DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

(DSP-7CC10)

Unit-1 Introduction

Faculty: V.RAJENDRA CHARY(VRC),

Assistant Professor,ECE
Class: III B.Tech,II Semester, ECE
 Contents
• Syllabus
• Prerequisites
• Reference Textbooks and Video Lectures
• Course Objective and Course Outcomes
• Mapping of Course Outcomes with Program Outcomes
• Unit 1

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 SYLLABUS
UNIT-
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM
3. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS
…..mid 1
4. REALIZATION OF DIGITAL FILTERS
5. DIGITAL FILTERS
6. MULTIRATE DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
…..mid 2
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 UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
• Introduction to Digital Signal Processing: Discrete time signals &
sequences, Periodicity, linear shift invariant systems, stability and
causality, Linear constant coefficient difference equations,
Frequency domain representation of discrete time signals and
systems.
• Applications: Contents form the foundation for DSP.

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 UNIT- II DISCRETE FOURIER
TRANSFORM
• Discrete Fourier series representation of periodic sequences,
Discrete-Time Fourier Transform(DTFT), Discrete Fourier
transform (DFT): Properties of DFT, Relation between Z-transform
and DFT, Convolution: Linear and circular convolutions, Overlap
add and Overlap save methods, Computation of DFT.
• Applications: Analysis of DT signals-Periodic and Aperiodic.

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 UNIT-III FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS

• Fast Fourier transforms (FFT) - Radix-2 decimation in time and

decimation in frequency FFT Algorithms, Inverse FFT.
• Applications: Design of spectrally efficient system such as
OFDM system.

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 UNIT-IV REALIZATION OF DIGITAL
FILTERS
• Review of Z-transforms, Applications of Z–transforms, Block
diagram representation of linear constant-coefficient difference
equations, Basic structures of IIR systems, Transposed forms,
Basic structures of FIR systems, System function.
• Applications: Design of digital system function to meet the given
specifications.

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 UNIT-V DIGITAL FILTERS
• Analog Filter Approximations – Butterworth and Chebyshev
Approximations.
• IIR digital filters: Design of IIR Digital filters from analog filters-
Impulse Invariance, Step invariance and Bilinear Transformation
methods, Design Examples, Analog-Digital transformations.

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 UNIT-V DIGITAL FILTERS(contd.)
• FIR digital filters: Characteristics of FIR Digital Filters, frequency
response, Design of FIR Digital Filters using Fourier series
method, Windowing Techniques-Rectangular, Triangular,
Hamming, Hanning and Bartlett’s Windows, Steps in Kaiser
windowing method, Frequency Sampling technique, Comparison
of IIR and FIR filters.
• Applications: Design of IIR/FIR digital filter conforming to
given specifications.

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 UNIT-VI MULTIRATE DIGITAL SIGNAL
PROCESSING
• Decimation, interpolation, sampling rate conversion. Introduction
to DSP Processors.

• Applications of Multirate Digital Signal processing: Design of

digital filter banks and quadrature mirror filters etc.

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 PREREQUISITES
• Signals and Systems
• Calculus
• Linear Algebra
• Complex variables

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REFERENCE TEXTBOOKS(R1)

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 REFERENCE TEXTBOOKS
• Digital Signal Processing- A.Anand Kumar, PHI 2nd edition(R2)
• Digital Signal Processing – Alan V. Oppenheim, Ronald W.
Schafer, PHI Ed., 2006
• Digital Signal Processing, Principles, Algorithms and Applications:
John G. Proakis, Dimitris G. Manolakis, Pearson Education /
PHI, 2007.
• Digital Signal Processing: A Modern Introduction, Ashok
Ambardar, 9th Indian Reprint, 2012, Cengage Learning.

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 REFERENCE TEXTBOOKS
• Digital Signal Processing: Andreas Antoniou, TATA McGraw
Hill , 2006
• Digital Signal Processing: MH Hayes, Schaum’s Outlines, TATA
Mc-Graw Hill, 2007.
• DSP Primer - C. Britton Rorabaugh, Tata McGraw Hill, 2005.
• Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing using MatLab – Robert
J. Schilling, Sandra L. Harris, Thomson, 2007
• Discrete Time Signal Processing – A.V.Oppenheim
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 Reference Video Lectures
• A video course on Digital Signal Processing by Prof S.C.Dutta
Roy, Department of Electrical engineering,
IITD.(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dFnpz_AEyA&list=
PL9567DFCA3A66F299)
• Digital Signal Processing and its applications-NPTEL, IITB
• Digital Signal Processing -NPTEL, IITM
• VLSI for Signal Processing- NPTEL, IITM

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 Course Objective
• To develop skills for analyzing and synthesizing algorithms and
systems that process discrete time signals, with emphasis on
realization and implementation.

