Vector Spaces

Lecture 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces and

Subspaces.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara

Department of Engineering Mathematics,

Faculty of Engineering,
University of Peradeniya

2024/04/09

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Introduction to Fields

A field is a set F equipped with the following additional data:

a binary operation called ⊕ (addition),
a binary operation called (multiplication),
an element called ”0” (additive identity),
an element called ”1” (multiplicative identity).
satisfying the following axioms properties.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Field Axioms
A field F satisfies the following axioms:
1 Commutativity of addition: a ⊕ b = b ⊕ a

2 Associativity of addition: a ⊕ (b ⊕ c) = (a ⊕ b) ⊕ c

3 Existence of additive identity: There exists 0 ∈ F such that

a⊕0=0⊕a=a
4 Existence of additive inverses: For each a ∈ F, there exists a0 ∈ F

such that a ⊕ a0 = a0 ⊕ a = 0
5 Commutativity of multiplication: a b=b a
6 Associativity of multiplication: a (b c) = (a b) c
7 Existence of multiplicative identity: There exists 1 ∈ F such that

1 6= 0 and a 1 = 1 a = a
8 Existence of multiplicative inverses: If a 6= 0, then there exists

a−1 ∈ F such that a a−1 = 1

9 Distributivity: a (b ⊕ c) = a b ⊕ a c and
(a ⊕ b) c = a c ⊕ b c
Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering
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 Field Definition and Examples

Definition
A field F is a set equipped with addition (⊕) and multiplication ( )
operations, satisfying the usual properties.

Examples of fields include:

The set of real numbers (R)
The set of rational numbers (Q)
The set of complex numbers (C)
Note: The set of integers (Z) does not qualify as a field.
The elements of a field F are commonly referred to as scalars.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Complex Numbers as a Field

Let C be the set of complex numbers defined as C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R},

where i is the imaginary unit with i 2 = −1.
Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
Multiplication: (a + bi) · (c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Complex Numbers Addition Axioms

Complex numbers addition satisfies the field axioms:

1 Commutativity: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (c + di) + (a + bi)
2 Associativity:
((a + bi) + (c + di)) + (e + fi) = (a + bi) + ((c + di) + (e + fi))
3 Additive identity: 0 + (a + bi) = (a + bi) + 0 = (a + bi)
4 Additive inverses: (a + bi) + (−a − bi) = (−a − bi) + (a + bi) = 0

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
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 Complex Numbers Multiplication Axioms

Complex numbers multiplication satisfies the field axioms:

1 Commutativity: (a + bi) · (c + di) = (c + di) · (a + bi)
2 Associativity:
((a + bi) · (c + di)) · (e + fi) = (a + bi) · ((c + di) · (e + fi))
3 Multiplicative identity: 1 · (a + bi) = (a + bi) · 1 = (a + bi)
 inverses (fora + bi 6= 0):
Multiplicative
4

a b
(a + bi) · a2 +b 2 − a2 +b 2 i =1

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Integers Not a Field

The set of integers Z is not a field. Let’s consider why:

Integers have closure under addition and multiplication.
However, integers lack multiplicative inverses.
For example, there is no integer b such that 2 · b = 1.
Thus, Z fails the field axiom of existence of multiplicative inverses.
Therefore, the set of integers does not form a field.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Vector Spaces

Let V be a nonempty set, and suppose that the two operations addition
(⊕) and scalar multiplication ( ) are defined on it. If the following ten
rules or axioms hold, then we will call V a vector space over the field F,
and each element of V is called a vector.
1 If u, v ∈ V , then u ⊕ v ∈ V . This is called closed under addition.
2 If u ∈ V and α ∈ F, then α u ∈ V . This is called closed scalar
multiplication.
3 For each u, v ∈ V , u ⊕ v = v ⊕ u.
4 For each u, v , w ∈ V , u ⊕ (v ⊕ w ) = (u ⊕ v ) ⊕ w .
5 For each u ∈ V , there exists an object 0 ∈ V , called the zero/null
vector of V , such that u ⊕ 0 = 0 ⊕ u = u.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Vector Spaces

6 For each u ∈ V , there exists an object −u ∈ V , called the additive

inverse of u, such that u ⊕ (−u) = −u ⊕ u = 0.
7 For each u ∈ V , and α, λ ∈ F, α (λ u) = (α λ) u.
8 For each u, v ∈ V , and α ∈ F, α (u ⊕ v ) = α u⊕α v.
9 For each u ∈ V , and α, λ ∈ F, (α ⊕ λ) u=α u⊕λ u.
10 For each u ∈ V , 1 u = u.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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Mathematics,
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 Vector Spaces

