EL

PT
Geo-Spatial Analysis in Urban Planning

N
Saikat Paul (PhD) ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Department of Architecture & Regional Planning
IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 01: Introduction to Geographic Information System and
Geographic Distribution
Lecture 01 : Introduction to Geographic Information System
 EL
➢ Overview of GIS

PT
➢ Components of GIS

N
➢ Functions of GIS
➢ Application of GIS
Introduction to GIS
Definition of GIS
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system build to capture, store, manage, analyze and
display all kinds of spatial or geographical data and all the data is aggregated into a location reference
system (as Latitude & Longitude).

EL
GIS Objectives

PT
❑ Maximize the efficiency of planning and decision making
❑

N
Provide efficient means for data distribution and handling
❑ Elimination of redundant data base - minimize duplication
❑ Capacity to integrate information from many sources
❑ Complex analysis/query involving geographical referenced data
to generate new information.
Introduction to GIS
Components of GIS Brief history of GIS
Dr. Roger Tomlinson in 1962 created and developed
Hardware
Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS) for
the Canada Land Inventory (CLI)

EL
Software

GIS

PT
N
Data

People Image Source : ESRI (https://www.esri.com/news/arcwatch/0509/tomlinson.html)

Introduction to GIS
Geospatial Data Formats

Two primary data types are :

❑ Raster – data are viewed as a series of grid cells where each cell has a value representing the

EL
feature being observed. Best suited for continuous data, or information that does not have hard
boundaries or locations (elevation, temperature etc.); and

PT
❑ Vector - represented as either points, lines, or polygons. Discrete (or thematic) data is best

N
represented as vector. Data that has an exact location, or hard boundaries are typically shown as
vector data (eg. Administrative boundaries, roads, bus stops etc.).
Introduction to GIS
Geospatial Data Formats

Two primary data types are :

❑ Raster – data are viewed as a series of grid cells where each cell has a value representing the

EL
feature being observed. Best suited for continuous data, or information that does not have hard
boundaries or locations (elevation, temperature etc.); and

PT
❑ Vector - represented as either points, lines, or polygons. Discrete (or thematic) data is best

N
represented as vector. Data that has an exact location, or hard boundaries are typically shown as
vector data (eg. Administrative boundaries, roads, bus stops etc.).
Introduction to GIS
Raster Data Formats
❑ ArcInfo Grid – composed of two folders within a "workspace" which each contain multiple files
o folders carries the name of the grid, and contains a number of various .adf files
❑ Multi band Image formats –
o Band Interleaved by Line (BIL),

EL
o Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP), and
o Band Sequential (BSQ)

PT
❑ DEM (Digital Elevation Model) - DEM is a raster format used by the USGS to record elevation of

N
points on earth’s surface
❑ GeoTIFF – this raster image includes geographical extents as part of the header information of the
TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) file
Introduction to GIS
Other Popular Raster Data Formats

❑ ADRG – ARC Digitized Raster Graphics

❑ RPF – Raster Product Format, military
❑ DRG – Digital raster graphic
❑ ECRG – Enhanced Compressed ARC Raster Graphics

EL
❑ ECW – Enhanced Compressed Wavelet (ERDAS)

PT
❑ Esri grid – ASCII raster formats used by ESRI
❑ GeoTIFF – TIFF variant enriched with GIS relevant metadata

N
❑ HDF - Hierarchical Data Format Files
❑ IMG – image file format used by ERDAS
❑ JPEG2000 – Joint Photographic Experts Group committee using discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) based compression standard
❑ MrSID – Multi-Resolution Seamless Image Database
Introduction to GIS
Vector Data Formats
❑ Shapefile – compatible with most GIS softwares
➢ files with the same prefix name and with the following extensions:
o .shp = shapefile,
o .shx = header,
o .dbf = associated database file,
o .prj = Projection file, and

EL
o .lyr = layer file;
❑ ArcInfo Coverage - replaced now a days by geodatabase format

PT
➢ composed of two folders within a "workspace“

N
o first folder - name of the coverage, and contains a number of various .adf files
o "info" folder - contains .dat and .nit files for all the coverages and grids in the workspace
❑ Geodatabase – native data format for ESRI's ArcGIS
➢ collection of geographic datasets of various types - basic types being vector, raster, and
tabular data
❑ Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) - pulsed laser to measure ranges (variable distances) to
feature objects - point cloud data has .LAS file extension
Introduction to GIS
Other Popular Vector Data Formats
❑ AutoCAD DXF –AutoCAD DXF format by Autodesk
❑ Cartesian coordinate system (XYZ) – simple point cloud
❑ DLG – Digital Line Graph (USGS format)
❑ GML – Geography Markup Language – Open GIS format used for exchanging GIS data
❑ GeoJSON – a lightweight format based on JSON, used by many open source GIS packages

