5

Dielectric materials

1/18/2018 1
• Introduction

• A dielectric material is an insulator which contains electric

dipoles, that is where positive and negative charge are
separated on an atomic or molecular level

• When an electric field is applied, these dipoles align to the

field, causing a net dipole moment that affects the
material properties.

• Dielectric materials have two important functions;

- They have the ability to increase the capacitance

- They have insulating ability.

Let us see the effect of dielectric materials in increasing

the charge storing capacity of a capacitor.
1/18/2018 2
• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with free
space as an insulator is given by;

0 A
C
d
Where, C - capacitance of a capacitor
ε0 - absolute permittivity ( permittivity of free space
A - plate face area
d - separation distance between plates

• Capacitance is the ability to store charge across a

potential difference.

Example: parallel conducting plates

A capacitor (condenser) is an apparatus usually consisting of

two Metal plates at a distance from each other. In between the
two metal plates, An insulator is placed/inserted.
1/18/2018 3
• If two parallel plates separated by a distance d are
connected to a voltage source V, then,

Q0
C0  , Farad

V
• For a parallel- plate capacitor, C depends on geometry of plates
and material between plates

 r 0 A A
C 
d d
Where, εr is relative permittivity (or dielectric
constant)
of the material.
1/18/2018 4
εr = ε /εo
• If there is a material medium ( usually dielectric)
between the plates, the charge storing ability per unit
voltage increases by the factor εr ( relative permittivity of
the medium).

• The increase in capacitance is due to the polarization of

the medium.( +ve and –ve charges are displaced with
respect to their equilibrium position.)

1/18/2018 5
Polarization and Relative permittivity.

• Polarization is the development of an electric dipole moment P,

which is a measure of the electrostatic effect of a pair of
opposite charges, +Q and _Q separated by a finite distance X.
i.e.
P  Q X

If an atom possesses an effective dipole moment due to applied

field, it is said to be polarized.

The induced dipole moment depends on applied field

PE  Pind  E
Where,  - polarizability of the atom.

1/18/2018 6
 Polarization Vector P
When a material is placed in an electric field, the atoms and the molecules of the
material become polarized, so we have a distribution of dipole moments in the
material. We can visualize this effect with the insertion of the dielectric slab into
the parallel plate capacitor. The placement of the dielectric slab into an electric
field polarizes the molecules in the material. The induced dipole moments all
point in the direction of the field.
We represent the polarization of a medium by a quantity called polarization P,
which is deined as the total dipole moment per unit volume,

Deinition of polarization vector

where are the dipole moments induced at N molecules in the

volume.If pav is the average dipole moment per molecule, then an equivalent
deinition of P is ……… Deinition of polarization vector

1/18/2018 7
The polaization P induced in a dielectic medium when it is placed in an electic
field depends on the field itself. The induced dipole moment per molecule within
the medium depends on the electic field.To express the dependence of P on the
field £, we define a quantity called the electric susceptibility Xe by
……………….. Deinition of electric susceptibility
The above Equation shows an effect P due to a cause £ and the quantity Xe relates
the effect to its cause. Put differently, Xe acts as a proportionality constant. It may
depend on the field itself, in which case the effect is nonlinearly related to the
cause. Further,electronic polaizability is defined by

where N is the number of molecules per unit volume. Then from above Equation ,
Xe and are related by … .……….Electric susceptibility and
polarization

1/18/2018 8
 Local Field
The actual field experienced by a molecule in a dielectric is defined as the local
field and denoted by . It depends not only on the free charges on the plates but
also on the arrangement of all the polarized molecules around the point.
………………Lorentz local field in dielectrics

The above Equation is called the Lorentz field. The induced polarization in the
molecule now depends on this local field rather than the average field £. Thus

1/18/2018 9
Mechanisms of Polarization
1. Optical (electronic) polarizability – when an external
field E is applied to an atom, the electron clouds are
displaced slightly with respect to the +ve charges
because, the force due to an applied electric field on
electrons is in opposite direction to the force on +ve ion
cores.

• Thus there develops a displacement between the ion core

and the center of mass of the orbiting electrons. Then,
due to this distance separation, we have a dipole
moment which we call optical (electronic) polarizability.

1/18/2018 10
• 2) Molecular polarizability – In the molecule made up of
two atoms (eg. H+ and Cl-), due to the interaction
between the atoms, there is a redistribution of electrons
between the atoms.

There is a displacement of charge in the bonding

between H+ and Cl- ions. This gives rise to a +ve charge
separated from a –ve charge by a small distance
forming a dipole.

Under the influence of an applied field, the polarization

of a polar substance (molecules having a large dipole
moments) will change due to two possible mechanisms.

