Cellular and Mobile

Communications

Unit-6
Digital Cellular Networks

P. Anvesh
Assistant Professor
ECE Dept
SNIST

Prerequisites: Analog & Digital Communications (II-II)

Upcoming Subjects: Microwave and Optical Communications (III-II)
Advanced Communications and Networking (IV-I)
 Unit-VI
Unit -VI: Digital Cellular Networks:
• GSM architecture,
• GSM channels,
• Multiple access scheme,
 TDMA,
 FDMA,
 CDMA,
 WCDMA,
 SDMA,
 OFDM.
 Digital Cellular Networks
• Cellular systems divide the desired service area into a number of sub-areas
(cells) with one or more base stations providing radio coverage to each cell.
• Appropriate frequency planning permits frequencies to be used several
times in a coverage area.
• When a mobile station either originates or is prepared to receive a call, the
cell which can best serve the station is selected.
• With proper spacing of co-channels, each frequency may be used
simultaneously in several cells in the service area and thereby multiplying
the capacity obtainable in non-cellular radio systems.
• The cellular systems has lead to an increasing number of users and to an
increasing demand for new and improved services.
• Since the introduction of the cellular systems, there have also been changes
in the telecommunications network.
• The most notable of these are the services introduced by Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN).
• These forces have led to the development of new, Digital systems.
 Digital Cellular Networks
• The Digital technology is introduced in six major areas:
 Digital radio Modulation/Demodulation;
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA);
 Digital speech coding;
 Channel coding and Digital Signal Processing;
 Digital control and data channels;
 Privacy and Authentication.
 GSM system - Overview
• The GSM system is a frequency- and time-division cellular system, each
physical channel is characterized by a carrier frequency and a time slot
number
• Cellular systems are designed to operate with groups of low-power radios
spread out over the geographical service area.
• Each group of radios serve MSs presently located near them.
• The area served by each group of radios is called a CELL
• Uplink and downlink signals for one user are assigned different
frequencies, this kind of technique is called Frequency Division Duplex
(FDD)
• Data for different users is conveyed in time intervals called slots, several
slots make up a frame. This kind of technique is called Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA)
 GSM History and Overview
• GSM is second generation (2G) standard.
• GSM is world’s first cellular system to specify Digital Modulation &
Services.
• GSM was first introduced into the European market in 1991.
• As of 2001, there were over 350 million GSM subscribers worldwide.
• By the end of 1993, several non-European countries in South America,
Asia, and Australia had adopted GSM.
 GSM History and Overview

1989 Standard Protocol for GSM take effect

1991 GSM system began to provide service in Europe(2G)

1992 System was named as Global System for Mobile

Communication

1994 Provide services for the whole world

1996 Micro Cell Technique is used in GSM system

 GSM Services
• GSM Services are classified as
 Telephone Services
 It includes emergency calling and Facsimile.
 Bearer or Data Services
 Supported Services include packet switched protocols & data rates from 300 bps to
9.6kbps.
 Supplementary ISDN Services
 It includes Call diversion, caller identification, Short messaging services(SMS).
 SMS allows GSM subscribers & base stations to transmit alphanumeric pages of
limited length (160 7-bit ASCII characters) while simultaneously carrying normal
voice traffic.
 SMS also provides cell broadcast which allows base stations to repetitively transmit
ASCII messages with as many as fifteen 93-character strings.
 GSM Features
• International Roaming,
• Superior speech quality,
• High level of security,
• Universal and Inexpensive Mobile handsets,
• Digital Convenience, Digital compatibility

• One of the most remarkable features of GSM is Subscriber Identity

Module(SIM).
• It is a memory device that stores information such as the subscriber’s
identification number, the networks & countries where the subscriber is
entitled to service, privacy keys, and other user-specific information.
• A subscriber uses the SIM with a four-digit personal ID number to activate
service from any GSM phone.
• SIMs are available as smart cards or plug-in modules, which are removable
& portable.
• Without a SIM installed, all GSM mobiles are nonoperational.
• It is the SIM that gives GSM subscriber units their identity.
 GSM Features

• A remarkable feature of GSM is the on-the-air privacy.

• It is impossible to eavesdrop on a GSM radio transmission.
• The privacy is made possible by encrypting the digital bit stream sent by a
GSM transmitter, according to a specific secret cryptographic key that is
known only to the cellular carrier.
 GSM Architecture
• It contains three major interconnected subsystems that interact between
themselves and with the users through certain network interfaces.

• Subsystems are
1. Base Station Subsystems (BSS)
2. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
3. Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

• Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem, but is usually considered to be

part of the BSS .
GSM Architecture
 Mobile Station (MS)
• Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem, but is usually considered to be
part of the BSS .

• Mobile Station(MS): An MS is used by a mobile subscriber to

communicate with the mobile network. Several types of MSs exist, each
allowing the subscriber to make and receive calls.
• The range or coverage area of an MS depends on the output power of the
unit. Different types of MSs have different output power capabilities and
consequently different ranges.
• GSM MSs consist of
 A mobile terminal
 A Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
• In GSM the subscriber is separated from the mobile terminal. Each
subscriber’s information is stored as a “smart card” SIM. The SIM can be
plugged into any GSM mobile terminal. This brings the advantages of
security and portability of subscribers.
 Base Station Subsystem(BSS)
• It is also known as Radio Subsystem, it provides and manages radio
transmission paths between the Mobile Station(MS) & Mobile Switching
Center(MSC).
• It is the interface between the MS and the MSC.
• BSS also manages the radio interface between the mobile station and all
other subsystem of GSM.
• Each BSS consists of many Base Station Controllers(BSCs) which connect
the MS to NSS.
• The BSS consists of many BSCs which connect to single MSC, and each
BSC controls up to several hundred Base Transceiver Stations(BTS).
• Mobile Handoffs between two BTSs under control of the same BSC are
handled by the BSC, and not by MSC.
• This greatly reduces the switching burden of the MSC.
• Digital radio techniques are used for the radio communications link, known
as the Air Interface, between the BSS and the MS.
 Base Station Subsystem(BSS)
• Control flow
• User data flow

OSS

MS BSS NSS
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• NSS manages the switching functions of the system and allows the MSCs
to communicate with other network such as the PSTN and ISDN.
• The MSC is central unit in the NSS & controls the traffic among all of the
BSCs.
• In the NSS there are three types of databases:
 Home Location Register (HLR),
 Visitor Location Register (VLR) & OSS
 Authentication Center (AUC).