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 Course Outcomes
• Distinguish between CT and DT signals and systems and understand the
growing need of DSP and study the concepts of discrete time signals and
systems.
• Represent periodic DT signals as a Fourier series; non-periodic DT signals as a
Fourier Transform and use a powerful mathematical tool called DFT.
• Compute the Fourier Transform of DT signals using the FFT algorithms.
• Realize a digital filter in several forms and structures for a given transfer
function H(z).
• Design of digital filters by several methods once the desired specifications are
given & Distinguish b/w IIR and FIR filters;
• Understand the need and implement the multirate sampling techniques.
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Mapping of Course Outcomes with Program
Outcomes

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 Outline Of The Unit
• Introduction to Digital Signal Processing (2)
• Discrete time signals & sequences (2)
• Periodicity, linear shift invariant systems ,Stability and Causality
(1)
• Linear constant coefficient difference equations (1)
• Frequency domain representation of discrete time signals and
systems (1)
• Problems(4)
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Introduction to Digital Signal
Processing

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 Signal
Signal:
• Definition
• Types

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 Definition Of Signal
• Anything that carries information can be called a Signal.
• A signal in general is a dependent variable which depends on some
independent variables(time, space, volume etc…)containing some
information.
eg. (i)ECG(Electrocardiogram)-provides information regarding health of
a person’s heart.
(ii)EEG(Electroencephalogram)-provides information about brain
activity of a person
(iii)Human voice, (iv) chirping of birds, (v)gestures (sign language)

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One-dimensional and Multi-dimensional Signal

• One-dimensional signal: If a signal depends on only one

independent variable, it is called a one-dimensional signal.
eg. Speech signal, AC power supply
• Multi-dimensional signal: If a signal depends on more than one
independent variable, it is called a multi-dimensional signal.
eg.weather report, X-rays

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 Continuous time, Discrete time and Digital
Signals
• Continuous time Signal: The signal that is defined at every instant
of time is called a continuous-time signal.
• It is denoted by x(t)

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 Continuous time, Discrete time and Digital
Signals
• Discrete time Signal: The signal that is defined at discrete instants
of time is called a discrete-time signal.
• The discrete time signals are continuous in amplitude and discrete
in time.
• It is denoted by x(n)

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 Continuous time, Discrete time and Digital
Signals
• Digital Signal: The signals that are discrete in time and quantized
in amplitude are called digital signals.

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 Signal Processing
• Signal Processing is any operation that changes the characteristics
of a signal.
• These characteristics include amplitude, shape or frequency
content of the signal.
• Thus the signal processing is concerned with representing signals
in the mathematical terms and extracting information by carrying
out algorithmic operations on the signal.

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 Need For Signal Processing
• We need signal processing to obtain signal in more desirable form
(transformation of signal) or for interpretation and manipulation of
signals.
eg.: Noise cancellation, Multiplexing and demultiplexing,
Amplification of signals

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 Types Of Signal Processing
• Analog Signal Processing
• Digital Signal Processing
• Mixed Signal Processing

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Analog Signal Processing System

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 Analog Signal Processing System
• The system that processes an analog signal is known as Analog
Signal processing.
• Analog signal processing was used in early 1970s.

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 Digital Signal Processing(DSP) System
• Digital signal processing provides an alternative to process an
analog signal.
• The rapid evolution of digital computing technology which
started in the 1960s marked the transition from analog to digital
signal processing.
• The block diagram of a DSP system is as shown in figure(next
slide)

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 Digital Signal Processing(DSP) System

Here, x(t)-analog input, y(t)-analog processed output

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25-Apr-22 36
 A Typical DSP System

MEMORY
• DSP Chip
• Memory
• Converters (Optional)
ADC • Analog to Digital
DSP • Digital to Analog
• Communication Ports
DAC • Serial
• Parallel

PORTS
 Digital Signal Processing(DSP) System
• The source of the input signal is from a transducer or a
communication signal.
• The input signal is applied to an anti-aliasig filter. This is a LPF
used to remove the high frequency noise and to band limit the
signal.
• The sample & hold device provides the input to the ADC and will
be required if the input signal must remain relatively constant
during the conversion of the analog signal to digital format.

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 Digital Signal Processing(DSP) System
• The output of the sample & hold circuit serves as input to
ADC.The output of ADC is an N-bit binary number depending on
the value of analog signal at its input. The ADC input signal is
limited to a range of either 0 to +10V if unipolar and -5V to +5V if
bipolar.
• Once converted to digital form, the signal can be processed using
digital techniques.
• The DSP may be a large programmable digital computer or a
microprocessor programmed to perform the desired operations on
the input signal
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 Digital Signal Processing(DSP) System
• The digital signal from processor is applied to the input of
DAC,the output of DAC is continuous but not smooth.The signal
contains unwanted high frequency components.
• To eliminate high frequency components,the output of DAC is
applied to a reconstruction filter.the output of reconstruction filter
is a smooth continuous signal.