EL
❑ GeoMedia – Intergraph’s Microsoft Access based format for spatial vector storage
❑ ISFC – Intergraph’s MicroStation based CAD solution

PT
❑ Keyhole Markup Language KML – Keyhole Markup Language a XML based
❑ MapInfo TAB format – MapInfo’s vector data format

N
❑ NTF – National Transfer Format
❑ Spatialite – is a spatial extension to SQLite,
❑ Simple Features – specification for vector data
❑ SOSI – a spatial data format used for all public exchange of spatial data in Norway
❑ Spatial Data File – Autodesk’s high-performance geodatabase format
❑ TIGER – Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
❑ VPF – Vector Product Format
Introduction to GIS
Uses of GIS
❑ Location of features and relationships to other features
❑ Assessing the intensity of features (mapping quantitites eg. Population distribution)
❑ Assessing the density of features (eg. Population density)

EL
❑ Monitoring temporal changes (eg. Urban Srpawl)

PT
❑ Monitoring status in an Area of Interest (eg. Flood damage assessment - list of
villages inundated)

N
❑ Proxymal studies (eg. Finding landuse along different road segment using buffering)
❑ Modeling and simulating complex scenarios (eg. Air pollution due to locating an
industry, areas prone to seismic hazard)
 EL
➢ 1. GIS Fundamentals: A First Text on Geographic Information Systems, Paul Bolstad,

PT
XanEdu Publishing Inc; 5th edition;

N
➢ 2. Introduction to Geographic Information Systems, Kang-tsung Chang, McGraw-Hill
Education;
N
PT
EL
 EL
PT
Geo-Spatial Analysis in Urban Planning

N
Saikat Paul (PhD) ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Department of Architecture & Regional Planning
IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 01: Introduction to Geographic Information System and
Geographic Distribution
Lecture 02 : Introduction to Coordinate System and Geographic Projections
 EL
➢ Basic Concepts of Geodesy

PT
o Ellipsoid, Geoid and Datum

N
➢ Map Projections
Concepts of Geodesy

Shape of the Earth - Geoid

❑ Oblate sphere depressed at poles
❑ Natural irregularities in density and depths of the material of upper

EL
crust of the Earth result in slight alterations of the direction of gravity.

PT
❑ Radius 6,387 kms (at equator) and 6,357 kms (at poles)
❑ Difficult to have an overall geometric equation representing its shape

N
❑ Mapping Earth is complex– ellipsoid or spheroid won’t entirely
encapsulate the Earth and fit into a geometric grid

Image Source : NASA (https://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/earthshape.html)

1
 Concepts of Geodesy
Geoid
❑ An equipotential surface – earth’s gravity field – mean sea level
❑ Magnitude of gravity varies throughout Earth as mass is not uniform

EL
PT
N
Potsdam Gravity Potato
Red areas have stronger gravity compared to blue areas Earth’s Gravity Field
Inundations represent surface features Image Source : NASA-German Aerospace Center Gravity Recovery and
Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission
Image Source : NASA (https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap141215.html) (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/3666/earths-gravity-field.html)

2
Concepts of Geodesy
Datum (reference surface)
❑ Horizontal datums are used for describing a point on the earth’s surface, in latitude and
longitude or another coordinate system
❑ Vertical datums measure elevations or depths

EL
❑ Since surface of geoid is irregular and surface of an ellipsoid is regular, an ellipsoid cannot

PT
provide more than an approximation of part of the geoidal surface

N
❑ A variety of ellipsoids are necessary to cover the entire earth.