1/18/2018 11
a) The field may cause the atoms to be displaced changing
the distance between them, thus changing the dipole
moment of the molecule. ( atomic polarization)

b) The field may cause the molecule as a whole to rotate

about its axis of symmetry, so that the dipole aligns
itself with the field. (Orientational polarizability).

3) Interfacial polarizability – In real insulating materials

there are inevitably defects such as vacancies,
impurities, dislocations, etc with some free electrons.

Under the influence of an applied field, some or all of

these may migrate through the material towards the
electrode of appropriate polarity. If they reach the
electrode and are able to discharge there, the result is
a loss current through the dielectric.

1/18/2018 12
However, if not all of them can discharge, there results a
pile-up of charge; +ve and _ve in the vicinity of each
electrode. This gives the dielectric dipole moment and
constitutes Interfacial polarizability.

Any or all of the above three may contribute to the

behaviour in an electric field. For total and average
polarization of a material, they are lumped together to have
a constant . (polarizability)

 average   elec   molec   int erf

Thus, Paverage  Eloc (elec   molec  interf )

Where, Paverage – Average polarization
Eloc – local electric field applied
1/18/2018 13
 Permittivity
• From experiments we know that, coulombs force
between two charges is;
q1 q 2
F a,  
q1 q 2
Where, a unit vector
4r 2
4Fr 2
a

   0 r Total static permittivity (dielectric constant)

Q
Where, r  Relative permittivity of a material
Q0

1/18/2018 14
 Complex permittivity

• If AC voltage is applied to a capacitance of parallel plates

with a dielectric medium, then

V V
i 
C 2fC
where, C = εrCo ; Where C0 is capacitance with vacuum/air

We know that, in ideal capacitive circuits current leads

voltage by 90o.
However, in real capacitors containing dielectrics, the angle
of shift between Voltage and current is less than 90o by an
angle δ. This is due to flow of resistive current which is the
cause of ohmic loss in the Capacitor.
1/18/2018 15
 i

ic

v
ir

Thus,  r    j
' '' Complex permittivity

 '
 tan 
 ''
Loss factor of the dielectric.
1/18/2018 16
 Dielectric loss

• When a perfect dielectric is subjected to ac voltage, there

is no consumption of power. ( I leads V by 90o)

• However , naturally there are imperfections and, therefore

there is power loss. Due to this power loss. The current
does not lead the voltage by 90o,and it leads by an angle
θo (90o-δ); where δ is the loss angle.

The power loss P = IVcosθ = IVcos(90o-δ) = sinδ

V2
P sin 
Xc
sin  tan  since angle δ is small, sinδ = tanδ

P  V 2 2fC sin   V 2 2fC tan 

1/18/2018 17
• Thus, tanδ is power factor of the dielectric and the power
loss is dependent on tanδ provided that V,f,C are constant.

Factors affecting dielectric loss

- temperature – as to increases, dielectric loss increases.
- moisture - “ “ “ “ “
- voltage - “ “ “ “ “
- frequency - “ “ “ “ “

1/18/2018 18
 Influence of frequency on permittivity

• Assume a single dipole in applied electric field;

- It aligns up itself with the field at a given time.
- If the field is reversed, the dipole turns itself
through 180o, i.e. it turns with the field to be
parallel with it.
• When the electric field is alternating one, the dipole will be
continually switching its position accordingly with the field.

• For an assembly of dipoles in a dielectric , the same will

apply.

• If the frequency of the field increases, a point will be

reached when, because of their inertia the dipoles can not
keep-up with the field and the alteration of dipoles
(polarization)
1/18/2018 will lag behind the field. 19
• This corresponds to a reduction in the apparent polarization
produced by the field, which is a measure of apparent
permittivity of the material.

• As the frequency increases, at some point, the field

produces virtually no polarization of the dielectric.

• The frequency beyond which the polarization no longer

follows the field is called relaxation frequency.

• By determining relaxation frequency of polarization

mechanisms, we can predict in general, which ones are
important to identify dielectric materials.

1/18/2018 20
• Electronic (optical) polarization –
- relies on position of electrons relative to the core of an atom.
- They have extremely small mass, so they have little inertia and can follow alteration
of the electric field.
- Thus, the relaxation frequency can attain very high value, which is observed in
visible or ultraviolet light range.

• Atomic polarization –
- individual ions change their relative positions. They vibrate with thermal energy
and their frequency ranges in infrared wave length of light.