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25-Apr-22 41
Mixed Signal Processing System

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 Mixed Signal Processing System
• It is a combination of ASP and DSP systems.

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 Advantages Of DSP
• Greater accuracy: The tolerance of the circuit components used to
design the analog filter affects accuracy, whereas the DSP provides
superior control of accuracy.
• Cheaper: The realization of digital systems is cheaper than analog
systems
• Ease of data storage: Digital signals can be easily stored on
magnetic media without loss of fidelity and can be processed
offline in a remote laboratory.

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 Advantages Of DSP
• Implementation of sophisticated algorithms: The DSP allows to
implement sophisticated algorithms when compared to its analog
counterpart.
• Flexibility in configuration: A DSP system can be easily
reconfigured by changing the program. Reconfiguration of an
analog system involves redesign of system hardware.

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 Advantages Of DSP
• Applicability of VLF signals: The very low frequency signals
such as those occuring in seismic application can be easily
processed using a digital signal processor.
• Time sharing: DSP allows the sharing of a given processor among
a number of signals by time sharing and reduces the cost of
processing a signal.

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 Limitations Of DSP
• Power consumption: The DSP chip consists of over 4 lakh
transistors, which will yield to dissipate high power (1 Watt),
whereas the analog signal processing includes only passive circuit
elements like resistors, capacitors and inductors, which will leads
to only low power dissipation.
• System complexity: System complexity increases in DSP because
of usage of A/D and D/A converters and their associated filters.

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 Limitations Of DSP
• Bandwidth limited by sampling rate: Band-limited signals can
be sampled without information loss if the sampling rate is more
than twice the bandwidth. Therefore, signals having extremely
wide bandwidths require fast sampling rate A/D converters and fast
digital signal processors, but there is a practical limitation in the
speed of operation of A/D converters and digital signal processors.

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 Limitations Of DSP
• Processing of signals beyond higher frequencies (beyond GHz) and
below lower frequencies (a few Hz) involves limitations.

• Information is lost because we only take samples of the signal at

intervals .

• Speed is limited due to A/D and D/A Converters.

• Frequency range of operation is limited due to sampling.

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 Applications Of DSP
• Telecommunication: Echo cancellation in telephone networks,
telephone dialling application, modems, line repeaters, channel
multiplexing, data encryption, video conferencing, cellular phones,
FAX
• Image Processing: Image compression, image enhancement, image
analysis and recognition
• Speech Processing: Automatic speech recognition, speaker
verification and speaker identification, speech synthesis techniques.

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 Applications Of DSP
• Consumer electronics: Digital audio/TV, electronic music
synthesizer, FM sterio applications, Sound recording applications.
• Instrumentation and Control: Digital filter, PLL, spectrum
analysis, servo control, robot control, process control
• Medicine: Computerized Tomography(CT), X-ray scanning,
Magnetic resonance imaging, spectrum analysis of ECG and EEG
signals, patient monitoring

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 Applications Of DSP
• Seismology: Geophysical exploration for oil and gas, detection of
underground nuclear explosion and earthquake monitoring.
• Military: Radar signal processing, sonar signal processing,
navigation, secure communication.

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 Discrete time
Signals & Sequences,
Periodicity
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 Representation of Discrete-time Signals
• Graphical representation
• Functional representation
• Tabular representation
• Sequence representation

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 Graphical Representation
• Consider a sequence x(n) with values:
x(-2)=-3, x(-1)=2, x(0)=0, x(1)=3, x(2)=1 and x(3)=2.The discrete-
time signal can be represented using graphical representation as:

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 Functional Representation
• Consider a sequence x(n) with values:
x(-2)=-3, x(-1)=2, x(0)=0, x(1)=3, x(2)=1 and x(3)=2 .The discrete-
time sequence is represented using functional representation as:

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 Tabular Representation
•Consider a sequence x(n) with values:
x(-2)=-3, x(-1)=2, x(0)=0, x(1)=3, x(2)=1 and x(3)=2.The discrete-
time signal can be represented using tabular representation as:

n -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x(n) -3 2 0 3 1 2

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 Sequence Representation
• Consider a sequence x(n) with values:
x(-2)=-3, x(-1)=2, x(0)=0, x(1)=3,x(2)=1 and x(3)=2. The discrete-
time signal can be represented using sequence representation as:

• The arrow mark ↑ indicates n=0 term, when no arrow mark is

indicated, the first term corresponds to n=0.
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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Unit step sequence
• Ramp sequence
• Unit impulse/sample sequence
• Parabolic sequence
• Exponential sequence
• Sinusoidal sequence

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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Unit Step Sequence:

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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Ramp Sequence:

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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Unit Impulse/Sample Sequence:

• The unit impulse in terms of unit step sequence can be written as:

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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Parabolic Sequence:

• In terms of unit step function, it can be written as:

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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Exponential Sequence:

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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Sinusoidal Sequence:

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 Elementary Discrete-time Signals
• Sinusoidal Sequence:

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 Operation on Signals
• Time shifting
• Time reversal
• Time scaling
• Amplitude scaling
• Scalar multiplication
• Signal multiplier
• Signal addition

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 Time Shifting
• The time shifting operation of a discrete-time signal x(n) can be
represented by:
y(n)=x(n-k)
• If k is positive, it is delay and the shift is to right.
• If k is negative, it is advance and shift is to left.

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Time Shifting

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 Time reversal/folding
• The time reversal of a discrete-time signal x(n) can be obtained by
folding the sequence about n=0.
• It is represented by x(-n).

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 Time Scaling
• The time scaling operation can be expressed as:
y(n)=x(an)
a>1-time compression
a<1-time expansion

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Time Scaling

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 Amplitude Scaling
• The amplitude scaling of a discrete time signal can be represented
by:
y(n)=ax(n)
here a=constant
a>1-amplification
a<1-attenuation

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Amplitude Scaling

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 Scalar multiplication
• Here the signal x(n) is multiplied by a scaling factor ‘a’.
eg. Let x(n)={1,2,1,-1},a=2
Then y(n)=ax(n)={2,4,2,-2}

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 Signal multiplier
• The signal multiplier can be represented by:

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 Signal multiplier
• For example, consider the discrete-time sequences as:
x1(n)={-1,2,-3,-2} and x2(n)={1,-1,-2,1}
Then,
y(n)= x1(n).x2(n)={-1.1,2.-1,-3.-2,-2.1}
={-1,-2,6,-2}

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 Signal addition
• The signal addition can be represented by:

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 Signal addition
Let x1(n)={1,2,3,4}
x2(n)={5,6,7,8}
Then,
y(n)= x1(n)+x2(n)={ 1+5,2+6,3+7,4+8}
={6,8,10,12}

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 Classification Of Discrete-time Signals
• Energy and Power Signals
• Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• Even and Odd Signals
• Causal and Non-causal Signals
• Deterministic and Random Signals

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 Energy and Power Signals
• For a discrete-time signal x(n),the energy Ex is given by:

• For a discrete-time signal x(n), the average power Px is given by:

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 Energy and Power Signals
• The average power Pavg of a periodic sequence with period N is
given by:

If E is finite, [0 ≤ E < ꝏ ] and P = 0 then x(n) is called an energy

signal

If E is infinite and P is finite and nonzero, then x(n) is called a

power signal.
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 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be periodic with period N if
and only if:
x(n + N)=x(n) , for all n

The smallest value of N which satisfies the above equation is known

as fundamental period.
• If the above equation is not satisfied even for one value of n, then
the discrete-time signal is known as Aperiodic signal.
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 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• Sometimes Aperiodic signals are said to have a period equal to
infinite.
• The fundamental period is given by 2π/ω.

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 Even and Odd Signals
• A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be even signal if it satisfies
the condition:
x(n)=x(-n) for all n
• Even signals are also called symmetric signals since they are
symmetric about time origin.

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 Even and Odd Signals
• A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be odd signal if it satisfies the
condition:
x(-n)=-x(n) for all n
• Odd signals are also called anti-symmetric signals since they are
anti symmetric about vertical axis..

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 Even and Odd Signals
• Every signal need not be either purely even or purely odd but can
be composed into sum of even and odd parts which are given by:

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 Causal and Non-causal Signals
• A discrete-time signal is said to be causal if x(n)=0 for
n<0,otherwise the signal is non-causal.

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 Deterministic and Random Signals
• A signal exhibiting no uncertainity of its magnitude and phase at
any instant of time is called deterministic signal
• A deterministic signal can be completely represented by
mathematical equation at any time and its nature and amplitude at
any time can be predicted.
eg. Sinusoidal sequence,exponential sequence,ramp sequence

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 Deterministic and Random Signals
• A signal characterized by uncertainity about its occurrence is called
a non-deterministic or random signal.
• A random signal cannot be represented by any mathematical
equation.
eg. Thermal noise

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Linear Shift Invariant
Systems, Stability and
Causality

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 System
• A system is defined as an entity that acts on an input signal and
transforms it into an output signal.
• It is cause and effect relation between two or more signals.
• Systems are broadly classified into continuous time and discrete
time systems.