To qualify as a vector space:

The set must satisfy the specified axioms for addition and scalar
multiplication.
These operations can be unique or unconventional in nature.
The key lies in meeting the defined axioms, regardless of how
distinctive the operations might seem.
We designate a vector space V over the field F as a “F-vector space”.
We represent this as (V , F, ⊕, ) to emphasise its vector space
structure.
In all the example we assume that standard addition and scalar
multiplication are being used unless otherwise stated

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
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 Exercise 1.1- Set of 2-Tuples of Real Numbers

Consider the set V of all 2-tuples of real numbers:

V = {(x, y ) | x, y ∈ R}

Define addition as component-wise addition and scalar multiplication as

component-wise scaling:

(x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

α (x, y ) = (αx, αy )
Let u = (x1 , y1 ), v = (x2 , y2 ), w = (x3 , y3 ) ∈ R2 and α, β, γ ∈ R.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 R2 as a Vector Space: Axioms 1-4
Axiom 1: Closed under addition.
u ⊕ v = (x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ R2
Axiom 2: Closed scalar multiplication.
α u=α (x1 , y1 ) = (αx1 , αy1 ) ∈ R2
Axiom 3: Commutativity of addition.
u ⊕ v = (x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
= (x2 + x1 , y2 + y1 ) = (x2 , y2 ) ⊕ (x1 , y1 ) = v ⊕ u
Axiom 4: Associativity of addition.

(u ⊕ v ) ⊕ w = ((x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (x2 , y2 )) ⊕ (x3 , y3 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ⊕ (x3 , y3 )

= (x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 ) = (x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (x2 + x3 , y2 + y3 )
= (x1 , y1 ) ⊕ ((x2 , y2 ) ⊕ (x3 , y3 )) = u ⊕ (v ⊕ w )
Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering
Vector Spaces
Mathematics,
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 R2 as a Vector Space: Axioms 5-8
Axiom 5: Existence of zero vector. Let 0 = (0, 0) ∈ R2

u ⊕ 0 = (x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (0, 0) = (x1 + 0, y1 + 0) = (x1 , y1 ) = u

Axiom 6: Existence of additive inverses. Let −u = (−x1 , y1 ) ∈ R2

u ⊕ (−u) = (x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (−x1 , −y1 ) = (x1 − x1 , y1 − y1 ) = (0, 0) = 0

Axiom 7: Associativity of scalar multiplication.

α (β u) = α (β (x1 , y1 )) = α (βx1 , βy1 )
= (αβx1 , αβy1 ) = (α β) (x1 , y1 ) = (α β) u
Axiom 8: Distributivity of scalar multiplication over addition.
α (u ⊕ v ) = α ((x1 , y1 ) ⊕ (x2 , y2 )) = α (x1 , y1 ) ⊕ α (x2 , y2 )
=α u⊕α v

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
Mathematics,
LectureFaculty
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 R2 as a Vector Space: Axioms 9-10

Axiom 9: Distributivity of addition over scalar multiplication.

(α ⊕ β) u = (α ⊕ β) (x1 , y1 ) = ((α ⊕ β)x1 , (α ⊕ β)y1 )
= (αx1 , αy1 ) ⊕ (βx1 , βy1 ) = α (x1 , y1 ) + β (x1 , y1 )
=α u+β u
Axiom 10: Identity property. Let 1 ∈ R

1 u=1 (x1 , y1 ) = (x, y ) = u

Hence, all the 10 axioms are satisfied and (R2 , R, ⊕, ) is a vector space.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
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 Some examples of vector spaces

The set of all ordered n-tuples of real numbers Rn .

The set of all m × n matrices, Mm×n with entries from R with the
usual addition and scalar multiplication.
The set of all polynomials in a single variable with coefficients from R
and degree less than or equal to n, Pn . Addition and scalar
multiplication is done by scalars.
The set F [a, b] consisting of all real valued functions of one variable
defined on [a, b] with addition and scalar multiplication defined by,

(f +g )(x) = f (x)+g (x) and (αf )(x) = αf (x) ∀ x ∈ [a, b], α ∈ R.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Theorem 1.1: Properties of Vector Spaces

Let (V , F, ⊕, ) be a vector space.

1 The null vector in V is unique.
2 For u ∈ V , −u is unique.
3 0 u = 0 for each u ∈ V .
4 α 0 = 0 for each α ∈ F.
5 (−1) u = −u = 1 (−u) for each u ∈ V .
6 If α u = 0, then either α = 0 or u = 0.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

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 Subspaces of Vector Spaces
Definition
Let V be a vector space over a field F and let S be a nonempty subset of
V (S ⊆ V ). Then S is said to be a subspace of V if S is also a vector
space of F.

