PSC150S: Physics

Lecture 4: Simple harmonic motion

Monday 11th March, 2024

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Periodic motion
If a particle moves such that it repeats its path regularly after equal intervals of time , it’s
motion is said to be periodic.
The interval of time required to complete one cycle of motion is called time period of
motion.
If a body in periodic motion moves back and forth over the same path then the motion is
said to be viberatory or oscillatory.
Examples of such motion are to and fro motion of pendulum , viberations of a tuning fork
, mass attached to a spring and many more.
Every oscillatory motion is periodic but every periodic motion is not oscillatory for
example motion of earth around the sun is periodic but not oscillatory.
Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM) is the simplest form of oscillatory motion.
SHM arises when force on oscillating body is directly proportional to the displacement
from it’s equilibrium position and at any point of motion , this force is directed towards
the equilibrium position.
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Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)

SHM is a particular type of motion very common in nature.

In SHM force acting on the particle is always directed towards a fixed point known as
equilibrium position and the magnitude of force is directly proportional to the
displacement of particle from the equilibrium position and is given by

F = −kx (1)

where k is the force constant and negative sign shows that force opposes increase in x.
Equation (1) is a mathematical statement of Hooke’s Law.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)
Hooke’s Law states the extension of a spring is in direct proportion with the load applied to it.

For instance, the spring is pulled downwards with either no load, Fp , or twice Fp .

Diagram of Hooke’s Law: The extension of the spring is linearly proportional to the force.
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Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)

This force as known as restoring force which takes the particle back towards the
equilibrium position , and opposes increase in displacement.
S.I. unit of force constant k is N/m and magnitude of k depends on elastic properties of
system under consideration.
For understanding the nature of SHM consider a block of mass m whose one end is
attached to a spring and another end is held stationary and this block is placed on a
smooth horizontal surface shown below in the fig.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)

Motion of the body can be described with coordinate x taking x = 0 i.e. origin as the
equilibrium positionwhere the spring is neither stretched or compressed.
We now take the block from it’s equilibrium position to a point P by stretching the spring
by a distance OP = A and will then release it.
After we release the block at point P, the restoring force acts on the block towards
equilibrium position O and the block is then accelerated from point P towards point O as
shown below in the fig.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)

Now at equilibrium position this restoring force would become zero but the velocity of
block increases as it reaches from point P to O.
When the block reaches point O it’s velocity would be maximum and it then starts to
move towards left of equilibrium position O.
Now this time while going to the left of equilibrium position spring is compressed and the
block moves to the point Q where it’s velocity becomes zero.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)

The compressed spring now pushes the block towards the right of equilibrium position
where it’s velocity increases up to point O and decreases to zero when it reaches point P.
This way the block oscillates to and fro on the frictionless surface between points P and
Q.
If the distance travelled on both sides of equilibrium position are equal i.e. , OP = OQ
then the maximum displacement on either sides of equilibrium are called the amplitude
of oscillations.

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Equation of SHM

Consider any particle executing SHM with origin as it’s equilibrium position under the
influence of restoring force
F = −kx,
where k is the force constant and x is the displacement of particle from the equilibrium
position.
Now since F = −kx is the restoring force and from Newton’s law of motion force is give
as F = ma , where m is the mass of the particle moving with acceleration a. Thus
acceleration of the particle is a = F /m = −kx/m
but we know that acceleration a = dv /dt = d 2 x/dt 2

d 2x k
=⇒ 2
=− x (2)
dt m
This equation 1 is the equation of motion of SHM.
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 r
k
If we choose a constant ψ = then equation 1 would become
m
d 2x
= −ψ 2 x
dt 2
This equation is a differential equation which says that displacement x must be a function
of time such that when it’s second derivative is calculated the result must be negative
constant multiplied by the original function.
Sine and cosine functions are the functions satisfying above requirement and are listed as
follows

x = A sin ω (3)
x = A cos ωt (4)
x = A cos(ωt + ψ) (5)

each one of equation 2, 3 and 4 can be submitted on the left hand side of equation 2 and
can then be solved for varification.
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 Convinently, we choose equation 4, i.e., cosine form for representing displacement of
particle at any time t from equilibrium position. Thus,

x = A cos(ωt + ψ)

and A , ω and ψ are all constants.