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 Continuous-time System
• A continuous-time system is one which transforms continuous-time
input signals into continuous-time output signals.
eg. Amplifiers, filters, integrators, differentiators

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 Discrete-time System
• A discrete-time system is one which transforms discrete-time input
signals into discrete-time output signals.
eg. Microprocessors, shift registers, semiconductor memories

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 Classification of Discrete-time Systems
• Linear and Non-linear systems
• Time variant and Time invariant systems
• Linear time variant and Linear time invariant systems
• Causal and Non-causal systems
• Static/memoryless and Dynamic/memory systems
• Stable and Unstable systems
• FIR and IIR systems
• Invertible and non invertible systems

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 Linear and Non-Linear Systems
• A system which obeys the principle of superposition and
homogenity is called a linear system and a system which does not
obey the principle of superposition and homogenity is called a
non-linear system.
• Mathematically, a system is said to be linear if and only if:
T[a1x1(n)+a2x2(n)=a1T[x1(n)]+a2T[x2(n)]

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 Linear and Non-Linear Systems
• Superposition principle: A system which produces an output
y1(n) for an input x1(n) and output y2(n) for an input x2(n) must
produce an output y1(n) + y2(n) for an input x1(n) + x2(n) .

• Homogenity principle: A system which produces an output y(n)

for an input x(n) must produce an output ay(n) for an input ax(n)

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Time variant and Time invariant Systems
• A system is said to be Time or Shift Invariant System if input-
output characteristics doesnot change with time.
• The condition for time-invariance is:
y(n,k)=y(n-k),where y(n,k)=T[x(n-k)] i.e. delayed output is equal
to the output due to delayed input for all values of k

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Time variant and Time invariant Systems
• A system is said to be Time or shift variant System if input-
output characteristics changes with time.
• The condition for time-variance is:
y(n,k) ≠ y(n-k),where y(n,k)=T[x(n-k)] i.e. delayed output is not
equal to the output due to delayed input for all values of k

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Linear time variant and Linear time invariant
Systems
• The systems satisfying both linearity and time-invariance are
called Linear time invariant systems or simply LTI systems.
• The systems satisfying both linearity and time-variance are
called Linear time variant(LTV) systems.

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Linear time variant and Linear time invariant
Systems
• Interconnection of LTI Systems:
1)Parallel connection
2)Cascade connection

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 Parallel Connection
• Consider two LTI systems with impulse responses h1(n) and h2(n)
connected in parallel as shown in figure:

• In this case, the overall impulse response is equal to sum of two

impulse responses.
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 Cascade Connection
• Consider two LTI systems with impulse responses h1(n) and h2(n)
connected in cascade as shown in figure:

• In this case, the overall impulse response is equal to convolution of

two impulse responses
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 Causal and Non-causal Systems
• A system is said to be causal or non-anticipative if the output of
the system at any instant n depends only on present and past
values of input but not on future inputs.
• The causal systems are real time systems which are physically
realizable.
• The impulse response of a causal system is zero for n <0
i.e h(n)=0,for n <0

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 Causal and Non-causal Systems
• A system is said to be non-causal or anticipative if the output of
the system at any instant n depends on future inputs.
• Non-causal systems produce an output even before the input is
given.
• They do not exist in real time and are not physically realizable.

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 Static and Dynamic Systems
• A system is said to be static or memoryless system if the response
is due to present input alone.
• A system is said to be dynamic or memory system if the response
depends upon past or future inputs or past outputs.

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 Stable and Unstable Systems
• An LTI system is said to be stable if it produces a bounded output
sequence for every bounded input sequence.
• If, for some bounded input sequence x(n),the output is
unbounded(infinite),then the system is said to be Unstable system.

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 BIBO stability criterion
• The necessary and sufficient condition for a discrete-time system
to be BIBO stable is given by:

∑ |h(n)| <∞
Where h(n) is impulse response, summation limits are from n=-∞ to
+∞

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 FIR and IIR Systems
• If the impulse response of the system is of finite duration, then
the system is called FIR system.
• If the impulse response of the system is of infinite duration, then
the system is called IIR system.

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 Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
• A system is said to be invertible system only if an inverse system
exists which when cascaded with the original system produces an
output equal to the input of the first system. A system which does
not satisfy this criterion is called non-invertible system.