3
Basic Concepts of Geodesy
Ellipsoid
❑ A reference surface from which measurements are made
❑ It’s a mathematical approximation of surface of the earth (ellipsoid)
❑ Ellipsoid - defined by a center position and the three ellipsoid axis radii

x2/a2 + y2/b2 + z2/c2 = 1

EL
An Ellipsoid
‘a’ is the radius in the north-south direction
‘b’ is the radius in the east-west direction

PT
‘c’ is the radius in the vertical direction Obtained by rotating an ellipse about
its Minor axis to most nearly

N
if, a = b = c sphere approximate the shape of the Earth
if, a = b > c oblate sphere depressed at poles
𝑎−𝑏
Flattening ‘f’= this ratio is about 1/300 for earth
𝑎

4
Concepts of Geodesy
Global Ellipsoid
❑ World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84) – used in satellite navigation and GPS – DoD, USA
❑ Applicable world wide -
Based on gravity observations, extension of triangulation and trilateration networks, doppler and

EL
optical satellite data

PT
Earlier versions - WGS 60, 66, 72

N
❑ Local datums can be referenced to WGS after creating a survey tie
Semi-major axis ‘a’ = 63,78,137.0 m
Semi-minor axis ‘b’ = 63,56,752.314 245 m
Flattening ‘b’ = 298.257 223 563

5
Concepts of Geodesy

Local Ellipsoid

❑ Applicable locally in the Indian Subcontinent - defined in 1830 by Colonel George Everest

EL
updated in 1956

PT
Semi-major axis ‘a’ = 63,77,301.243 m
Flattening ‘b’ = 300.8017

N
6
Map Projections
Types of Map Projections

❑ Earth is curved and maps are flat

❑ Mathematical process of flattening Earth’s 3D surface onto a 2D map surface
❑ This process will always have distortions – types includes

EL
o Conformality – accuracy of shapes of the map

PT
o Distance - accuracy of measured distances on the map to actual distance on the Earth

N
Area - area represented on map is proportional to actual area on the Earth
o Direction - directions between points on the Earth’s surface is accurately represented
on the map

7
 EL
➢ 1. Coordinate Systems and Map Projections, D.H. Maling, Pergamon;

PT
➢ 2. Map Projections: A Reference Manual, L. M. Bugayevskiy and John Snyder, CRC Press;

N
N
PT
EL
 EL
PT
Geo-Spatial Analysis in Urban Planning

N
Saikat Paul (PhD) ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Department of Architecture & Regional Planning
IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 01: Introduction to Geographic Information System and
Geographic Distribution
Lecture 03 : Geometric Transformation
 EL
➢ Introduction to Geometric Transformation

PT
➢ Root Mean Square (RMS) Error

N
➢ Resampling Methods
Geometric Transformation Map Projection

Map Projection & Transformation

Projectional and coordinate transformation

Geometric Transformation Translation

Rotation

EL
Shearing Flippping
Scaling

PT
N
Final Transformed Image

Image Source : NASA (https://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/earthshape.html)

1
Geometric Transformation

(Definition) Geometric transformation is the process of using a set of control points and transformation
equations to register a digitized map, a satellite image, or an aerial photograph onto a projected
coordinate system.
❑ Map-to-Map Transformation - digitized map, either manually digitized or traced from a scanned file

EL
into projected coordinates
❑ Image-to-Map Transformation - applies to remotely sensed data – transformation changes the rows

PT
and columns of a satellite image into projected coordinates

N
❑ Geometric transformation uses a SET of CONTROL POINTS to establish a MATHEMATICAL
MODEL that relates the MAP COORDINATES of one system to another or IMAGE
COORDINATES to map coordinates.

1
 Geometric Transformation
Transformation Methods
❑ EQUAL AREA allows rotation of the rectangle and preserves its shape and
size.

❑ SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATION allows rotation of the rectangle and

preserves its shape but not size.

EL
PT
❑ AFFINE TRANSFORM allows angular distortion of the rectangle but
preserves the parallelism of lines (i.e., parallel lines remain as

N
parallel lines).

❑ PROJECTIVE TRANSFORMATION allows both angular and

length distortions, thus allowing the rectangle to be
transformed into an irregular quadrilateral.

1
Geometric Transformation Process of Running an
Affine Transformation Affine Transformation

EL
PT
N
1
Geometric Transformation

Control Points
Control points play a key role in determining the
accuracy of an affine transformation

Control Points for map-to-map transformation

EL
Points with known longitude and latitude values are selected and projected into real-world coordinates.

PT
Control Points for image-to-map transformation
o Ground control points (GCPs) are used where both image coordinates (in columns and rows) and

N
real-world coordinates can be identified.

o After GCPs are identified on a satellite image, their real-world coordinates can be obtained from
digital maps or GPS (global positioning system) readings.

