Integrated Services of Digital Networking, in short ISDN is a telephone

network based infrastructure that allows the transmission of voice and data
simultaneously at a high speed with greater efficiency. This is a circuit
switched telephone network system, which also provides access to Packet
switched networks.

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 ISDN supports a variety of services. A few of them are listed below −
•Voice calls
•Facsimile
•Videotext
•Teletext
•Electronic Mail
•Database access
•Data transmission and voice
•Connection to the internet
•Electronic Fund transfer
•Image and graphics exchange
•Document storage and transfer
•Audio and Video Conferencing
•Automatic alarm services to fire stations, police, medical etc

The ISDN has several kinds of access

interfaces such as −
•Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
•Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
•Narrowband ISDN
•Broadband ISDN

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Cellular Communications
 Worldwide Wireless:
◼ Wireless devices
➢ Mobile phones, cordless phones, remote controls, PDA,

pager, laptop, iPAD

◼ Wireless applications
➢ Wireless internet, inventory management, games, credit
card verification, e-mail, navigation, entertainment,
payments …
◼ Wireless technologies
➢ GSM, WLAN, UMTS (3G), LTE, HSPA, HSPA+,
LTE/A. Bluetooth, Zigbee, WiFi, WiMAX, microwave
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etc.
 Why wireless?
 No more external cables
 No cost for installing or rewiring – terminals anywhere
 Communications can reach where wiring is not feasible or
is too costly, e.g.. rural areas, old buildings…
 Satellite communications has global coverage

 Mobility and convenience

 Allows users to access services whiling moving: walking, in
vehicles, ships, planes…

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 Why wireless?
 Flexibility
 Roaming allows the flexibility to connect and stay
connected anywhere and any time
 Scalability
 Much easier to expand network coverage compared to
wired networks
 Many other reasons
 Ad hoc, emergency, battlefield……

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 Challenges of wireless
communication:
 Limited resources: finite radio spectrum
 Supporting mobility
 Location management, handoff between
cells/networks
 Maintaining Quality of Service (QoS) over
unreliable wireless links
 Radio path loss, shadowing, multipath fading,
interference
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 Challenges of wireless
communication:
 Security
 Wireless channels are open to interception &
jamming
 Certification, authentication, DRM
 Mobile terminal battery life
 Still an important constraint on equipment &
services

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 Cellular Telephony:
 Cellular telephony is designed to provide
communications between two moving units called
Mobile Stations (MSs).
 It also provide communication between one
mobile unit and one stationary unit, often called a
land unit.
 A service provider must be able to locate and
track a caller, assign a channel to the call.

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 Cellular Telephony:
 To make this tracking possible, each cellular service
area is divided into small regions called Cells.
 Each cell contains an antenna and is controlled by a
network station, called the Base Station (BS).
 Each base station, in turn, is controlled by a
switching office, called a Mobile Switching
Center (MSC).
 It is a computerized center that is responsible for
connecting calls, recording call information, and
billing
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 Cellular Telephony :

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 Cellular Communication
Impairments:
 Path loss
 received power falls with distance
 Shadowing ( slow fading )
 caused by obstruction of buildings, hills, trees and leaves.
◼ Multipath fading ( fast fading )

 caused by multipath reflection of a transmitted wave

by objects.
◼ Delay spread, angular spread, Doppler spread,
interference
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 Impairments:

shadowing

BS path loss

multipath

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 Handoff (Handover):
 During a conversation, the mobile station moves
from one cell to another. When it does, the signal
may become weak.
 To solve this problem, the MSC monitors the level of
the signal every few seconds.
 If the strength of the signal diminishes, the MSC
seeks a new cell that can better accommodate the
communication.
 This is called Handoff (Handover).
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 Handoff (Handover) Cont.:
 Guarantees the continuity
of wireless services when
the mobile user moves
across the cell boundaries.
Thus it handles user
mobility
 Maintains required QoS
 Minimises interference
level in the whole system
by keeping the mobile
linked to the strongest
Node.
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 Types of Handoff
 Hard Handoff :Early systems used a hard handoff. In a hard
handoff, a mobile station only communicates with one base
station. When the MS moves from one cell to another,
communication must first be broken with the previous base
station before communication can be established with the
new one. This may create a rough transition.
 Soft Handoff : New systems use a soft handoff. In this case,
a mobile station can communicate with two base stations at
the same time. This means that, during handoff, a mobile
station may continue with the new base station before
breaking off from the old one.