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 Impulse Response & Convolution Sum
• In general, any system is represented by:

x(n) y(n)=T[x(n)]

• If the input to the system is a unit impulse,i.e x(n)=δ(n),then the

output of the system is known as impulse response denoted by h(n)
where h(n)=T[δ(n)]
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 Impulse Response & Convolution Sum
• The system has zero initial conditions.
• We know that, any arbitrary sequence x(n) can be represented as a
weighted sum of discrete impulses as:

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 Impulse Response & Convolution Sum
• So the system response y(n) is given by:

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 Impulse Response & Convolution Sum
• The response due to shifted impulse response δ(n-k) can be
denoted by h(n,k)
i.e h(n,k)=T[δ(n-k)]
• For a shift-invariant system,
delayed output= output due to delayed input
i.e h(n-k) = h(n,k)
Therefore T[h(n-k)] = h(n,k)

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 Impulse Response & Convolution Sum
• Therefore the equation for y(n) reduces to

• So we can conclude that for a LTI system,if the input sequence x(n)
and impulse response h(n) are given,the output sequence y(n) can
be found using the equation:

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 Impulse Response & Convolution Sum

• This is known as convolution sum and is represented as:

y(n)=x(n)*h(n)=h(n)*x(n)

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 Step Response
• The step response can be easily expressed in terms of the impulse
response using convolution sum.
• Let a discrete time system have impulse response h(n) and denote
step response as s(n).
• Then,
s(n)= h(n) * u(n)

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Step Response

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 Frequency domain
representation of discrete
time signals and systems

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Frequency Response of discrete time System

• The frequency response of LTI discrete time system can be

obtained by applying a spectrum of input sinusoids to the system.
• The frequency response gives the gain and phase response of the
system to the input sinusoids at all frequencies.
• Let h(n) be the impulse response of LTI discrete time system and
let the input x(n) to the system be a complex exponential ejωn
• The output of the system y(n) can be obtained by using
convolution sum.

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Frequency Response

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 Frequency Response
• The frequency response H(ω) is complex and can be expressed in
polar form as:

Where |H(ω)|- magnitude response, H(ω) -phase response

• The plot of |H(ω)| v/s ω is called magnitude response plot and the
plot of H(ω) v/s ω is called phase response plot.

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 Properties of Frequency Response
• H(ω) takes values for all ω.
• H(ω) is periodic in ω with period 2π.
• The magnitude response is an even function of ω and symmetrical
about π.
• The phase response is an odd function of ω and anti-symmetrical
about π.

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RAJENDRA CHARY 127
Linear Constant Coefficient
Difference Equations

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 Time Response Analysis of Discrete-time
Systems
• There are 2 methods for analyzing the time response of a discrete-
time system viz..
(i) Input signal is resolved into sum of impulses and then response of
system to elementary signal is added to obtain total response i.e.
y(n)= x(n) * h(n)
(ii)Difference equation

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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations(LCCDE)
• The general form of difference equation of an Nth order LTI
discrete-time system is:

Where ak and bk are constants

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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations(LCCDE)
• The response of any discrete-time system can be decomposed as:
Total response=zero state response + zero input response
• Zero state response: the zero state response is the response of the
system due to input alone when the initial state of the system is
zero.
• Zero input response: It is the response which depends only on
initial state of the system(i.e input is zero)

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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations
eg. Consider a first order discrete-time system with difference
equation
y(n)=ay(n-1)+x(n)
Where x(n)=input, y(n)=output
• Let the input sequence x(n) be zero for n<0 and the initial
condition of y(n) for n=-1 exists i.e y(-1) ≠ 0.

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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations
• The successive values of y(n) for n ≥ 0 are as follows:

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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations
• The response y(n) includes two parts.
• The first part depends on the initial condition of the system and the
second term depends on the input.
• When y(-1)=0,the output y(n) depends only on the input applied.
Hence y(n) is known as zero state response or forced response of
the system given by:

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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations
• If the system is initially non relaxed i.e y(-1) ≠0 and the input
x(n)=0 for all n, the output of the system depends only on the
initial state of the system. Then the response of the system is called
the zero input response or natural response and is given by:

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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations
• The difference equation of Nth order discrete time system can also
be written as:

• Where N is called the order of the difference equation. If the

coefficient a0 ≠ 1,we can divide above equation throughout by a0 to
normalize the equation.
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 Linear Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations(LCCDE)
• The solution of the difference equation can be expressed as sum of
two parts given by:
y(n)=yh(n)+yp(n)
yh(n)-homogenous or complimentary solution
yp(n)-particular solution

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 LCCDE-Natural Response(zero input
response)
• The natural response yn(n) is the solution of Nth order difference
equation with x(n)=0.
We get,

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LCCDE-Natural Response(zero input
response)