Fig below shows the displacement vs. time graph for phase ψ = 0.

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Characterstics of SHM
Here in this section we will learn about physical meaning of quantities like A, T , ω and ψ.

(a) Amplitude
Quantity A is known as amplitude of motion. it is a positive quantity and it’s value
depends on how oscillations were started.
Amplitude is the magnitude of maximum value of displacement on either side from the
equilibrium position.
Since maximum and minimum values of any sine and cosine function are +1 and −1 , the
maximum and minimum values of x in equation 4 are +A and −A respectively.
Finally A is called the amplitude of SHM.

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(b) Time period

Time interval during which the oscillation repeats itself is known as time period of
oscillations and is denoted by T .
Since a particle in SHM repeats it’s motion in a regular interval T known as time period
of oscillation so displacement x of particle should have same value at time t and t + T .
Thus,

cos(ωt + ψ) = cos(ω(t + T ) + ψ)
cosine function cos(ωt + ψ) will repeat it’s value if angle (ωt + ψ) is increased by 2π or
any of it’s multiple. As T is the time period

cos(ω(t + T ) + ψ) = cos(ω(t + ψ) + 2π)

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or
m
T = 2π
k
r
m
T = 2π (6)
k
Equation (6) gives the time period of oscillations.
Now the frequency of SHM is defined as the numberof complete oscillations per unit time
i.e., frequency is reciprocal of time period.
r
1 1 k
f = =
T 2π m
Thus
2π
ω= = 2πf
T

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 This quantity ω is called the angular frequency of SHM.
S.I. unit of T is s (seconds), f is Hz (hertz) and ω is rads −1 (radian per second)

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(c) Phase
Quantity (ωt + ψ) in equation (4) is known as phase of the motion and the constant ψ is
known as initial phase i.e., phase at time t = 0, or phase constant.
Value of phase constant depends on displacement and velocity of particle at time t = 0.
The knowledge of phase constant enables us to know how far the particle is from
equilibrium at time t = 0. For example, If ψ = 0 then from equation 4 x = A cos ωt that
is displacement of oscillating particle is maximum , equal to A at t = 0 when the motion
was started. Again if ψ = π/2 then from equation 4

 π
x = A cos ωt + (7)
2
= A sin ωt (8)

which means that displacement is zero at t=0.

Variation of displacement of particle executing SHM is shown below in the fig.
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5.Velocity of SHM

We know that velocity of a particle is given by

dx
v=
dt
In SHM displacement of particle is given by

x = A cos(ωt + ψ)

now differentiating it with respect to t

dx
v= = Aω(− sin(ωt + ψ))
dt
Here in equation 8 quantity Aω is known as velocity amplitude and velocity of oscillating
particle varies between the limits ±ω.
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5.Velocity of SHM

From trigonometry we know that cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

x2
which implies A2 sin2 (ωt + ψ) = A2 − A2 cos2 (ωt + ψ) OR sin2 (ωt + ψ) = 1 − 2
r A
x2 p
sin(ωt + ψ) = 1 − 2 = A2 − x 2
A
putting this in into the expression for the velocity, we get
r
x2 p
v = −ω 1 − 2 = −ω A2 − x 2
A

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5.Velocity of SHM

From this equation, we notice that when the displacement is maximum i.e. ±A the
velocity v = 0, because now the oscillator has to return to change its direction.
Figure below shows the variation of velocity with time in SHM with initial phase ψ = 0