1
Geometric Transformation

Root Mean Square (RMS) Error

❑ common measure of the goodness of the control points;
❑ measures the deviation between the actual (true) and estimated (digitized) locations of the control points.

EL
input or ouput error for a control point

PT
N
average RMS error can be computed by
averaging errors from all control points

1
 Geometric Transformation
Resampling
❑ filling each pixel of the new image with a value or a derived value from the original image
Nearest Neighbor - fills each pixel of the new image Corrected Image
with the nearest pixel value from the original image

Corrected Image
Bilinear Interpolation –
o four close pixels to coordinates(x,y) obtained by

EL
Original Image
geometric transformation are involved in such
an interpolation, which is able to define new

PT
Original Image value
o Output image has less pronounced contrasts

N
with progressive steps
Corrected Image Cubic Convolution –
o uses the average of the 16 nearest pixel values from five
cubic polynomial interpolations
o produces a smoother generalized output than bilinear
Original Image
interpolation but requires a longer processing time

1
Recapitulation

EL
➢ Introduction to Geometric Transformation

PT
➢ Root Mean Square (RMS) Error

N
➢ Resampling Methods
N
PT
EL
 EL
PT
Geo-Spatial Analysis in Urban Planning

N
Saikat Paul (PhD) ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Department of Architecture & Regional Planning
IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 01: Introduction to Geographic Information System and
Geographic Distribution
Lecture 04 : Vector Data Model
➢ Vector Data Types

EL
➢ Topology

PT
➢ GeoRelational Data Model

N
Vector Data Types
Basic Vector Data Types
point feature - made of a point or a set of points
• e.g. bus stop locations, schools
line - one-dimensional and has the property of length, in addition to location
• has two end points and may have additional points in between to mark the shape of the line
• shape of a line may be a connection of straight-line segments or a smooth curve generated

EL
using a mathematical function
• line feature is made of a line or a set of lines

PT
• e.g. Roads, boundaries, and small streams

N
polygon - two-dimensional and has the properties of area (size) and perimeter, in addition to location
• made of connected, closed, nonintersecting lines, the perimeter or the boundary defines the
area of a polygon
• may stand alone or share boundaries with other polygons
• may also have a hole within its extent, resulting in an exterior and an interior boundary
• polygon feature consists of a polygon or a set of polygons
• e.g. polygon features include vegetated areas, urban areas, and water bodies

1
Vector Data Types
Points, Lines & Polygon
Points

EL
Lines & Routes

PT
N
Polygon

2
Vector Data Structure
Topology
❑ Properties of geometric objects that remain invariant under certain
transformations such as bending or stretching.
❑ Can be explained through directed graphs (digraphs), which show the

EL
arrangements of geometric objects and the relationships among objects
❑ Adjacency and incidence are two fundamental relationships that can be

PT
established between nodes and arcs in digraphs Topology requires additional data
Polygon Topology

N
files to store the spatial relationships.
❑ Topological relationships between spatial features allow GIS users to perform
spatial data query - Containment and intersect are two of the topological
relationships important for spatial data query.

3
Vector Data Structure
GeoRelational Data Model
❑ Stores geometries and attributes separately in a split system: geometries (“Geo”) in graphic files in a spatial
subsystem and attributes (“Relational”) in a relational database
❑ Uses the feature identification number (ID) to link the two components
❑ Two components are synchronized so that they can be queried, analyzed, and displayed in unison
Examples - coverage and shapefile
❑ COVERAGE is TOPOLOGICAL, and the SHAPEFILE is NONTOPOLOGICAL.

EL
PT
N
ArcInfo coverage has two components: graphic files for spatial
data and INFO files for attribute data.
The label connects the two components

4
 GeoRelational Data Model
Esri Coverage data structure of
a point coverage
Coverage supports three basic topological relationships
❑ Connectivity: Arcs connect to each other at nodes.
❑ Area definition: An area is defined by a series of connected arcs.
❑ Contiguity: Arcs have directions and left and right polygons.
Starting point of an arc is the from node, and the end point is the to-node

EL
PT
data structure of a
data structure polygon coverage

N
of a line
coverage

5
 {
GeoRelational Data Model ❑ .shp file stores the feature geometry,
and
❑ .shx file maintains the spatial index of
the feature geometry
Shape file
Standard nontopological data format used in Esri products
❑ Shapefile treats a point as a pair of x-, y-coordinates, a line as a series of points.
❑ Polygon as a series of line segments.
❑