BSS NSS PSTN

• Control flow
• User data flow

BSS
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• Mobile Switching Centre (MSC):
• The Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) co-ordinates the setting up of calls to
and from GSM users.
• It is the telephone switching office for MS originated or terminated traffic
and provides the appropriate bearer services, teleservices and
supplementary services.
• It controls a number of Base Station Controllers (BSCs) within a specified
geographical coverage area and gives the radio subsystem access to the
subscriber and equipment databases.
• The MSC carries out several different functions depending on its position
in the network.
• When the MSC provides the interface between PSTN and the BSS in the
GSM network it is called the Gateway MSC.
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• Mobile Switching Centre (MSC):
• Some important functions carried out by MSC are
– Call processing including control of data/voice call setup,
– Inter BSS & Inter MSC handovers,
– Control of mobility management,
– Operation & Maintenance support including
• Database Management,
• Traffic Metering and
• Man Machine Interface
– Managing the interface between GSM & PSTN N/W.
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• Home Location Register (HLR) - It contains subscriber information &
location information for each user who resides in the same city as the MSC.

• Visitor Location Register (VLR) - It is a database which temporarily stores

the IMSI & customer information for each roaming subscriber who is
visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC.

• Authentication Center (AUC) - It is a strongly protected database which

handles the authentication and encryption keys for every single subscriber
in the HLR and VLR.
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• Home Location Register (HLR) - It contains subscriber information &
location information for each user who resides in the same city as the MSC.

• The HLR contains the master database of all subscribers in the network.
• This data is remotely accessed by the MSC´s and VLRs in the network. The
data can also be accessed by an MSC or a VLR in a different network to
allow inter-system and inter-country roaming.
• A network may contain more than one HLR, in which case each HLR
contains a portion of the total subscriber database. There is only one
database record per subscriber.
• The parameters stored in HLR are
 Subscribers ID (IMSI and MSISDN )
 Current subscriber VLR.
 Supplementary services subscribed to.
 Supplementary services information (eg. Current forwarding address ).
 Authentication key and AUC functionality.
 TMSI and MSRN
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• Visitor Location Register (VLR) - It is a database which temporarily stores
the IMSI & customer information for each roaming subscriber who is
visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC. VLR is linked between
several adjoining MSCs.
• Once a roaming mobile is logged in the VLR, the MSC sends the necessary
information to visiting subscriber’s HLR so that calls to the roaming mobile
can be appropriately routed over the PSTN by the roaming user’s HLR.
• The details are held in the VLR until the subscriber moves into the area
serviced by another VLR.
• The data includes most of the information stored at the HLR, as well as
more precise location and status information.
• The VLR removes the need to access the HLR every time subscriber
information is required.
• The additional data stored in VLR are
– Mobile status ( Busy / Free / No answer etc. )
– Location Area Identity (LAI )
– Temporary Mobile Subscribers Identity (TMSI )
– Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• Authentication Center (AUC) - It is a strongly protected database which
handles the authentication and encryption keys for every single subscriber
in the HLR and VLR.
• The AUC is a processor system that perform authentication function.
• It is normally co-located with the HLR.
• The authentication process usually takes place each time the subscriber
initializes on the system.
• Each subscriber is assigned an Authentication Key which is stored in the
SIM and at the AUC.
• The AUC contains a register called the Equipment Identity Register(EIR)
which identifies stolen or fraudulently altered phones that does not match
with information contained in either the HLR or VLR.
 Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
• It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system
engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of the GSM
system.
• The OSS has three main functions which are
1. To maintain all telecommunications hardware and network operations.
2. Manage all charging and billing procedures.
3. Manage all mobile equipment in the system.
• These tasks require interaction between some or all of the infrastructure
equipment.

• OSS supports one or several Operation Maintenance Centers(OMC) which

are used to monitor & maintain the performance of each MS, BTS, BSC,
and MSC within a GSM system.
• An OMC is dedicated to each of these tasks and has provisions for
adjusting all base station parameters and billing procedures.
Interfaces
 Interfaces
• Abis interface
• The interface which connects a BTS to BSC is called the Abis interface
• The Abis interface carries traffic and maintenance data, and is specified by
GSM to be standardized for all manufacturers.

• A interface
• The interface between a BSC and MSC is called the A interface.
• The BSCs are physically connected via dedicated/leased lines or
microwave link to the MSC.
• The A interface allows a service provider to use base stations and switching
equipment made by different manufacturers.
• A interface uses an SS7 protocol called Signaling Correction Control
Part(SCCP) which supports communication between the MSC and BSS.
Mobile Station International ISDN number(MSISDN):
• The MSISDN follows the ITU - T standard.
• It consists of the
1. Country Code(CC) (+91)
2. National Destination Code(NDC)( Addr. of network provider)
3. Subscriber Number(SN)

International Mobile Subscriber Identity(IMSI):

• GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique identification of a subscriber.
• It consists of
1. Mobile country code(MCC)
2. Mobile Network Code(MNC) ( Code of network provider)
3. Mobile Subscriber Identification Number(MSIN)
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity(TMSI)
• To hide IMSI, which would give away the exact identity of the user
signaling over the air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte TMSI for local
subscriber identification.
• GSM uses 4 byte TMSI for local subscriber identification.

International Mobile Equipment Identity(IMEI)

• 15 digit number which contains
 Type of approval Code-6 digit
 Final Assembly Code-2digits
 Serial Number-6 digits
 Spare Digit-1 digits (*#06#)
• Mobile Station Roaming Number(MSRN)
• It is temporary address that hides the identity and location of a subscriber is
MSRN.
• The VLR generates this address on request from the MSC.
• MSRN contains the current Visitor Country Code(VCC), the Visitor
National destination code(VNDC), the identification of the current MSC
together with the subscriber number.
• It helps the HLR to find a subscriber for incoming call.

• Cell Identifier (CID)

• A GSM Cell ID is a generally unique number used to identify each Base
Transceiver Station(BTS).
• In some cases the last digit of CID represents cells' Sector ID
 Value 0 is used for omnidirectional antenna.
 Values 1,2,3 are used to identify sectors of trisector or bisector antennas.
 Layer modeling (OSI model)
• The Open System Interconnection (OSI) of GSM consists of five layers.
 Transmission (TX)
 Radio Resource management (RR)
 Mobility Management (MM)
 Communication Management (CM)
 Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM)

Operator User

CM
OAM
MM

RR

Transmission
 Layer modeling (OSI model)
• The Transmission layer (TX) sets up a connection between MS and BTS.

• The RR layer refers to the protocol for management of the transmission

over the radio interface and provides a stable link between the MS and
BSC.

• The Functions of MM layer:

• Manages the subscriber databases, including data and manages
authentication activities, SIM, HLR, and AUC.

