Unit 1 Society, Community, Association by TAWQEER SIR For JKSSB Removed

CONTENTS
• Society, Community, Association

• Social Stratification: Caste, Class and Social Stratification in India
• Social Institutions: Norms, Values, Folkways and Mores
• Marriage, Kinship and Family
• Social Change: Industrialization, Globalization, Modernization
Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

SOCIETY
SOCIETY
• Society is defined as a body of individuals that associate together for religious,
charitable, cultural, scientific, political or nationalistic purposes.
• In simple words, society means an institution or a club formed by a group of
people for a particular purpose or activity.
• The term 'society is derived from the Latin word ‘socius', which means companionship
or friendship.
• "Man is a social animal’, said Aristotle centuries ago.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIETY
1. "A society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behaviour which
mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in
behaviour".-Morris Ginsberg
2. "Society is the complex of organised associations and institutions with a community".-G.D.M.
Cole
3. "Society is the union itself, the organisation, the sum of formal relations in which associat ing
individuals are bound together." -Prof. Giddings
4. "The term society refers not to group of people, but to the complex pattern of the norms of
interaction, that arise among and between them". Lapiere
5. “Society is a web of social relationship". MacIver

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY
• The basic characteristics of society are as follows:
(1) Society consists of People. Without people there can be no society, no social relationships,
and no social life at all.
(2) Mutual Interaction and Mutual Awareness. It means that individuals are in continuous
interaction with other individuals of society. Social relationships exist only when the members are
aware of each other.
(3) Society Depends on Likeness. It exists among those who resemble one another in some
degree, in body and in mind. People have similarities with regards to their needs, works, aims,
ideals, values, outlook towards life, and so on. Society in brief, exists among like beings and
likeminded.
(4) Society Rests on Difference Too. If everyone were exactly the same, social relationships
would be limited with little reciprocity. Differences in looks, personality, abilities, and interests
lead people to pursue various activities and occupations. While diversity is crucial, similarity is
essential for the formation of society. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
(5) Co-operation and Division of Labour. This division assigns specific tasks to different groups
or individuals. For instance, in producing cotton clothes, tasks are divided among farmers,
spinners, weavers, dyers, and merchants.
6) Society Implies Interdependence: Social relationships involve interdependence, where
individuals rely on each other to meet their needs.
(7) Society is Dynamic: Societies never remain static; they continuously evolve. Old generations
pass away, giving way to new ones. New associations, institutions, and groups emerge while old
ones may fade away.
(8) Social Control. Society employs diverse methods to regulate member behaviour. Society
utilizes both formal (laws, police, courts) and informal (customs, traditions) means of social
control to maintain order and stability.

(9) Culture. Culture encompasses way of life, social heritage, attitudes, morals, values,
institutions, and ideologies, shaping human behaviour and thinking. Unlike animals, only humans
possess culture, which binds individuals together into a cohesive society.
(10) There is yet another attribute on which society depends. Man's gregarious nature,
described by Aristotle as "man is a social animal," stems from an innate instinct for
companionship. This inclination drives humans to form social groups and societies, as man thrives
in the company of others. Society provides protection, education, and emotional nourishment,
shaping individual attributes, beliefs, and morals.
Mutual Cooperation and
Consists of Depends on Depends on
Interaction and Division of
People Likeness Difference
Awareness Labour
Interdependence Dynamic Social Control Culture

TYPES OF
SOCIETY
TYPES OF SOCIETY

1. FORAGING SOCIETY – HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETY
• The members of hunting and gathering societies primarily survive by hunting animals, fishing,
and gathering plants.
• Most hunting and gathering societies were nomadic, moving constantly in search of food and
water.
• In the hunting and gathering societies there is no cultivation and no manufacturing. People
obtain their survival necessities directly from nature.
• Since hunting gathering societies have a limited degree of specialization of tasks or divsion of
labour, the band or clan had a greater degree of similarity of experience.
• Therefore, there is a greater level of consensus and community participation in all aspects of
life.
• Also ownership is communal.