EL
Spatial relationships among these geometric objects are not described in any file
❑ Polygons actually have duplicate arcs for the shared boundaries and can overlap
one another

PT
N
Advantage of using Shape files
❑ They can display more rapidly on the computer monitor
❑ Nonproprietary and interoperable
❑ Interoperability - Open Geospatial Consortium Inc. 1994
(http://www.opengeospatial.org/)

6
GeoRelational Data Model PROPERTY describing an attribute or

Object Based Data Model

GIS operations are affected by
{ characteristic of an object – shape,
extent
METHOD performing a specific action
– copy, delete
Standard nontopological data format used in Esri products
❑ Stores geometries and attributes in a single system.
❑ Geometries are stored as a collection of binary data in a special field with the data type

EL
BLOB (binary large object).
❑ Spatial feature (object) to be associated with a set of properties and methods

PT
Example of a Landuse layer

geometry of each land-use polygon N

7
GeoRelational Data Model

Geodatabase

❑ Uses points, polylines, and polygons to represent vector based

❑ Similar to arc coverage in simple features

EL
❑ Differ in the composite features of regions and routes

PT
❑ Geodatabase can also store raster data, triangulated irregular networks, location data, and
attribute tables

N
8
GeoRelational Data Model

Geodatabase
❑ Organizes vector data sets into feature classes and feature datasets

EL
Feature classes
Feature dataset
❑ Stores spatial features of the same
Stores feature classes that share the

PT
geometry type
same coordinate system and area
extent
❑ participate in topological relationships with

N
one another e.g. coincident boundaries
between different levels of census data
(village, taluka/block, district, state,
country)

9
Vector Data Structure
Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)
❑ Approximates the terrain with a set of nonoverlapping triangles
❑ Each triangle in the TIN assumes a constant gradient
❑ Each node of a triangle is a point, and each edge of a triangle is a line
❑ Data structure therefore includes the triangle number, the number of each adjacent triangle, and

EL
data files showing the lists of points, edges, as well as the x, y, and z values of each elevation point

PT
N
data structure of a TIN

10
Vector Data Structure
Regions
❑ Set of geographic areas with similar Characteristics
❑ Two or more regions can cover or overlap the same area
❑ Can include areas that are spatially disjoint
❑ Regions are organized as subclasses in a polygon coverage
❑ Additional data files, regions are related to the underlying
polygons and arcs

EL
PT
Data Structure of a Region Subclass

N
Hierarchy of administrative units

11
Vector Data Structure

Routes
❑ Linear feature
❑ Stored as subclasses in a line coverage

EL
❑ Collection of sections
❑ It has a from position (F-POS) and a to-position (T-POS)

PT
It has a from measure (F-MEAS) (the beginning point of the
route) and a to-measure (T-MEAS)

N
Both the shapefile and the geodatabase use polylines with m Data structure of a route subclass
(measure) values to replace route subclasses for GIS
applications Route is shown here as a thicker,
gray line, is built on a polyline with
linear measures in a geodatabase

12
Recapitulation

➢ Vector Data Types

EL
➢ Topology

PT
➢ GeoRelational Data Model

N
N
PT
EL
 EL
PT
Geo-Spatial Analysis in Urban Planning

N
Saikat Paul (PhD) ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Department of Architecture & Regional Planning
IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 01: Introduction to Geographic Information System and
Geographic Distribution
Lecture 05 : Raster Data Model
 EL
➢ Raster Data Elements

PT
➢ Types of Raster Data

N
➢ Raster Data Structure & Compression
Raster Data

Advantages of using Raster Data

❑ Better option for representing continuous phenomena;

❑ Also called the field-based model;

EL
❑ Uses a regular grid to cover the space;
❑ Value in each grid cell corresponds to the characteristic of a spatial phenomenon at the cell location;

PT
❑ Changes in the cell value reflect the spatial variation of the phenomenon;

N
❑ Examples - Digital elevation data, satellite images, digital orthophotos, scanned maps, and graphic files;
❑ Require large amounts of the computer memory;
❑ Much easier to use, aggregate, and analyze than vector data; and
❑ Raster and vector data complement each other.

1
 Representation of point,
Raster Data line, and polygon features

Raster Vector

Raster Data Elements

❑ Also called a grid or an image in GIS;

EL
❑ Divided into rows, columns, and cells also called pixels with images;

PT
❑ Origin of rows and columns is typically at the upper-left corner of the raster;

N
❑ Rows function as y-coordinates and columns as x-coordinates;
❑ Matrix with rows and columns, and its cell values can be stored in a two
dimensional array; and
❑ Each cell in the raster is explicitly defined by its row and column position.