• The following functions are parts of the CM layer:

1. Call control
2. Supplymentary services management
3. short message service(SMS)
 GSM Radio Subsystem
• GSM utilizes two bands of 23MHz which have been set aside for system
use in all member countries.
• 890-915 MHz band is used for subscriber to base stations.
• 935-960MHz band is used for base station to subscriber.
• The available forward and reverse frequency bands are divided into 200
kHz wide channels called ARFCNs (Absolute Radio Frequency Channel
Numbers)
 GSM frame structure
• The GSM frame structure is designated as Hyperframe, Superframe,
Multiframe and Frame.
• The minimum unit being frame (or TDMA frame) is made of 8 time slots.

• One GSM Hyperframe composed of 2048 Superframes.

• Each GSM Superframe composed of Multiframes (either 26 or 51 as
described below).
• Each GSM Multiframe composed of Frames (either 51 or 26 based on
multiframe type).
• Each Frame composed of 8 time slots.
• Hence there will be total of 2715648 TDMA frames available in GSM and
the same cycle continues.
GSM frame structure
GSM frame structure

GSM frame Format

 GSM frame structure
• 8 Time Slots (1 Time Slot = 1 Physical Channel) of 577μs constitutes a
4.615ms TDMA Frame.
• In GSM standard data on a time slot transmitted in bursts, so time slot is
often expressed in BP (Burst Period). 1 BP represents 1 TS.
• TDMA frame (4.615ms of 8 TS) further structured in to multiirames.
• There are two types of multiframes in the system:
– 26 TDMA Multiframe: Consists 26 TDMA frames with duration of 120 ms and
used to carry the Logical Channels TCH, SACCH, FACCH etc.
– 51 TDMA Multiframe: Consists 51 TDMA frames with duration of 234.5 ms
and used to carry the Logical Channels FCCH, SCH, BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH,
SACCH etc.
• These multiframes further structured in to Superframe and Hyperframe.
– SUPERFRAME: Superframe consists of 51*26 TDMA frames with duration of
6.12 sec. This is corresponding to the smallest cycle for which the organisation
of all channels is repeated.
– HYPERFRAME: Hyperframe consists 2048 superframes (2048*51*26 TDMA
frames) with duration of 3 hrs, 28min, 53 sec and 760 ms. It is in particular
smallest cycle for frequency hopping, cyphering.
• The frame hierarchy is used for synchronization between BTS and MS.
 GSM frame format

• TCH frame – Traffic channel frame

 GSM frame
• Each of the eight subscribers uses the same ARFCN and occupies a unique
timeslot(TS) per frame.
• Radio transmissions on both forward & reverse link are made at a channel
data rate of 270.833kbps.
• The signaling bit duration is 3.692 μs.
• The effective channel transmission rate per user is 33.854kbps.
• With GSM overhead user data is actually sent at a maximum rate of 24.7
kbps.
• Each TS has a time duration of 576.92 μs and single GSM TDMA frame
spans 4.615 ms.
• Each TS has an equivalent time allocation of 156.25 channel bits, but of
this, 8.25 bits of guard time and 6 total start and stop bits are provided to
prevent overlap with adjacent time slots.
• The total no. of available channels within a 25 MHz bandwidth is 125.
Since each radio channels has 8 time slots, there are 1000 traffic channels
within GSM.
 GSM frame
• The combination of a TS number and ARFCN constitutes a physical
channel for both forward and reverse link.
• That is each specific time slot or frame may be dedicated to either handling
traffic data, signaling data(reqd. by internal working of GSM system) or
control channel data.
 GSM Channel Types
• There are two main types of GSM channels
 Physical channel and Logical channel.

• Physical channel is specified by specific time slot/carrier frequency.

• Logical channel run over Physical channel i.e. Logical channels are time
multiplexed on Physical channels;

*ARFCNs - Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Numbers

 GSM Physical Channel
• Physical channel is specified by specific time slot/carrier frequency.
• Each physical channel (time slot at one particular ARFCN) will have either
26 Frame MF(Multi-frame) or 51 Frame MF structure.

• 8 Time Slots (1 Time Slot = 1 Physical Channel) of 577μs constitutes a

4.615ms TDMA Frame.
• In GSM standard data on a time slot transmitted in bursts, so time slot is
often expressed in BP (Burst Period). 1 BP represents 1 TS.
• TDMA frame (4.615ms of 8 TS) further structured in to multiirames.
• There are two types of multiframes in the system:
– 26 TDMA Multiframe: Consists 26 TDMA frames with duration of 120 ms and
used to carry the Logical Channels TCH, SACCH, FACCH etc.
– 51 TDMA Multiframe: Consists 51 TDMA frames with duration of 234.5 ms
and used to carry the Logical Channels FCCH, SCH, BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH,
SACCH etc.

*ARFCNs - Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Numbers

 GSM Logical Channel
• Logical Channels are determined by the information carried within the
physical channel.
• Logical channels used to carry data and signaling information.
• Different logical channels are mapped in either direction on physical
channels.
• There are two types of GSM Logical channels, called Traffic channels
(TCHs) and Control channels.

• Traffic channels carry digitally encoded user speech or user data and have
identical function and formats on both forward and reverse link.

• Control channels carry signaling & synchronization commands between the

base station and the mobile station.
• Control channels are interspersed with traffic channels in well specified ways
GSM Logical Channel Types
 GSM Traffic Channels
• GSM Traffic Channels (TCHs)

• GSM traffic channels may be either full-rate or half-rate and may carry
either digitized speech or user data.
– When transmitted as full - rate, user data is contained within one TS per frame.
– When transmitted as half - rate, user data is mapped onto the same time slot,
but it is sent in alternate frames.

• Speech Channels : Speech channels are defined for both full rate and half
rate traffic channels.
• Data Channels : Data channels support a variety of data rates (2.4, 4.8 and
9.6 Kb/s) on both half and full rate traffic channels. The 9.6 Kb/s data rate
is only for full rate application
 Full - Rate TCH
• Full - Rate Speech Channel(TCH/FS)
 It carries user speech which is digitized at raw data rate of 13 kbps.
 With GSM channel coding added to digitized speech, the full - rate speech
channel carries 22.8 kbps.

• Full - Rate Data channel for 9600 bps(TCH/F9.6)

 It carries raw user data which is sent at 9600 bps.
 With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard,
the 9600 bps data is sent at 22.8 kbps.
• Full - Rate Data channel for 4800 bps(TCH/F4.8)
 It carries raw user data which is sent at 4800 bps.
 With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard ,
the 4800 bps data is sent at 22.8 kbps
• Full - Rate Data channel for 2400 bps(TCH/F2.4)
 It carries raw user data which is sent at 2400 bps.
 With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 2400
bps data is sent at 22.8 bps.
 Half - Rate TCH
• Half - Rate Speech Channel(TCH/HS)
 The half - rate speech channels has been designed to carry digitized speech
which is sampled at a rate half that of the full - rate channel.
 With GSM channel coding added to the digitized speech, the half – rate speech
channel will carry 11.4 kbps.