2. PASTORAL SOCIETIES
• When small societies learned the more complex mechanism of sowing seeds and
growing plants and breading animals so that they could domesticate and breed
herds of them, they were in a position to enter a new phase - the pastoral phase.
• This phase involved cultivation on a small scale, usually gardens, for immediate,
limited subsistence level consumption.
• These nomadic societies do not create permanent settlements but they live in
tents or other relatively easily constructed dwelling year round.
• The pastoral society is larger than a hunting gathering society but still relatively
smaller.

3. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES
• Horticultural societies rely on cultivating fruits, vegetables, and plants.
• Like hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies had to be mobile.
• Depletion of the land's resources or dwindling water supplies, for example, forced
the people to leave.
• Horticultural societies occasionally produced a surplus, which permitted
storage as well as the emergence of other professions not related to the survival of
the society.

4. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES
• Agricultural societies used technological advances to cultivate crops (especially
grains like wheat, rice, corn, and barley) over a large area.
• Agricultural Revolution lead to increase in food supplies then led to larger
populations than in earlier communities.
• Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agricultural societies.
• In agricultural societies permanent settlement are the rule.
• Sufficient food surplus can be produced to feed larger groups.
• Thus agrarian societies are organizationally more complex with definitive
hierarchal structure.

5. INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
• Industrial societies are based on using machines (particularly fuel-driven ones) to produce
goods.
• Sociologists refer to the period during the 18th century when the production of goods in
mechanized factories began as the Industrial Revolution.
• The Industrial Revolution appeared first in Britain, and then quickly spread to the rest of the
world.
• An industrial society is characterized by the following features:
1. Modern family trends: Family is not an institution but a foundation of companionship. Both
men and women hold equal rights.
2. Economic institutions: Marked by new styles of production, distribution and exchange.
3. Segmentalized roles
4. Impersonality of relationships
7. POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
• A post industrial society is regarded as the type of a society where the economy progresses from
producing and distributing goods to one that mainly offers services.
• In other words, technology, information and services are more important than manufacturing
tangible goods.
• The society is said to be classified as Post-industrial based on following factors:
– Decline in production of goods and rise in production of services.
– Manual labour jobs are replaced with jobs requiring technical and professional knowledge.
– More emphasis is laid on theoretical knowledge as it involves creation of new, inventive solutions.
– Focus is more in new technologies and how to utilize and protect them.
– More college graduates with advanced knowledge to help develop and bring about technological
change.

THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF SOCIETY
• Theories of the origin of society attempt to explain how human societies came
into existence. Here are several prominent theories:
Evolutionary Social Contract Divine Creation

Theory Theory Theory
Symbolic
Conflict Theory Functionalism
Interactionism

1. Evolutionary Theory:
• Society developed gradually as humans evolved from primitive forms of social organization to more
complex societies.
• Social structures and institutions emerged as humans adapted to their environment and formed social
bonds for mutual survival and cooperation.
Proponents: Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer
• Auguste Comte: Often regarded as the founder of sociology, Comte proposed the idea of societal
evolution through three stages: theological, metaphysical, and positivist.
• Herbert Spencer: Known for his concept of Social Darwinism.

2. Social Contract Theory:
• Individuals voluntarily entered into a social contract, agreeing to form societies by surrendering
some of their natural freedoms to a governing authority.
• The purpose of this contract was to establish order, security, and protection for all members of
society.
• Proponents: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
3. Divine Creation Theory:

• Society was created by a divine being or beings, often as part of religious or mythological
narratives.
• The organization and structure of society were believed to be guided or ordained by divine will.
• Proponents:
• Various religious and theological perspectives across
Tawqeer ul Islam different cultures and traditions.
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4. Conflict Theory:
• Society originated through the struggle for resources, power, and dominance between different
social groups.
• Social inequality and conflict are inherent features of society, driven by the competition for
limited resources.
• Proponents: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
5. Functionalism:
• Society is a complex system composed of various interconnected parts that work together to
maintain stability and order.
• Each part of society serves a function that contributes to the overall functioning and equilibrium
of the social system.
• Proponents: Émile Durkheim, TalcottTawqeer ul Islam @EACT
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Robert K. Merton.
6. Symbolic Interactionism: This theory emphasizes the role of symbols and interactions in the
construction of society. According to symbolic interactionism, society is created and maintained
through ongoing social interactions and the shared meanings attached to symbols.
Key Proponents: George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer are central figures in this
perspective.
7. Blood Relation Theory: Blood Relation Theory, also known as Kinship Theory, suggests that
the earliest form of societal organization emerged from kinship ties and family relationships.
• According to this theory, families and kinship groups were the primary units of social
organization, providing individuals with a sense of identity, belonging, and support.
• Proposed by: Anthropologists and sociologists, such as Lewis Henry Morgan and Claude Lévi-
Strauss, have contributed to the development of Blood Relation Theory through their studies of
kinship systems and family structures in different cultures around the world.
8. Force Theory: Force Theory, also known as Conquest Theory or Coercion Theory, suggests
that society originated through the use of force or violence by a dominant group to establish and
maintain control over others.
• According to this theory, early societies were characterized by conflict, conquest, and
domination, with powerful individuals or groups imposing their will on weaker individuals or
communities.
• The use of force, coercion, or military power allowed dominant groups to establish social
hierarchies, political institutions, and systems of governance.
• Force Theory emphasizes the role of power dynamics, coercion, and conflict in shaping the
structure and organization of society.
• Proposed by: Various thinkers, including Thomas Hobbes in his work "Leviathan," have
explored the role of force and power in the formation of societies.

COMMUNITY

COMMUNITY
• A community is a collection of people with residential ties to particular locality.
• It is the territorial boundary which differentiates a community with other groups because
the concept of group is not restricted to a particular locality.
• It may be considered as a permanent local aggregation of people having diversified as
well as common interests. A community has the following characteristics:
• Definitive geographical area
• We feeling or community feeling
• Common culture and common life
• Close relationships
• Permanent nature
• Not a legal body
DEFINITIONS OF A COMMUNITY
(1) Community is "a social group with some degree of "we-feeling" and living in a given area"
–Bogardus.
(2) Community is "the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life". -
Kingsley Davis
(3) Community is "an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence".-R.M.
Machver
(4) "A community is a group or collection of groups that inhabits a locality". -Ogburn and
Nimkoff
(5) Community is "any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a way that
they do not share this or that particular interest only, but a whole set of interests"- Manheim

COMMUNITY
• Community is, therefore, a geographic area having common centres of interests and activities.
• A community is essentially an area of social living, marked by some degree of social coherence.
• Thus community is a circle in which common life is living.
• A virtual community is defined by sociologists as a group of individuals who engage in social
interactions and relationships online, forming a sense of community despite not being physically
co-located. E.g Youtube Community, Facebook Community, etc.
• Within the range of a community the members may carry on their economic, religious, political,
educational and other activities.
• Examples: village, town, tribe, city, district.
• People often use the term community to refer to a racial community, or a religious community
or a national community or a caste community or a linguistic community or a professional
community or sometimes, to refer to the entire mankind in a restricted sense, it is used to mean
an association or group, and in wider sense, it is used to refer to the entire humanity.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY
• The main bases of Community are:
(1) locality, and (2) community sentiment.
(1) Locality: A community is a territorial group occupying a specific geographic area, with
locality being its physical foundation. Even nomadic tribes have a defined locality despite
their changing habitation. Community formation occurs when a group settles in a particular
area, fostering social bonds and shared interests.
(2) Community Sentiment: Locality alone doesn't guarantee community formation. In some
cases, people living in the same area may lack social interactions and shared interests, like
residents in different parts of a city extension. A community is defined by shared living and
common bonds among its members.