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 Reasons for Handoff

 The signal between the current base station and

the mobile may have deteriorated to such an
extent that the call is in danger of being dropped,
 A cell may have become overloaded, handling a
large number of calls. This congestion may be
alleviated by handing off mobiles to less
congested nearby cells.

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 Step by Step Handoff Procedure

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 Step by Step Handoff Procedure
1. The old base station (BS) informs the visited MSC that a
handoff is to be performed and the BS (or possible set of
BSs) to which the mobile is to be handed off.
2. The visited MSC initiates path setup to the new BS,
allocating the resources needed to carry the rerouted call,
and signaling the new BS that a handoff is about to occur.
3. The new BS allocates and activates a radio channel for use
by the mobile.
4. The new BS signals back to the visited MSC and the old BS
that the visited-MSC-to-new-BS path has been established
and that the mobile should be informed of the impending
handoff. The new BS provides all of the information that
the mobile will need to associate with the new BS.
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 Step by Step Handoff Procedure
5. The mobile is informed that it should perform a handoff.
Note that up until this point, the mobile has been blissfully
unaware that the network has been laying the groundwork
for a handoff.
6. The mobile and the new BS exchange one or more
messages to fully activate the new channel in the new BS.
7. The mobile sends a handoff complete message to the new
BS, which is forwarded up to the visited MSC. The visited
MSC then reroutes the ongoing call to the mobile via the
new BS.
8. The resources allocated along the path to the old BS are
then released.
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 Handoff Strategies:

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Frequency Reuse
 Adjacent cells are assigned
different frequencies to 2
2 7 3
avoid interference or 7 3 1
crosstalk 1 6 4
6 4 5 2
 Cells sufficiently distant 5 2 7 3
from each other can use the 2 7 3 1
same frequency (frequency 7
1
3
6
1
4
6
5
4

reuse) 6 4 5 2
5 2 7 3
 Reuse factor N: number of 7 3 1
cells in a repeating pattern 1 6 4
6 4 5
 The number of cells per 5
cluster, N, can only have N=7
values which satisfy: In practice each cell uses a set of
frequencies and it is these that are repeated
❖N = i 2 + ij + j 2 23
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 Frequency Reuse & System
Capacity:
▪ S = Number of duplex channels in the cellular system
▪ K = Number of channels per cell
▪ N = Number of cells (4, 7 or 12)
▪ M = Number of times a cluster is repeatedly used
❖Available Channels per cell is:
K= S/N
❖The system capacity (total number of channels)
in the system is:
C = M S = MNK

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 Example:
 If a total of 33MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular
FDD cellular telephone system which uses two 35kHz simplex
channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels.
Compute the number of channels available per cell if a system
uses (a) 4-cell reuse, (b) 7-cell reuse.

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 Solution:

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 Practice Problems:
 If a total of 500Hz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD
cellular telephone system which uses three pair of 40Hz
simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and control
channels. Compute the number of channels available per cell if a
system uses (a) 3-cell reuse, (b) 13-cell reuse.
 If a total of 40 kHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular
FDD cellular telephone system which uses four pair 35 Hz
simplex channels. Compute the number of channels available
per cell if a system uses 7-cell reuse.

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 How we make a Call:
 To place a call from a mobile station, the caller
enters a phone number and presses the send button.
 The mobile station then scans the band and sends the
data (phone number) to the closest base station using
that channel.
 The base station relays the data to the MSC.
 The MSC sends the data on to the telephone central
office.
 If the called party is available, a connection is made

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 How we receive a Call:
 When a mobile phone is called, the telephone central
office sends the number to the MSC.
 The MSC searches for the location of the mobile
station by sending query signals to each cell in a
process called paging.
 Once the mobile station is found, the MSC transmits
a ringing signal.
 when the mobile station answers, assigns a voice
channel to the call.
 allowing voice communication to begin.
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 Thank You !!!
Any Questions ???

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