• Half - Rate Data Channel for 4800bps(TCH/H4.8)

 It carries raw user data which is sent at 4800 bps.
 With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard ,
the 4800 bps data is sent at 11.4 kbps
• Half - Rate Data Channel for 2400bps(TCH/H2.4)
 It carries raw user data which is sent at 2400 bps.
 With additional forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard,
the 2400 bps data is sent at 11.4 kbps
 GSM Control Channels(CCH)
• Control channels carries signalling information to enable the system to
operate correctly.
• There are three main Control Channels in the GSM system
 Broadcast Channel (BCH)
 Common Control Channel (CCCH)
 Dedicated Control Channel (DCH)

• The BCH & CCCH forward control channels in GSM are implemented
only on certain ARFCN channels.
• These channels are allocated only TS o and are broadcast only during
certain frames within a repetitive fifty-one frame sequence (Control
channel multiframe)
 GSM Control Channels(CCH)
• 1. BROADCAST CHANNELS (BCH)
 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
 Synchronization Channel (SCH)
• 2. COMMON CONTROL CHANNELS (CCCH)
 Paging Channel (PCH)
 Random Access Channel (RACH)
 Access Grant Channel (AGCH)
• 3. DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNELS (DCCH)
 Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
 Broadcast Channels (BCH)
• Broadcast control channels are transmitted in downlink direction only i.e.
only transmitted by BTS.
• The broadcast channels are used to broadcast synchronization and general
network information to all the MSs within a cell. Such as Location Area
Identity (LAI) and maximum output power.
• It has three types
 BCCH - Broadcast Control Channel
 FCCH - Frequency Correction Channel
 SCH - Synchronisation Channel
 Broadcast Channels (BCH)
• BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL (BCCH) - DOWNLINK

• Broadcasts Network and Cell specific information required to identify the

network and gain access.
• Broadcast parameters include Location Area Code (LAC), Mobile Network
Code (MNC), Control Channel Structures, BCCH frequencies of
neighboring Cells and other access parameters.

• This information includes details of the control channel configuration used

at the BTS, a list of the BCCH carrier frequencies used at the neighbouring
BTSs and a number of parameters that are used by the MS when accessing
the BTS.

• BCCH is transmitted on the downlink, point-to-multipoint.

 Broadcast Channels (BCH)
• FREQUENCY CORRECTION CHANNEL (FCCH) - DOWNLINK

• This channel contains frequency correction bursts, used by the mobiles for
frequency correction.
• Bears information for frequency Synchronization of a mobile station.
• The repeated (every 10 sec) transmission of Frequency Bursts is called
FCCH.
• The FCCH simply transmits 148  0’s.
• A terminal without a call in progress searches for a FCCH.

• FCCH is transmitted on the downlink, point-to-multipoint.

 Broadcast Channels (BCH)
• SYNCHRONISATION CHANNEL (SCH) - DOWNLINK
• This channel is used by the MS to learn the Base Station Information Code
(BSIC) as well as the TDMA frame number (FN).
• 6 bits of BSIC having two parts. 3 bits NCC and 3 bits BCC.
– NCC stands for Network Colour Code and used to identify the BTS for which
measurement is made.
– BCC stands for Base-Station Colour Code and used for a better transmission in
case of interference.
• BCIC avoids ambiguity or interference which can arise when a Mobile
Station can receive SCH from two cells using the same BCCH frequency.
• Allows the mobile station to synchronize time wise with the BTS.
• Repeated broadcast (every 10 frames) of Synchronization Bursts is called
(SCH)

• SCH is transmitted on the

downlink, point to multipoint.
 Common Control Channels (CCCH)
• The common control channels are used by an MS during the paging and
access procedures.
• Common control channels are of following types
 PCH - Paging Channel
 RACH - Random Access Control Channel
 AGCH - Access Grant Control Channel
 Common Control Channels (CCCH)
• PAGING CHANNEL (PCH) - DOWNLINK
• Transmitted by the BTS when it wishes to contact a mobile.
• This channel is used for alerting to Mobile Subscribers for incoming calls,
SMS and other mobility services.
• Every MS in a cell periodically listen to this channel.
 Common Control Channels (CCCH)
• RANDOM ACCESS CHANNEL (RACCH) ~ UPLINK
• This channel is used by a MS seeking attention of the BTS. When MS
wants to initiate dialogue with network, this channel is used to send request
to the network for a dedicated resource.
• The real dialogue between MS and Network will take place on the
dedicated channel.
• Terminals with information to transmit use the slotted ALOHA protocol to
gain access to the time slot.
• The ACK directs the terminal to a stand-alone dedicated control channel
(SDCCH) to be used for further communications.
• RACH is located in 1 time slot in each frame of the 51-frame control
multiframe (in the direction from terminals to base stations).

• If the request is not granted within a specific time period by the network,
the MS repeats the request on the RACCH.
 Common Control Channels (CCCH)
• ACCESS GRANT CHANNEL (AGCH) - DOWNLINK
• It carries data which instructs the mobile to operate in a particular physical
channel (Time slot).
• This channel is used by a BTS to notify the MS of the assignment of an
initial SDCCH for initial signaling.
• In response to request from MS on RACH, the network allocates a specific
dedicated signaling channel (SDCCH) for further communication. This
response is sent on AGCH.
 Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
• Signalling information is carried between an MS and a BTS using
associated and dedicated control channels during or not during a call.
• The are of following type :-
 SDCCH - Standalone Dedicated Control Channel
 SACCH - Slow Associated Control Channel
 FACCH - Fast Associated Control Channel

• STAND-ALONE DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNEL (SDCCH) -

UPLINK/DOWNLINK
• The MS is on the SDCCH informed about which physical channel
(frequency and time slot) to use for traffic (TCH).
• In response of RACCH, network allocates SDCCH over AGCH for further
communication between MS and BTS.
• This channel is used for the Location Update, Voice Call Set up and SMS.
 Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
• FAST ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL (FACCH) -
UPLINK/DOWNLINK
• This channel is used to convey Handover information.
• There is no TS and frame allocation dedicated to this channel.
• This channel can be associated with SDCCH or TCH and works on the
principle of stealing. The burst of TCH is replaced by FACCH signaling
when required.

• FACCH is transmitted instead of a TCH.

• The FACCH steal the TCH bust and inserts its own information.
• The FACCH is used to carry out user authentication and handover.
• A complete FACCH message may be sent once in every 20 ms.
 Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
• SLOW ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL (SACCH) -
UPLINK/DOWNLINK
• This channel is always associated with TCH or SDDCH used for control
and supervision of signals associated with the traffic channels.
• Used to convey the periodic carrier-signal strength measurements to the
network, transmit power control and timing advance.