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6. Acceleration of SHM

Again we know that acceleration of a particle is given by

dv
a=
dt
where v is the velocity of particle executing motion.
In SHM velocity of particle is give by,

v = −Aω sin(ωt + ψ)

differentiating this we get,

d
a= (−Aω sin(ωt + ψ)) = −Aω cos(ωt + ψ)
dt

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6. Acceleration of SHM
a = −Aω cos(ωt + ψ) gives acceleration of particle executing simple harmonic motion
and quantity ω 2 is called acceleration amplitude and the acceleration of oscillating
particle varies betwen the limits ±ω 2 A.
Putting equation x = cos(ωt + ψ)in a = −Aω cos(ωt + ψ) we get

a = −ω 2 x

which shows that acceleration is proportional to the displacement but in opposite

direction.
Thus from above equation we can see that when x is maximum (+A or −A), the
acceleration is also maximum(−ω 2 A or +ω 2 A)but is directed in direction opposite to that
of displacement.
Figure below shows the variation of acceleration of particle in SHM with time having
initial phase ψ = 0.
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6. Acceleration of SHM

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Summary

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7. Total energy in SHM

When a system at rest is displaced from its equilibrium position by doing work on it, it
gains potential energy and when it is released, it begins to move with a velocity and
acquires kinetic energy.
If m is the mass of system executing SHM then kinetic energy of system at any instant of
time is
1
KE = mv 2
2
putting equation expression doe velocity to in to the expression for kinetic energy, we get

1
KE = m(Aω sin(ωt + ψ))2 (9)
2
1
= m(A2 ω 2 sin2 (ωt + ψ)) (10)
2
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 From equation (10) we see that Kinetic Energy of system varies periodically i.e., it is
maximum (KEmax = (1/2)m(A2 ω 2 ) at the maximum value of velocity ( ±ωA) and at this
time displacement is zero.
When displacement is maximum (±A), velocity of SHM is zero and hence kinetic energy
is also zero and at these extreme points where kinetic energy K = 0, all the energy is
potential.
At intermediate positions of lying between 0 and ±A, the energy is partly kinetic and
partly potential.
To calculate potential energy at instant of time consider that x is the displacement of the
system from its equilibrium at any time t.

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 We know that potential energy of a system is given by the amount of work required to
move system from position 0 to x under the action of applied force.
Here force applied on the system must be just enough to oppose the restoring force −kx
i.e., it should be equal to kx.
Now work required to give infinitesimal displacement is dx = kxdx. Thus, total work
required to displace the system from 0 to x is
Z x
1
kxdx = kx 2
0 2
Thus
1 2
PE = kx (11)
2
1
= mω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt + ψ) (12)
2
r
k
where, ω = and displacement x = Acos(ωt + ψ).
m
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 From expressions for kinetic energy (Eq. (10)) and and potential energy (Eq. (12)), we
can calculate total energy of SHM which is given by,

E = KE + PE (13)
1
mω 2 A2 sin2 (ωt + ψ) + cos2 (ωt + ψ)
 
= (14)
2
1
= mω 2 A2 , since sin2 (ωt + ψ) + cos2 (ωt + ψ) = 1 (15)
2
Thus total energy of the oscillator remains constant as displacement is regained after
every half cycle.

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 If no energy is dissipated then all the potential energy becomes kinetic and vice versa.
Figure below shows the variation of kinetic energy and potential energy of harmonic
oscillator with time where phase ψ is set to zero for simplicity.

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(A) Motion of a body suspended from a spring

Figure (6a) below shows a spring of negligible mass, spring constant k and length l
suspended from a rigid support.
When a body of mass m is attached to this spring as shown in figure 6(b), the spring
elongates and it would then rest in equilibrium position such that upward force Fup
exerted by spring is equal to the weight mg of the boby.