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 LCCDE-Natural Response(zero input
response)
• The polynomial of above equation is called the characteristic
equation of the system.
• The Nth order characteristic equation can be expressed in the
factorized form assuming all roots are distinct as:
(λ- λ1) (λ- λ2) (λ- λ3)….. (λ- λN)=0
Where λ1, λ2 ,.. λN are called roots of characteristic equation

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 LCCDE-Natural Response(zero input
response)
• Distinct roots:
If the roots λ1, λ2 ,.. λN are distinct, then it has N solutions C1λ1n,
C2λ2n,……..,. CNλNn, then the general solution is of the form:
yh(n)=C1 λ1n + C2 λ2n +……+ CN λNn
Where C1,C2,…,CN are constants, these are determined by applying
initial conditions
For eg. If roots are λ1 =2 and λ2 =3,then yh(n)=C1(2)n + C2 (3)n

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 LCCDE-Natural Response(zero input
response)
• Repeated roots: If the roots λ1 is repeated m times and remaining
(N-m) roots are distinct, then the characteristic equation of the
system is: (λ- λ1)m (λ- λm+1) (λ- λm+2)….. (λ- λN)=0
• The general solution is:
yh(n)=(C1+C2n+C3n2+….+Cmnm-1)(λ1)n+ Cm+1(λm+1)n+
Cm+2(λm+2)n+…..+CN λN

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 LCCDE-Natural Response(zero input
response)
• Repeated roots:(contd..)
For eg., if the roots of the characteristic equation are λ1 =-2, λ2 =-2, λ3
=2 ,then the solution is
yh(n)=[C1+C2n](-2)n +C3(2)n

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 LCCDE-Natural Response(zero input
response)
• Complex roots:
If the roots are complex, then we can write
λ1 = λ = a+jb λ2 = λ *= a-jb
Then the homogenous solution is of the form
yh(n)=rn[A1cos nθ+A2 sin nθ]
Where A1, A2 are constants

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LCCDE-Forced response(zero state response)

• The forced response is the solution of the difference equation for

the given input when the initial conditions are zero. It consists of
two parts-homogenous solution and particular solution.
• The homogenous solution can be obtained from the roots of
characteristic equation.
• The particular solution yp(n) is a solution satisfying:

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LCCDE-Forced response(zero state response)

• If the input applied to the system and one of the components of the
homogenous solution are same, then multiply the particular
solution by lower power of n that will give a response component
not included in the homogenous solution.
• For example, if the homogenous solution contain the term C1(λ1)n
and the input is x(n)= (λ1)n then we assume a particular solution of
the form yp(n)=C2n(λ1)n .

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LCCDE-Forced response(zero state response)

• The forced response of the system is obtained by summing the

particular solution and homogenous solution and finding the
coefficients in the homogenous solution so that the combined
response yh(n)+yp(n) satisfies the zero initial conditions.

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LCCDE-Forced response(zero state response)

• General form of particular solution for type of input:

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 LCCDE-Total Response
• The total response is obtained by adding the natural response and
forced response
y(n)=yn(n)+yf(n)
• If there is no need to find the forced response and natural response
separately, the total response can be found in the same way as
forced response, by using the actual initial conditions instead of
zero initial conditions.

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RAJENDRA CHARY 150
R1-P.Ramesh Babu,Digital Signal
Processing,7th edition
R2-A.Anand Kumar, Digital Signal
Processing,2nd edition
RAJENDRA CHARY 151
 Problem(based on Lecture-4)
• Determine the values of power & energy, check whether the
following signals are energy or power signals:(R1 eg 1.4)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-4)
• Determine whether the following discrete-time signals are periodic
or not,determine the fundamental period(R2 eg 1.7)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-4)
• Find the even and odd part of the following signals(R2 eg 1.11)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-4)
• Find which of the following signals are causal or non-causal(R2
eg1.10)
a) x(n)=u(n+4)-u(n-2)
b) x(n)=(1/2)n u(n+2)-(1/2)nu(n-4)
c) x(n)=u(-n)
d) x(n)=u(n)

RAJENDRA CHARY 155

RAJENDRA CHARY 156
 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Check whether the following systems are linear or not:
a)y(n)=x2(n) b)y(n)=nx(n) c)y(n)=n2x(n)
d)y(n)=x(n)+1/(x(n-1)) (R1 eg1.8, R2 eg1.14)

RAJENDRA CHARY 157

 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Check whether the following systems are time-invariant or not:
a)y(n)=x(n) b)x(n/2) c)y(n)=x2(n-2) d)y(n)=x(n)+nx(n-2)
e)y(n)=x(-n) f)y(n)=x(n)+x(n-1) (R1 eg1.9, R2 eg1.15)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Check whether the following systems are linear shift-invariant
systems or not(R2 eg1.16)
a) y(n)=x(n/2)
b) y(n)=x(n)+x(n-2), for n ≥ 0
=0 ,for n <0