• Conveys power control and timing information in the downlink direction.

• Receive signal strength Indicator and link quality report in uplink direction.
• It occupies one timeslot in every 26.
• SACCH messages may be sent once every 430ms, i.e. approximately every
2s.
• Burst:
 Unit of transmission (about hundred modulated bits )
 Have finite duration
 Occupy a finite number of spectrum
 Sent in time and frequency windows ( Slots )

• Burst Types:
 Normal Burst
 Frequency Correction
 Synchronization Burst
 Access Burst
 Dummy Burst
 Normal Burst

FRAME1(4.615ms)
FRAME2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0.577ms
0.546ms
3 57 bits 26 bits 57 bits 3

Guard Tail
Guard Training Tail Guard
Data Flag Flag Data
Period Bits
Period sequence Bits Period
Bit Bit

• Carries traffic channel and control channels BCCH, PCH, AGCH,

SDCCH, SACCH and FACCH.
• Data - Two blocks of 57 bits each. Carries speech, data or control info.
• Tail bits - Used to indicate the start and end of each burst. Three bits always
000.
• Guard period - 8.25 bits long. The receiver can only receive and decode if
the burst is received within the time slot designated for it. Since the MS are
moving. Exact synchronization of burst is not possible practically. Hence
8.25bits corresponding to about 30μs is available as guard period for a
small margin of error.
• Flag bits - This bit is used to indicate if the 57 bits data block is used as
FACCH.
• Training Sequence - This is a set sequence of bits known by both the
transmitter and the receiver( BCC of BSIC). When a burst of information is
received the equalizer searches for the training sequence code. The receiver
measures and then mimics the distortion which the signal has been
subjected to. The receiver then compares the received data with the
distorted possible transmitted sequence and chooses the most likely one.
 Frequency Correction Burst

FRAME1(4.615ms) FRAME2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0.577ms
0.546ms
3 142 bits 3

Guard Tail Tail Guard

Fixed Data
Period Bits Bits Period
Carries FCCH channel.
Made up of 142 consecutive zeros.

Enables MS to correct its local oscillator locking it to that of the BTS .

 Synchronisation Burst

FRAME1(4.615ms) FRAME2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0.577ms
0.546ms
3 39 bits 64 bits 39 bits 3

Guard Tail Encrypted Synchronisation Encrypted Tail Guard

Period Bits Bits Sequence Bits Bits Period
(8.25 bits)
 Access Burst

FRAME1(4.615ms) FRAME2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0.577ms

8 41 bits 36 bits 3 68.25 bits

Guard Tail Synchronization Encrypted Tail Extended Guard

Period Bits Bits Sequence Bits Period
 Dummy Burst

FRAME1(4.615ms) FRAME2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0.577ms
0.546ms
3 57 bits 26 bits 57 bits 3

Guard Tail Flag Training Flag Tail Guard

Data Data
Period Bits Bit sequence Bit Bits Period
 Multiple Access Scheme
Multiple Access
Why and What ?

• Radio frequency is a shared medium

 Multiple users are using the same spectrum (e.g. 800-825MHz)
 How to allocate communications channels?

• Multiple access protocols govern how radio frequency medium are

allocated to each channel
 Fixed allocation access protocols are conflict free
 Random access protocols allow users to share access statistically with conflict
resolution
• Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals and transmitting
them over a common channel
• It is implemented on telecommunication using Multiple Access as a
Application.

• Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share
simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum.
• The sharing of spectrum is required to achieve high capacity by
simultaneously allocating the available bandwidth (or the available amount
of channels) to multiple users.
• For high quality communications, this must be done without severe
degradation in the performance of the system.

• There are three basic techniques: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA

• FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access
– Channels are allocated to nor-overlapping frequency bands

• TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access

– Non-overlapping time slots are allocated to channels

• CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access

– Channels are differentiated via codes
– A class of spread spectrum communications
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• The FDMA is the simplest scheme used to provide multiple access.
• Each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.
• These channels are assigned on demand, and can not be shared.
• Multiple users are isolated using band pass filters.
• Frequency guard bands are provided between adjacent signal spectra to
minimize crosstalk between adjacent channels.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 Features of FDMA
• The FDMA channel carries only one frequency band at a time.
• If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by
other users . It is essentially a wasted resource.

• After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and the mobile
transmit simultaneously and continuously.

• The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz) as each
channel supports only one frequency band per carrier.
• FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.

• The inter symbol interference is low as the symbol time interval is large
compared to average delay spread.
 Features of FDMA
• The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower than TDMA systems.
• FDMA systems have higher cell site system costs as compared to TDMA
systems, because of the single channel per carrier design.

• The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers as both the transmitter and receiver
operate at the same time.

• FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel

interference.
 FDMA
Advantages:
• Multiple users are isolated by employing simple band pass filters.
• Capacity is increased by reducing the information bit rate and using an
efficient digital speech coding scheme.
• Interference is low.

Disadvantages
• Cross talk is produced due to adjacent channel interference.
• Guard band produces wastage of bandwidth.
• It is only used for voice signal.
 FDMA
Nonlinear effects in FDMA
• In FDMA, Many channels share the same antenna at the base station.
• The nonlinear effect is due to signal spreading in the frequency domain
which generates inter modulation (IM) frequencies.
• Inter modulation (IM) frequencies are the undesired frequency or extra
frequency in FDMA channel.

Number of channels supported by FDMA system

• The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in FDMA
system is given by
𝐵𝑡 −2𝐵𝑔
• Number of channels (N) =
𝐵𝑐
• Where
 Bt = Total Bandwidth or Allocated Spectrum
 Bg = Guard band
 Bc = Channel bandwidth
 FDMA
• Problems
• Q1 :If each cellular carrier is allocated N number of channels and the
allocated frequency spectrum is 12.5 MHz, guard band is 10 KHz and the
bandwidth of each channel is 30 KHz. Find the total number of channels
provided by the cellular carrier.