OTHER ASPECTS OF COMMUNITY
(1) Stability: A community is defined by its locality, communal sentiment, and stability,
contrasting with temporary groups like crowds or mobs. It represents a relatively enduring and
permanent group life within a specific place.
(2) Naturalness: Communities typically form naturally and are not intentionally created. They
emerge without deliberate planning or effort, and membership is often determined by birth
rather than choice. Communities evolve spontaneously over time, although their development
is not instantaneous or automatic.
(3) Size of the Community: Community encompasses various sizes, from small to large. Small
communities may be part of larger ones; for instance, villages and cities can be within a
district community. This hierarchical structure implies communities within communities,
demonstrating the relative nature of the term "community.“
(4) Regulation of Relations: Communities naturally form rules and traditions over time, based
on shared memories and institutions. However, in modern urban settings, the sense of
community is declining due to diverse interests and complex lifestyles.
TYPES OF COMMUNITIES
• Geographic or Locality-Based Communities:
1. Rural Communities: Small, often agriculturally focused communities in rural areas.
2. Urban Communities: Larger, mare densely populated communities found in cities and
metropolitan areas.
• Cultural or Ethnic Communities
1. Ethnic Communities: Groups of people sharing a common ethnic background, language, and
cultural practices.
2. Religious Communities: Groups hound by a shared religious faith and associated practices.
• Occupational or Professional Communities:
1. Professional Associations: Groups of individuals within the same profession or occupation.
2. Workplace Communities: Employees within a particular organization or industry.
• Interest-Based Communities:
1. Hobbyist Communities: Groups formed around shared interests or hobbies, such as sports, arts,
or recreational activities
2. Online Communities: Communities formed on the internet, often hased on shared interests or
activities.
• Intentional Communities:
1. Communes: Groups of people living together, often sharing resources and responsibilities.
2. Collectives: Communities formed around shared goals, values, or ideologies
• Social or Support Communities:
1. Support Groups: Communities formed to provide emotional or practical support for individuals
facing similar challenges, such as health issues or addictions.
2. Friendship Networks: Informal communities based on personal relationships and social
connections
• Virtual or Online Communities:
1. Social Media Groups: Communities formed on platforms like Facebook, Twitter, or Reddit.
2. Online Forums: Communities centered around specific topics or interests on the internet.
• Educational Communities:
1. School Communities: Students, teachers, and staff within an educational institution
2. Alumni Network: Graduates of a particular educational institution.
• Political Communities:
1. Political Activist Groups: Communities formed around shared political beliefs and goals.
2. Neighbourhood Associations: Communities focused on local political and civic engagement
• Age-Based Communities:
1. Youth Groups: Communities of young people sharing common interests or activities
2. Senior Communities: Groups of older individuals often living in retirement communities
• Family and Residential Communities:
1. Nuclear Families: Basic family units consisting of parents and children.
2. Extended Families: Larger family groups that may include multiple generations living
together or maintaining
SOCIETY
Society AND COMMUNITY-DIFFERENCES
Community
1. Society is a web of social relationships. 1. Community consists of a group of
2. A definite geographic area is not an essential individuals living in a particular area with
aspect of society. some degree of 'we- feeling".
3. Society is abstract. 2. Community always denotes a definite
4. Community sentiment or a sense of 'we- locality or geographic area.
feeling' may be present or may not be present 3. Community is concrete.
in society. 4. Community sentiment is an essential element
5. Society is wider. There can be more than one of community. There can be no community
community in a society. in its absence.
6. The objectives and interests of society are 5. Community is smaller than society.
more extensive and varied. 6. The objectives and interests of a community
7. Society involves both likeness and are comparatively less extensive and varied.
difference. Common interests as well as 7. Likeness is more important than difference in
diverse interests. are present in society. community. There is common agreement of
interests and objectives on the part of
members.
ASSOCIATION

DEFINITIONS OF ASSOCIATION
(1) An association is "an organisation deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of some
interest, or a set of interests, which its members share". -R.M. Maciver
(2) An association is "a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they
possess or have instituted in common an organisation with a view to securing a specific end or
specific ends".-Morris Ginsberg
(3) An association is a group of people organised for the achievement of a particular interest or
interests.
(4) An association is "a group organised for the pursuit of an interest or group of interests in
common".
• Men have several interests. Hence they establish different associations to fulfil them. They have
a number of associations of different kinds. Some examples may be cited here.