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Determine whether the following systems are causal or non-
causal:(R2 eg 1.13)
a) y(n)=x(n)+x(n-2)
b) y(n)=x(2n)
c) y(n)=sin[x(n)]
d) y(n)=x(-n)

RAJENDRA CHARY 160

 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Determine whether the following systems are causal or non-
causal:(R1 eg 1.7)
a) y(n)=x(n)+1/x(n-1)
b) y(n)=x(n2)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Find whether the following systems are static or dynamic(R1 eg
1.6,R2 eg1.12)
a)y(n)=x(n)x(n-1)
b)y(n)=x2(n)+x(n)
c)y(n)=x(n+2)
d)y(n)= x2(n)
e)y(n)=x(n+2)+x(n)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Check the stability of the system defined by:(R2 eg1.18)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Test the stabiltiy of the system whose impulse response is given by
h(n)=(1/2)nu(n) (R1 eg.1.11)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Write a difference equation that characterizes a system whose
frequency response is:(R2 eg 5.15)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Find the frequency response of the following causal systems(R2 eg
5.16)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• A discrete time system is given by the following difference
equation:
y(n)-5y(n-1)=x(n)+4x(n-1)
where x(n) is the input and y(n) is the output.Determine its
magnitude and phase response.(R2 eg5.17)

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 Problem(for Lab)
• Find the impulse response of:
a) H(z)=1+0.75z-1+0.5z-2-0.25z-3
b) H(z)=1/(1-0.9z-1+0.81z-2)
c) H(z)=(1-2.4z-1+2.88z-2)/(1-0.8z-1+0.64z-2)

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 Problem(for lab)
• Find the step response of
H(z)=(1-2.4z-1+2.88z-2)/(1-0.8z-1+0.64z-2)

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 Problem(for Lab)
• Find the frequency response of:
H(z)= 0.5+0.5z-2

RAJENDRA CHARY 170

RAJENDRA CHARY 171
 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• Determine and sketch the magnitude and phase response of
y(n)=1/2[x(n)+x(n-2)] (R1 eg1.35)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-5&6)
• A discrete time system has a unit sample response h(n) given by:
h(n)=1/2δ(n)+δ(n-1)+1/2δ(n-2).Find the system response H(ejω).Plot
the magnitude and phase response. (R1 eg1.36)

RAJENDRA CHARY 173

RAJENDRA CHARY 174
 Problem(based on Lecture-7)
• Find the natural response of the system described by difference
equation y(n)+2y(n-1)+y(n-2)=x(n)+x(n-1) with initial conditions
y(-1)=y(-2)=1 (R1 eg.1.20)
• Find the natural response of the system described by difference
equation y(n)+4y(n-1)+4y(n-2)=x(n)+x(n-1) with initial conditions
y(-1)=y(-2)=1 (R1 practice problem1.13)

RAJENDRA CHARY 175

 Problem(based on Lecture-7)
• Find the forced response of the system described by the difference
equation y(n)+2y(n-1)+y(n-2)=x(n)+x(n-1) for the input
x(n)=(1/2)n u(n) (R1 eg1.21)
• Find the forced response of the system described by the difference
equation y(n)-4y(n-1)+4y(n-2)=x(n)-x(n-1) for the input x(n)=(-1)n
u(n) (R1 practice problem1.14)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-7)
• Find the response of the system described by the difference
equation y(n)+2y(n-1)+y(n-2)=x(n)+x(n-1) for the input
x(n)=(1/2)n u(n) with initial conditions y(-1)=y(-2)=1 (R1 eg1.22)
• Find the response of the system described by the difference
equation y(n)-4y(n-1)+4y(n-2)=x(n)-x(n-1) for the input x(n)=(-1)n
u(n) with initial conditions y(-1)=y(-2)=1(R1 practice problem1.15)

RAJENDRA CHARY 177

 Problem(based on Lecture-7)
• A linear shift invariant system is described by the difference
equation(R2 eg3.61)

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 Problem(based on Lecture-7)
• Determine the free response(natural response) of the system
described by (R2 eg3.62)

RAJENDRA CHARY 179

Appendix

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Appendix

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Appendix

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Appendix

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Appendix

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 Conclusion of the Unit
In this unit we studied about:
• Introduction to Digital Signal Processing
• Discrete time signals & sequences,Periodicity
• Linear shift invariant systems
• Stability and causality
• Frequency domain representation of discrete time signals and systems
• Linear constant coefficient difference equations
• Problems
• Appendix
RAJENDRA CHARY 185
 Thank you
For Your Attention !
Any Questions
RAJENDRA CHARY 186