• Q2 :In the United States, the advanced mobile phone service (AMPS)
cellular operator is allocated 15 MHz for each simplex band, and if Bt is 10
MHz, Bg is 10 KHz, and Bc is 25 KHz. Find the number of channels
available in an FDMA system.
 FDMA
Spectral Efficiency of FDMA
• It characterizes an efficient use of frequency spectrum.
• For FDMA, multiple access spectral efficiency is given as:
𝐵𝑐 𝑁𝑇
𝜂𝑎 = ≤1
𝐵𝑤
• where:
 𝜂𝑎 = multiple access spectral efficiency
 𝑁𝑇 = Total number of traffic channels in the covered area
 𝐵𝑐 = Channel spacing
 𝐵𝑤 = System Bandwidth

• Problem
• Q: In a first-generation AMP system where there are 395 channels of 30
kHz each in a bandwidth of 12.5 MHz, what is the multiple access spectral
efficiency for FDMA?
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Due to insufficient spectrum efficiency and continuous transmission of
FDMA system, TDMA systems are developed.
• In a TDMA system, each user uses the whole channel bandwidth for a
fraction of time.
• In a TDMA system, time is divided into equal time intervals called slots.
User data is transmitted in the slots and several slots make up a frame.
• Guard times are used between each user's transmission to minimize
crosstalk between channels

Code
Time
 TDMA
Features of TDMA
• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each
user makes use of non overlapping time slots.
• Unlike FDMA, only digital data and digital modulation must be used.
• Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous.
• The handoff process is much simpler because of discontinuous
transmissions in TDMA.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, so
duplexers are not required.
• Transmission rates are generally very high as compared to FDMA
channels.
• High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of
burst (the transmission of the data during the single time slot)
transmissions.
• Low battery consumption.
 TDMA
Features of TDMA
• High framing overhead — A reasonable amount of the total transmitted bits
must be dedicated to synchronization purposes, channel identification. Also
guard slots are necessary to separate users.
• The use of digital technology permits the inclusion of several facilities in
the mobile unit, increasing its complexity. One example is the use of slow
frequency hopping to counteract multi-path fading.
• Flexible data rates by assigning multiple time slots to different users based
on their demand.
• No duplexer used since uses different time slots for transmission and
reception. Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a duplexer is required.
• Lower BS cost : the use of multiple channels per carrier channel provides a
proportional reduction of the equipment at the BS.
 TDMA

• Frame :- It consists of a number of slots (information message), together

with a preamble, and trail bits.
• Preamble :- It contains the address and synchronization information that
both the base station and the subscribers use to identify each other.
• Guard times :-These allow synchronization of the receivers between
different slots and frames.
 TDMA
Advantages
• Extended battery life over FDMA.
• Handoff process is simpler.
• More efficient use of spectrum compared to FDMA.
• TDMA accommodates more users in the same spectrum space than an
FDMA system which improves capacity.
• Different slots are used for transmission and reception. So duplexers are not
required.
 TDMA
Disadvantages
• TDMA requires synchronization. If the time slot synchronization is lost, the
channels may collide with each other.
• For mobiles and, particularly for handsets, TDMA on the uplink demands
high-peak power in transmit mode that shortens battery life.
• Network and spectrum planning are intensive.
• Dropped calls are possible when users switch in and out of different cells.
• Higher costs due to greater equipment sophistication.
• Equalization is required, since transmission rates are generally very high as
compared to FDMA channels.
 TDMA
Number of channels in a TDMA system
• Number of channels/time slots in TDMA system is

• Where,
 N ... number of channels/time slots
 M ... number of TDMA users per radio channel
 Btotal ... total spectrum allocation
 Bguard ... Guard Band
 Bc ... channel bandwidth
 TDMA
Frame Efficiency of TDMA
• The Frame Efficiency of TDMA is a measure of the percentage of bits per
frame which contain transmitted data. The transmitted data include source and
channel coding bits.
Number of bits per frame contained in the transmitted data
• Efficiency (𝜂) =
Total number of bits per frame

• Frame efficiency

• bOH … includes all overhead bits such as preamble, guard bits, etc.
• bT … total number of bits per frame
 TDMA
• Where bOH= number of overhead bits per frame and is given by
bOH = Nr br + Nt bp + (Nt + Nr) bg
• where:
 Nr = number of reference bursts per frame
 Nt = number of traffic bursts (slots) per frame
 br = number of overhead bits per reference burst
 bp = number of overhead bits per preamble per slot
 bg = number of equivalent bits in each guard time interval

• The total number of bits per frame is:

bT=Tf x Rrf
• where:
 Tf = frame duration
 Rrf = bit rate of the RF channel
 Spectral Efficiency of TDMA
• TDMA can operate as wideband or narrowband. In the wideband TDMA,
the entire spectrum is used by each individual user.
• For the wideband TDMA, multiple access spectral efficiency is given as
𝜏 𝑀𝑡
𝜂𝑎 =
𝑇𝑓
• where 𝜏 is the duration of a time slot
 Tf is the frame duration
 Mt is the number of time slots per frame
• For the narrowband TDMA schemes, the total band is divided into a
number of sub-bands, each using the TDMA technique.
• For the narrowband TDMA, multiple access spectral efficiency is given as:
𝜏 𝑀𝑡 𝐵𝑢 𝑁𝑢
𝜂𝑎 =
𝑇𝑓 𝐵𝑤
• where,
 Bu is the bandwidth of an individual user during his or her time slot
 Nu is the number of users sharing the same time slot in the system
TDMA
TDMA
TDMA
 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• CDMA is the third multiple access technique used in cellular systems.

• CDMA allows transmissions to occupy the entire bandwidth at the same

time without interference.

• CDMA uses spread-spectrum technique to increase spectrum efficiency

over current FDMA and TDMA systems.

• CDMA cellular technology is originally known as IS-95.

• QUALCOMM is the developer of the CDMA
 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA)
• Cellular mobile communication uses various techniques to allow multiple
users to access the same radio spectrum at the same time.
• Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) is another method that allows
multiple users to access the mobile radio communications network.
• Spreading means increasing the bandwidth of the signal.
• Spread spectrum technology is a wireless communication technique in
which the user's original signal is transformed into another form that
occupies a larger bandwidth than the original signal. The process of
transformation is known as spreading.
 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA)
• Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA) uses signals which have a
transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater than the
minimum required BW.
• SSMA also provides immunity to multi-path interference and robust
multiple access capability.
• SSMA is not BW efficient when used by single user but very efficient in
multi-user environment.

