a
10

20 10

25

30 Beff
B
35
1
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Fs
Normalzed sweep rate
Ts B2

Figure B-2. Sensitivity loss and normalized effective bandwidth vs. normalized sweep rate.

31
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