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(A) Motion of a body suspended from a spring

If the spring is extended by an amount ∆l ater attachment of block of mass m then in its
equilibrium position upward force equals

Fup = k∆l

also in this equilibrium position

Fup = mg (16)
k∆l = mg (17)

Again the body is displaced in upwards direction such that it is at a distance x above
equilibrium position as shown in figure 6(c).
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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(A) Motion of a body suspended from a spring

Now extansion of spring would be (∆l − x), thus upward force now exerted on the body is
Fup = k(∆l − x) Weight of the body now tends to pull the spring downwards with a force
equal to its weight. Thus resultant force on the body is

F = k(∆l − x) − mg (18)
= mg − kx − mg (19)
= −kx (20)

From equation (20) we see that resultant force on the body is proportional to the
displacement of the body from its equilibrium position.
r
k
If such a body is set into vertical oscillations it oscillates with an angular frequency .
m
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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(B) Simple pendulum

Simple pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by inextensible weightless string in a

uniform gravitational field.
Simple pendulum can be set into oscillatory motion by pulling it to one side of equilibrium
position and then releasing it.
In case of simple pendulum path ot the bob is an arc of a circle of radius l, where l is the
length of the string.

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(B) Simple pendulum

We know that for SHM F = −kx and here x is the distance measured along the arc as
shown in the figure below.

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(B) Simple pendulum

When bob of the simple pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position O and is then
released it begins to oscillate.
Suppose it is at P at any instant of time during oscillations and θ be the angle subtended
by the string with the vertical. mg is the force acting on the bob at point P in vertically
downward direction.
Its component mgcosθ is balanced by the tension in the string and its tangential
component mgsinθ directs in the direction opposite to increasing θ .
Thus restoring force is given by F = −mgsinθ

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(B) Simple pendulum

The restoring force is proportional to sinθ not to The restoring force is proportional to
sinθ, so equation F = −mgsinθ does not represent SHM.
If the angle θ is small such that sinθ very narly equals θ then above equation
F = −mgsinθ becomes
F = −mg θ
since x = lθ then,
F = −(mgx)/l
where x is the displacement OP along the arc. Thus,

F = −(mg /l)x

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(B) Simple pendulum

From above equation [F = −(mg /l)x we see that restoring force is proportional to
coordinate for small displacement x , and the constant (mg /l) is the force constant k.
Time period of a simple pendulum for small amplitudes is
r
m
T = 2π (21)
k
r
m
= 2π (22)
mg /l
r
g
= 2π (23)
l

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM
(B) Simple pendulum

Corresponding frequency is given by

r
1 g
f =
2π l
and angular frequency by
r
g
ω=
l
Notice that the period of oscillations is independent of the mass m of the pendulum and
for small oscillations period of pendulum for given value of g is entirely determined by its
length.

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM: Not to be examined
(c) The compound pendulum

Compound pendulum is a rigid body of any shape, capable of oscillating about a

horizontal axis passing through it.
Figure below shows vertical section of rigid body capable of oscillating about the point A.

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8. Some simple systems executing SHM: Not to be examined
(c) The compound pendulum

Distance l between point A and the centre of gravity G is called length of the pendulum.
When this compound pendulum is given a small angulr displacement θ and is then
released it begins to oscillate about point A.
At angular displacement θ its center of gravity now takes new position at G 0 . Weight of
the body and its reaction at the support constitute a reactive couple or torque given by

T = −mgG 0 B (24)
= −mglsinθ (25)

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 Equation 24 gives restoring couple which tends to bring displaced body to its original
position.
If α is the angular acceleration produced in this body by the couple and I is the moment
of inertia of body about horizontal axis through A then the couple is I α = −mglsinθ if θ
is very small then we can replace sinθ ≈ θ, so that

α = −(mgl/I )θ

From above equation (α = −(mgl/I )θ) we se that pendulum is executing Simple

Harmonic Motion with time period
s
I
T = 2π
mgl

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Key Points
Mathematically, Hooke’s Law can be written as F=-kx
.
Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material’s elastic
limit.
The rate or spring constant, k, relates the force to the extension in SI units: N/m or
kg /s 2 . In order to produce a deformation, work must be done. The potential energy
stored in a spring is given by PE el = 1/2kx 2
, where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement.
Deformation can also be converted into thermal energy or cause an object to begin
oscillating.
Key Terms
elasticity: The property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load can regain
its original dimensions when unloaded
deformation: A transformation; change of shape.
kinetic energy: The energy possessed by an object because of its motion, equal to one
half the mass of the body times the square of its velocity. oscillating: Moving in a
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