• Depending on the way the frequency spectrum is used, four types of spread
spectrum techniques are developed.
1. Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). This is also called CDMA.
2. Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
3. Time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS)
4. Multi-carrier spread spectrum (MCSS)
 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• In CDMA, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large
bandwidth signal called spreading signal (code) before modulation and
transmission over the air. This is called spreading.
• The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate
which is orders of magnitudes greater than the data rate of the message.
• CDMA is also called DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum). DSSS is a
more general term.
• Each user has its own pseudorandom code word which is approximately
orthogonal to all other code words.
 CDMA
Features of CDMA
• CDMA assigns to each user a unique code sequence that is used to code
data before transmission.
• CDMA requires fewer cell towers and provides up to five times the calling
capacity.
• CDMA also provides more than 10 times the voice traffic of earlier
analogue system (AMPS) and is the basis for 3G data transmission for
GSM carriers.
• The codes are shared by the mobile phone and the base station. The codes
are called Pseudo-random code sequences.
• All the users can access the entire spectrum allocation all of the time.
• CDMA channels can handle an unspecified number of users.
• The capacity of the system depends on the quality of current calls.
 CDMA
• Potentially Larger capacity (more users can communicate simultaneously)
• If users don’ t use the medium all the time (e.g., they are just reading e-
mail), CDMA will allow much more users to communicate simultaneously.
• In other words, CDMA will use the resource (the radio spectrum) more
efficiently.
• Provides larger spread spectrum, thus more robust against noise bursts and
multipath frequency selective fading

• GSM bandwidth = 200 kHz

• IS-95 bandwidth = 1.25 MHz
• W-CDMA (3G) bandwidth = 10MHz
 CDMA
• There are three types of codes generally used. They are:
 Walsh code
 Short PRN code
 Long PRN codes.

• Walsh codes: These are orthogonal codes.

– The spreading on forward link is 1.2288 Mbps and on reverse link is 307.2
Kbps.
– 64-bit Walsh codes are used in IS 95A and IS 95B.
– 128-bit Walsh codes are used in CDMA2000.

• Short PRN code: (16 bit) are used to identify the base station and the cell.

• Long PRN code : (42-bit code) are used to identify mobile station on
reverse link
 CDMA
• Encoding rules

• CDMA multiplexer
 CDMA
• CDMA demultiplexer
 CDMA
Advantages
• Greatest spectrum efficiency: capacity increases about 8 to 10 times that of
an analogue system and 4 to 5 times that of other digital systems, which
makes it most useful in high traffic areas with a large number of users and
limited spectrum.
• CDMA improves call quality by filtering out background noise, crosstalk,
and interference.
• Soft handoff is used and it requires less power, which reduces interference
and increases capacity.
• Simplified frequency planning: all users on a CDMA system use the same
radio frequency spectrum.
• Random Walsh codes enhance user privacy.
• Power control increases talk time and battery life for mobile phones.
 CDMA
Disadvantages
• Backwards compatibility techniques are costly. (refers to a hardware or
software system that can successfully use interfaces)
• Difficult to optimize to maximize performance.
• Low traffic areas lead to inefficient use of spectrum and equipment
resources.
• The near—far problem occurs when many mobile users share the same
channel.
• Self Jamming is observed in CDMA system due to loss of orthogonality of
PN codes or spreading sequences of different subscribers.
 Parameter FDMA TDMA CDMA
1 Data Rates Low Medium High
2. Mode of Data Continuous signal Signal in bursts Digital Signal
3. Capacity of the Low Medium Large
system
4. Cost High Low Installation cost is
high but operating
cost is lowest.
5. Handoff Hard Hard Soft
6. Flexibility Low Moderate High
7. Technique Sharing of overall Sharing of time Sharing of
bandwidth of of the bandwidth and
transponder transponder time both
8. Synchronization No synchronization Time No synchronization
is required. synchronization is is required.
essential.
9. Code Word No code word is No code word is Code words are
required. required. required by the
ground station.
 Parameter FDMA TDMA CDMA
10. Power efficiency Power efficiency is Full power Full power
reduced. efficiency is efficiency is
possible. possible.
11. Guard times and Guard Bands are Guard Times are Both guard times
Bands required. required. and bands are
required.
12. Interference Adjacent frequency Interference between Performance is
Effects bands interference the user of adjacent affected because of
generated because of time slots is adjacent time and
nonlinearity of generated because of frequency slots. But
transponder incorrect effect is less due to
amplifier. synchronization. frequency hopping.
13. Variable Difficult Easy Easy
Transmission Rate
14. Near-far No No Yes
Problem
15. Fading Equalizer not needed Equalizer may be RAKE receiver
Mitigation needed possible
 Wideband CDMA (WCDMA)
• Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) was the air interface for the Universal
Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) standard.
• To provide peak data rates from 384 kbps to 2.048 Mbps, the WCDMA
system operates on wider channels each with 5 MHz bandwidth.
• WCDMA is a direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) system which
initially operates in the 1885–2025MHz and 2110–2200MHz frequency
bands for uplink and downlink, respectively.
• It supports operation modes of both frequency-division duplex (FDD) when
symmetric uplink/downlink channels are available and time division duplex
(TDD) when only asymmetric spectrum is available.

• Wideband CDMA is a third-generation

(3G) wireless standard which allows use
of both voice and data and offers high
data speeds developed by the 3GPP (3rd
Generation Partnership Project).
 WCDMA
• Features of WCDMA
• WCDMA is able to artificially increase a signal's bandwidth.
• It does so by modulating each baseband symbol with a binary or quaternary
signature with a much higher rate than that of the original data symbol.
• Some parts of the WCDMA are based on GSM technology and the
networks are designed to integrate the GSM networks at some levels.

• W-CDMA transmits on a pair of 5 MHz-wide radio channels, while

CDMA2000 transmits on one or several pairs of 1.25 MHz radio channels.
• It supports conventional cellular voice, text and MMS services, but can also
carry data at high speeds, allowing mobile operators to deliver higher
bandwidth applications including streaming and broadband Internet access.
 Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
• Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is a channel access method used
in mobile communication systems which reuses the same set of cell phone
frequencies in a given service area.
• Two cells or two small regions can make use of the same set of frequencies
if they are separated by an allowable distance (called the reuse distance).

• SDMA increases the capacity of the system and transmission quality by

focusing the signal into narrow transmission beams.

• Through the use of smart antennas with beams pointed at the direction of
the mobile station, SDMA serves different users within the same region.
• Mobile stations operating outside the bounds of these directed beams
experience a near zero interference from other mobile stations operating
under the same base station with the same radio frequency.
 SDMA
• SDMA uses physical separation methods that permit the sharing of wireless
channels.
• For instance, a single channel may be used simultaneously if the users are
spaced far enough from one another to avoid interference, known as
frequency reuse, the method is widely used in cellular radio systems.
• Cell sites are spaced from one another to minimize interference.

• One unique variation of SDMA, Polarization Division Multiple Access

(PDMA), separates signals by using different polarizations of the antennas.
• Two different signals then can use the same frequency, one transmitting a
vertically polarized signal and the other transmitting a horizontally
polarized signal.
• The signals won't interfere with one another even if they're on the same
frequency because they're orthogonal and the antennas won't respond to the
oppositely polarized signal.
 Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
• Space division multiple access (SDMA)
controls the radiated energy for each user
in space.
• It can be seen from Figure that SDMA
serves different users by using spot beam
antennas.
• These different areas covered by the
antenna beam may be served by the same
regency (in a TDMA or CDMA system) or
different frequencies (in an FMA system).
• Sectorized antennas may be thought of as a
primitive application of SDMA.
• In the future, adaptive antennas will likely
be used to simultaneously steer energy in
the direction of many users at once and
appear to be best suited for TDMA and
CDMA base station architectures.
 SDMA
• The base station has complete control over the power of all the transmitted
signals on the forward link.
• However, because of different radio propagation paths between each user
and the base station, the transmitted power from each subscriber unit must
be dynamically controlled to prevent any single user from driving up the
interference level for all other users.

• Transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the subscriber unit,

therefore there are limits on the degree to which power may be controlled
on the reverse link.
• If the base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired user so
that more energy is detected from each subscriber, then the reverse link for
each user is improved and less power is required.
 SDMA
• Adaptive antennas used at the base station (and eventually at the subscriber
units) promise to mitigate some of the problems on the reverse link.
• In the limiting case of infinitesimal beamwidth and infinitely fast tracking
ability, adaptive antennas implement optimal SDMA, thereby providing a
unique channel that is free from the interference of all other users in the cell
• With SDMA, all users within the system would be able to communicate at
the same time using the same channel.

• In addition, a perfect adaptive antenna system would be able to track

individual multipath components for each user and combine them in an
optimal manner to collect all of the available signal energy from each user.
• The perfect adaptive antenna system is not feasible since it requires
infinitely large antennas.
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
• FDM has been used for a long time to carry more than one
signal over a telephone line.
• FDM divides the channel bandwidth into sub channels and
transmits multiple relatively low rate signals by carrying each
signal on a separate carrier frequency.
• A Guard band, a narrow frequency range, is inserted between
adjacent sub channels so that different signals travel separately
and simultaneously without interfering with each other.
 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
• In order to solve the bandwidth efficiency problem, Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing was proposed, where the different carriers are orthogonal to
each other.
• With OFDM, it is possible to have overlapping sub channels in the frequency
domain, thus increasing the transmission rate.
• This carrier spacing provides optimal spectral efficiency.

• OFDM has grown to be the most popular communication system in high-speed

communications.
• OFDM can provide large data rates with sufficient robustness to radio channel
impairments.
 OFDM
• Carrier centers are put on orthogonal frequencies.
• Orthogonality - The peak of each signal coincides with zero
crossing of other signals
• Subcarriers are spaced by 1/ TS
• OFDM don’t need guard bands
 Illustration of Orthogonality of OFDM

Three Subcarriers in
Time Domain

Three Orthogonal
Subcarriers in
Frequency Domain

Three carriers using

traditional FDM
 OFDM
• In digital communications, data is generally referred to as a nonperiodic
digital signal.
• It has two values:
 Binary-1 = High, Period = T
 Binary-0 = Low, Period = T
• Data can be represented in two ways:
 Time domain representation
 Frequency domain representation

• The main lobe corresponds to the

fundamental frequency, and side lobes
correspond to harmonic components.
• The bandwidth of the power spectrum is
proportional to the frequency.

• In practice, the side lobes are filtered out

since they are relatively insignificant
with respect to the main lobe.
 OFDM Channels
• OFDMA channels are constructed from FDMA channels.
• FCC-allocated frequency band is divided into several smaller frequency
bands known as FDMA channels.
• In OFDMA, each frequency band is placed at the null of the adjacent band.
• There are (n – 1) nulls in the OFDMA spectrum, where n is the number of
FDMA channels.
• Therefore, the number of OFDMA channels will be given by
Number of OFDMA channels = 2 x FDMA channels - 1
 Conceptual Understanding of Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing
• OFDM splits into N parallel data streams
– called Subcarriers
– Each with Bandwidth fb
– and Data rate R/N (bit time N/R)
 Benefits of OFDM
• Frequency selective fading only affects some subcarriers
– Can easily be handled with a forward error-correcting code

• More importantly, OFDM overcomes intersymbol interference

(ISI)
– ISI is a caused by multipath signals arriving in later bits
– OFDM bit times are much, much longer (by a factor of N)
• ISI is dramatically reduced
– Design aside: N is chosen so the root-mean-square delay spread is
significantly smaller than the OFDM bit time
– It may not be necessary to deploy equalizers to overcome ISI
• Eliminates the use of these complex and expensive devices!!!
 OFDM Implementation
• Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT)
 The OFDM concept would use N oscillators for N different
subcarrier frequencies
• Expensive for transmitter and receiver

– Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) processes digital signals

• If N is a power of two, the computational speed dramatically
improves by using the fast version of the DFT (FFT)

– Transmitter takes a symbol from each subcarrier

• Makes an OFDM symbol
• Uses the Inverse FFT to compute the data stream to be transmitted
• OFDM symbol provides the weights for each subcarrier
• Then it is sent on the carrier using only one oscillator
IFFT OFDM Implementation
 Cyclic Prefix
• OFDM’s long bit times eliminate most of the ISI

• OFDM also uses a cyclic prefix (CP) to overcome the residual

ISI
– Adds additional time to the OFDM symbol before the real data is sent
• Called the guard interval
• ISI diminishes before the data starts
– Design Aside: Data from the end of the OFDM symbol is used as the
CP
• Simplifies the computations
Cyclic Prefix (detail)
 OFDMA
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
uses OFDM to share the wireless channel
– Different users can have different slices of time and different groups of
subcarriers
– Subcarriers are allocated in groups
• Called subchannels or resource blocks
• Too much computation to allocate every subcarrier separately

• Subchannel allocation
– Adjacent subcarriers – similar SINR
• Must measure to find the best subchannel
– Regularly spaced subcarriers – diverse SINR
– Randomly space subcarriers – diverse SINR and reduced adjacent-cell
interference
OFDM and OFDMA
 Advantages of OFDMA
• Multi-user Diversity
– Broadband signals experience frequency selective fading
– OFDMA allows different users to transmit over different portions of the
broadband spectrum (traffic channel)
– Different users perceive different channel qualities, a deep faded channel for
one user may still be favorable to others
• Efficient use of Spectrum
• Receiver Simplicity
– It eliminates the intra-cell interference avoiding CDMA type of multi-user
detection
– Orthogonality of code destroyed by selective fading
– Only FFT processor is required
• Bit Error Rate performance is better only in Fading environment
 Disadvantages of OFDMA
• Peak to average power ratio (PAPR)
– The large amplitude variation increases in-band noise and increases the BER when the
signal has to go through amplifier nonlinearities.
• Synchronization
– Tight Synchronization between users are required for FFT in receiver
– Pilot signals are used for synchronizations
• Co-channel interference
– Dealing with this is more complex in OFDM than in CDMA
– Dynamic channel allocation with advanced coordination among adjacent base
stations