2
Raster Data Structure
Method for encoding, storage, processing and display of spatial raster data

❑ Cell-by-Cell Encoding

EL
❑ Run-Length Encoding

PT
❑ Quadtree

N
3
Raster Data Structure
Cell-by-Cell Encoding
❑ “Exhaustive Enumeration” - Simplest raster data structure, functioning at the
cell level, ideal choice if the cell values of a raster change continuously. E.g.
DEM (as neighbouring elevation values are rarely the same);
❑ Stored as a matrix, and its cell values are written into a file by row and column;

EL
❑ Satellite images are also encoded cell by cell;

PT
❑ Satellite images have multiple spectral bands, has more than one value for

N
each pixel; and
❑ Data is stored in the following formats –
❑ BIP,
❑ BIL and
❑ BSQ

4
Cell-by-Cell Encoding

Band Interleaved Pixel

❑ Allows fairly easy access to both spatial and spectral information

EL
❑ Red value for the first pixel is written to the file, followed by the
green value for that pixel, followed by the blue value for that pixel,

PT
and so on for all the pixels in the image

N
5
Cell-by-Cell Encoding

Band Interleaved Line

❑ All of the red values for the first row of pixels are written to the file, followed

EL
by all of the green values for that row followed by all the blue values for that

PT
row, and so on for every row of pixels in the image.

N
6
Cell-by-Cell Encoding

Band Sequential
❑ All of the red values for the entire image are written to the file, followed by all

EL
of the green values for the entire image, followed by all the blue values for

PT
the entire image.

N
7
Raster Data Structure

Run-Length Encoding
❑ Useful when raster contains many redundant cell values or repetitive cell values
❑ RLE method records the cell values by row and by group having same cell value
❑ RLE method for encodes as well as compresses raster data

EL
❑ Softwares utilising cell-by-cell encoding for storing raster data using RLE e.g.

PT
GRASS, IDRISI, and ArcGIS

N
Row 1 has two adjacent gray cells in columns 5 and 6.
Row 1 is therefore encoded with one run, beginning
in column 5 and ending in column 6.

8
Raster Data Structure
Quadtree Encoding
o Uses recursive decomposition to divide a raster into a hierarchy of quadrants
o Recursive Decomposition - continuous subdivision until every quadrant in a quadtree contains only
one cell value
o Quadtree contains nodes and branches (subdivisions)
o Node represents a quadrant

EL
Depending on the cell value(s) in the quadrant, a node can be a
❑ Nonleaf Node

PT
▪ Represents a quadrant that has different cell values
▪ Branch point, meaning that the quadrant is subject to subdivision

N
❑ Leaf Node
▪ Represents a quadrant that has the same cell value
▪ It is an end point, which can be coded with the value of the homogeneous quadrant (gray or white)

9
Raster Data Structure
Quadtree Encoding
❑ Depth of a Quadtree, or levels in hierarchy vary depending on
the complexity of the two-dimensional feature.
❑ Spatial Indexing - After completion of subdivision next step is

EL
to code the two-dimensional feature

PT
Spatial Index
0 for NW, 1 for SW, 2 for SE, and 3 for NE

N
Quadtree code for the given figure
(02, 032), (102, 113, 120, 123, 13),
(20, 210, 213, 220, 230, 231), (30, 31, 320, 321)

10
Raster Data Structure
Data compression
❑ Lossless
❑ Preserves the cell or pixel values - original image can be exactly recreated
❑ Desirable for raster data that are used for analysis
e.g. RLE , LZW (Lempel—Ziv-Welch)
❑ Lossy Compression

EL
❑ Cannot be reconstructed fully - original image can achieve higher compression ratio compared to a
lossless compression

PT
❑ Useful for background images rather than using it for analysis
e.g. MrSID (Multi-resolution Seamless Image Database), JPEG 2000 and ECW (Enhanced Compressed

N
Wavelet) using Haar function

Wavelet Transform -
▪ image compression technique
▪ treats an image as a wave
▪ progressively decomposes the wave into simpler wavelets

11
Recapitulation

➢ Raster Data Elements

EL
➢ Types of Raster Data

PT
➢ Raster Data Structure & Compression

N
N
PT
EL