When proving that a set S forms a vector space with defined addition and
scalar multiplication:
It’s customary to verify all ten vector space axioms.
If S is part of a larger set V already recognized as a vector space,
specific axioms (3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10) need not be individually checked for
S as they are inherently inherited from V .
Only the remaining four axioms (1, 2, 5, 6) necessitate proof, wherein
certain elements must belong to the subset S.
The subsequent theorem illustrates that it is crucial to validate only
two conditions.Once these two conditions are confirmed, the
remaining four conditions are automatically satisfied.
Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering
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 Vector Space Aximos

1 If u, v ∈ V , then u ⊕ v ∈ V . This is called closed under addition.

2 If u ∈ V and α ∈ F, then α u ∈ V . This is called closed scalar
multiplication.
3 For each u, v ∈ V , u ⊕ v = v ⊕ u.
4 For each u, v , w ∈ V , u ⊕ (v ⊕ w ) = (u ⊕ v ) ⊕ w .
5 For each u ∈ V , there exists an object 0 ∈ V , called the
zero/null vector of V , such that u ⊕ 0 = 0 ⊕ u = u.
6 For each u ∈ V , there exists an object −u ∈ V , called the
additive inverse of u, such that u ⊕ (−u) = −u ⊕ u = 0.
7 For each u ∈ V , and α, λ ∈ F, α (λ u) = (α λ) u.
8 For each u, v ∈ V , and α ∈ F, α (u ⊕ v ) = α u⊕α v.
9 For each u ∈ V , and α, λ ∈ F, (α ⊕ λ) u=α u⊕λ u.
10 For each u ∈ V , 1 u = u.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
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 Subspaces of Vector Spaces

Theorem
Let (V , F, ⊕, ) be a vector space and S be a subset of V . Then S is a
subspace of V if and only if
(a) For u, v ∈ S, u ⊕ v ∈ S.
(b) For α ∈ F and u ∈ S, α u ∈ S.

We can further combine the conditions (a) and (b) in the above Theorem
and write down the following.
Theorem
Let (V , F, ⊕, ) be a vector space and S be a subset of V . Then S is a
subspace of V if and only if α u ⊕ β v ∈ S for all α, β ∈ F and
u, v ∈ S.

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
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 Subspaces of Vector Spaces

Note:
Every vector space V has at least two subspaces: V itself and
S = {0}. These are called trivial subspaces.
All other subspaces except these two are called proper subspaces.
If S is a subspace of V , we denote it as S ≤ V .

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
Mathematics,
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 Exercise 1.7

Let R2 = {(x1 , x2 )|x1 , x2 ∈ R} be a vector space under usual addition and

scalar multiplication. Determine whether S = {(x, 0)|x ∈ R} is a subspace
of R2 .
Let u = (x1 , 0) and v = (y1 , 0) be arbitrary vectors in S. Then,

u ⊕ v = (x1 , 0) ⊕ (y1 , 0)
= (x1 + y1 , 0) ∈ S,

as (x1 + y1 , 0) satisfies the definition of S. This verifies condition (a).

Next, let α ∈ R and u = (x1 , 0) ∈ S. Then,

α u=α (x1 , 0)
= (αx1 , 0) ∈ S,

as (αx1 , 0) satisfies the definition of S. This verifies condition (b).

Since both conditions (a) and (b) are satisfied, S is a subspace of R2 .
Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering
Vector Spaces
Mathematics,
LectureFaculty
1: Introduction
of Engineering,
to Vector
University
Spaces and
of Peradeniya)
Subspaces.
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 Exercise 1.9

Consider the vector space V of real sequences defined as

V = {{an } | an ∈ R} with standard addition and scalar multiplication. Let
W be the subset of V given by:

W = {{an } | an → 0, as n → ∞}

Let {an }, {bn } ∈ W . Then, an → 0 and bn → 0 as n → ∞.

Let α, β ∈ R.
Consider α{an } + β{bn }.
Now limn→∞ α{an } + β{bn } = α limn→∞ {an } + β limn→∞ {bn } = 0
Hence, W is a subspace of V .

W ≤V

Dr. K. R. R. I. Bandara (Department of Engineering

Vector Spaces
Mathematics,
LectureFaculty
1: Introduction
of Engineering,
to Vector
University
Spaces and
of Peradeniya)
Subspaces.
2024/04/09 23 / 23