• Orientational polarization –
- refers to actual reorientation of groups of ions forming dipoles. The inertia of
these groups dictate the relaxation frequency to be in the radio frequency
spectrum range.
• Interfacial polarizability-
- Refers to the displacement of the whole body and relaxation frequency can be
very slow.
1/18/2018 21
• Based on electronic and atomic polarizability, all
dielectrics are classified as;

a) Non polar materials which show variations of

permittivity in the optical range of frequencies. This
includes all dielectrics having a single type of atom
(solids, liquids, gases).

b) Polar materials having variations of permittivity in the

infrared as well as the optical region (ionic solids, alkali
halides).

c) Dipolar materials which in addition show Orientational

polarization (water)

1/18/2018 22
• Properties of dielectric materials

i) Electrical properties
a) Insulation resistance
- Volume resistance;
- surface resistance.
Factors affecting insulation resistance are;
- temperature
- moisture
- applied voltage
- age
b) Dielectric strength (Break down voltage)- minimum
voltage when applied results destruction of its insulating
property.

1/18/2018 23
c) Dielectric constant (permittivity) – insulating materials have a
property of storing charge Q when voltage V is applied. i.e.

QV  Q  CV
Where, C – a constant – capacitor of a capacitance.

A
As it is known, C  ;
d
And, ε is the property of insulating material that causes the
difference in the value of capacitance, physical dimensions
remaining the same.

ii) Mechanical properties –

- Mechanical strength
- Viscosity
- Porosity
- solubility
- Machinability & mouldability
- Density
1/18/2018 etc. 24
iii) Chemical properties
- It has to resist chemical actions

iV) Thermal properties

- melting point – as high as possible
- thermal expansion – as low as possible
- thermal conductivity – as high as possible
- Ignitability – exposed to arcing, it should be
non-ignitable

1/18/2018 25
 Dielectric Strength
• A defining property of a dielectric medium is not only its
ability to increase capacitance but also, and equally
important, its insulating behaviour.

• Dielectric materials are widely used as insulating media

between conductors at different voltages to prevent the
ionization of air or other medium hence current
flashovers between conductors.

• However, under certain conditions, dielectric materials

can break down and conduct a significant current.

• Generally, the lattice of a dielectric has sufficient

strength to absorb the energy from impacting electrons
that are accelerated by the applied electric field.

1/18/2018 26
• However, under a sufficiently large electric field, some electrons
present in the dielectric will have sufficient kinetic energy to
ionize the lattice atoms causing an avalanching effect.

• As a result, the dielectric will begin to conduct a significant

amount of current.

• This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown and the

corresponding field intensity is referred to as the dielectric
breakdown strength.

• Dielectric strength may be defined as the maximum potential

gradient to which a material can be subjected without insulating
breakdown, that is;

Where,
 dV  VB
Ds     DS - the dielectric strength in kV/mm,
 dx  max d VB - the breakdown voltage, and
d - the thickness

1/18/2018 27
• Dielectric strength depends on
material homogeneity,
specimen geometry,
electrode shape and disposition,
stress mode (ac, dc or pulsed) and
ambient condition.

1/18/2018 28
Dielectric breakdown mechanisms

• Breakdown due to Partial discharge

• Regarding gases, due to cosmic radiation, there are
always a few free electrons in a gas. If the field is
sufficiently large, then some of these electrons can be
accelerated to impact ionize a neutral gas molecule and
produce an additional free electron and +vely charged
gas ions.

• Both the first and librated electrons are now available to

accelerate and further impact ionize more neutral gas
molecules, and so on.
• Thus, an avalanche of impact ionization processes
creates many free electrons and +ve gas ions in the gas
which give rise to a discharge current between
electrodes. The break down in gases depends on
pressure. i.e. Ebr increases with pressure.
1/18/2018 29
• A partial discharge occurs when only a local region of the
dielectric is exhibiting discharge so that the discharge
does not directly connect the two electrodes. (eg. Corona
discharge).

• Voids and cracks occurring within solid dielectrics and

discontinuities at the dielectric-electrode interface can
also lead to partial discharges.

• Partial discharges in these voids physically and

chemically erode the surrounding dielectric region and
lead to an overall deterioration of the dielectric strength.

1/18/2018 30
• In case of liquids, impurities existing in the liquid with
small conductive particles band together end to end to
form a conducting bridge between the electrodes and
thereby give rise to partial discharge.
• Moisture and gas absorption from ambient and oxidation
of certain liquids generally deteriorate the dielectric
strength.

b) Intrinsic (electronic) breakdown

• The most common type of electronic breakdown is an
electron avalanche breakdown.

• A free electron in the conduction band of a dielectric in

the presence of a large field can be accelerated to
sufficiently large energies to collide with and ionize the
host atom of the solid.

1/18/2018 31
• If the energy gained by the electron is greater than the
band gap energy, then the electron can excite another
electron from the valence band to the conduction band,
that is break a bond.

• Both the primary and the released electron can further

impact ionize other host atoms and thereby generate an
electron avalanche effect that leads to dielectric
breakdown.

c) Thermal breakdown
• If there occurs a finite conduction in solid insulators it
results in release within the solid. Further at higher
frequencies, the dielectric loss ‘V2ωtanδ’ becomes
significant.
• Both conduction and dielectric losses therefore generate
heat within the dielectric.
• If this heat is not removed sufficiently, it will lead to
temperature rise which may lead to local hot spot areas
and thereby insulation breakdown.
1/18/2018 32
d) Electromechanical breakdown
• A dielectric medium between oppositely charged
electrodes experiences compressional forces because the
opposite charges +Q and-Q on the plates attract each
other.
• As the applied voltage increases, so does the
compressive load, and the dielectric becomes squeezed.
Thus,
- the thickness d becomes smaller;
- as d decreases, field E increases resulting in
more charges on the electrodes.
- the increase in E results in more heat and
dielectric loss development.
• Therefore the processes finally leads to a total
breakdown of the dielectric.

1/18/2018 33
 e) Insulation aging

• It is well recognized that during service, the properties

of an insulating material become degraded and
eventually dielectric breakdown occurs at a field below
that predicted at fresh forms.

• In actual fact, even in the absence of an electric field, the

insulation will experience physical and chemical aging
whereby its physical and chemical properties change
considerably.

• Thus, the insulation can develop structural defects, such

as microcracks, which may damage the dielectric
strength thereby its breakdown.

1/18/2018 34
 Piezoelectricity

• Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain materials

(crystals like SiO2 and ceramics to generate an electric
field or electrical potential in response to applied
mechanical stress.

• Charges appear on the surface of the crystal.

Appearance of surface charges leads to a voltage
difference between the two surfaces of the crystal.

• The same crystal also exhibit mechanical strain or

distortion when they experience an electric field. The
direction of mechanical deformation (extension or
compression) depends on the direction of the applied
field. The two effects are complementary and define
Piezoelectricity.
1/18/2018 35
• Crystals with a special structure exhibit piezoelectricity
phenomenon; i.e. crystals which has no center of
symmetry.

A piezoelectric disk generates a

voltage when deformed (change in
shape is greatly exaggerated)

• Piezoelectric crystals are electromechanical transducers

because they convert an electrical signal to a mechanical
signal and vice versa.
eg. Ultrasonic transducers, microphones,
accelerometers, etc
1/18/2018 36
Piezoceramic elements
- Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
- Barium Titanate , Cadmium Sulfide
- Piezoelectric Polymer
- Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)

Applications of piezoelectric materials:

• Watches/computer clocks: quartz (piezoelectric but not

ferroelectric): an electrical signal induces the
mechanical vibration of a quartz bar (to its resonance
frequency). This frequency can be used to count time.

• Lighters: a pressure on a sheet of a (PbZrxTi1-xO3) can

induce an electrical potential of 3 kV, enough to produce
an arc discharge between two closely spaced sheets
and ignite the gas.
1/18/2018 37
Actuators: a potential difference applied on a transducer
can change its shape and actuate a mechanism, for
instance, a inkjet printer.

• Ferroelectricity

• Certain ferroelectric crystals are permanently polarized

even in the absence of an applied field. The crystal
already possesses a finite polarization vector due to the
separation of positive and negative charges in the
crystal.

eg. Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) –

below 130oc the structure of barium Titanate is
tetragonal in which its center of mass is separated
and possesses a finite polarization vector P and is
ferroelectric.
1/18/2018 38
• The critical temperature above which ferroelectric
property is lost is called the Curie temperature. Below
the Curie temperature, the whole crystal becomes
spontaneously polarized.

• All ferroelectric crystals are also piezoelectric, but the

reverse is not true: not all piezoelectric crystals are
ferroelectric.

• Ferroelectric materials, as dielectrics for capacitors: the

capacitors can be made 100-1000 smaller than with
conventional dielectrics.

1/18/2018 39
 Pyroelectricity

• migration of positive and negative charge (and therefore

establishment of electric polarization) to opposite ends
of a crystal's polar axis as a result of a change in
temperature.

• Some of crystals that lack center of symmetry of ion

distribution, (i.e. piezoelectrics) can also spontaneously
develop electric dipoles (polarize), with the degree of
polarization dependent on temperature.

• Pyroelectric materials are very sensitive to small

changes in temperature. They can be used as infrared
radiation detectors, for instance, for night vision
goggles, anti-burglar detectors (capable of detecting the
infrared radiation emitted by a person), etc…
1/18/2018 40