EXAMPLES OF ASSOCIATION
(1) Political Associations: The Bharatiya Janata Party, The Congress Party, etc.
(2) Religious Associations: The Vishwa Hindu Parishad, The Arya Samaj, etc.
(3) Students' Associations: The Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad, Delhi University Students'
Association, The National Students Union of India, Chhatra Yuva-Sangharsh Vahini, etc.
(4) Labourers' Associations: Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangha, All India Trade Union Congress, etc.
(5) Professional Associations: Indian Medical Association, The Indian Bar Council.
(6) Economic Associations or Business Organisations: Business Corporations, Hotels Owners
Association, Chamber of Commerce, The Consumers' Co-operative Society, etc.
(7) International Associations: The Rotary Club, The Lions Club, The Amnesty International.
• A man may belong to more than one association. He may be member of a political association,
religious association, a professional association, a cultural association, an entertainment club, a
sports club, a rotary club, and so on.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSOCIATION
(i) Association-a Human Group. Associations are social groups formed by people and are
inherently organized. Unlike unorganized groups such as crowds or mobs, associations require
structure and organization to function.
(ii) Common Interests. An association is more than just a gathering of individuals; it comprises
people with similar interests. For instance, individuals with political inclinations may join political
associations, while those with religious beliefs may join religious associations, reflecting a shared
interest.
(iii) Co-operative Spirit. Associations rely on the cooperative efforts of their members to achieve
specific goals. For instance, a political party must collaborate as a unified group to attain its
objective of gaining power.
(iv) Organisation. Association implies organization, as it is fundamentally an organized group.
Organization provides stability and structure to an association, defining the distribution of statuses
and roles among its members.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSOCIATION
(v) Regulation of Relations. Every association has its own ways and means of regulating the relations of
its members. They may be written or unwritten.
(vi) Association as Agencies. Associations are means or agencies through which their members seek to
realise their similar or shared interests. This fact gives association its peculiar legal status.
(vii) Durability of Association. An association may be permanent or temporary. There are some long-
standing associations like the state, family, religious associations etc. Some associations may be purely
temporary in nature. Ex. Associations that are established to felicitate some great writers, scientists, and
religious leaders and associations created for performing some social, religious or other ceremony.
Common Co-operative Regulation of

Human Group Organisation
Interests Spirit Relations
Agencies Durability
Society Association Community
1. Membership in society is 1. Membership of an association is 1. By birth itself individuals become
automatic. voluntary. Individuals are at liberty members of a community. In this
2. Common and diverse interests. to join them. way membership is rather
3. Society represents a 2. An association has some specific compulsory.
comprehensive social structure. interest or interests. 2. A community has some general
Society encompasses all 3. An association does not interests.
individuals within a geographic necessarily imply the spatial aspects. 3. A community is marked by a
area. 4. An association may be stable and locality.
4. Societies endure across long lasting or it may not be so. 4. A community is relatively more
generations. 5. Associations may have their legal stable and permanent.
5. Societies have legal recognition status. 5. A community has no legal status.
and governance structures. 6. Associations may have their own 6. A community regulates the
6. Societies have complex systems of rules and regulations to regulate the behaviour of its members by
norms and laws. relations of their members. They may means of customs, traditions, etc.
7. Society is all-encompassing. have written or unwritten rules. It does not have written rules or
7. Association is partial. It may be laws.
regarded as a part of the community. 7. Community is integral. It may
have, within its boundary, several
associations.
SOCIAL
INSTITUTIONS
DEFINITION AND ROLE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
• Definition of Social Institutions: Social institutions are established patterns of behaviour,
norms, values, and relationships that fulfil specific societal needs. They provide a framework for
individuals to organize their lives, regulate their behaviour, and navigate social interactions.
Examples of social institutions include family, education, religion, government, and economy.
• Role of Social Institutions: Social institutions play a vital role in maintaining social order,
stability, and cohesion. They serve several key functions:
1. Socialization: Social institutions contribute to the process of socialization, shaping individuals'
values, beliefs, and behaviours as they integrate into society.
2. Normative Guidance: Institutions establish norms and values that guide individual behavior,
ensuring conformity to accepted standards.
3. Resource Allocation: Social institutions allocate resources, such as education, wealth, and
power, influencing the distribution of opportunities and privileges.
4. Collective Identity: They contribute to the formation of collective identities, fostering a sense
of belonging and shared culture.
DEFINITIONS OF INSTITUTION
(1) Ginsberg: Institutions "may be described as recognised and established usages
governing the relations between individuals and groups".
(2) Maciver and Page: Institutions may be defined as the "established forms or
conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity".
(3) Kingsley Davis: Institution can be defined as "a set of interwoven folkways, mores,
and laws built around one or more functions".
(4) H.E. Barnes: Institutions represent "the social structure and the machinery through
which human society organises, directs and executes the multifarious activities required to
satisfy human needs".
(5) CA. Ellwood: Institutions may be defined as "the habitual ways of living together
which have been sanctioned, systematised and established by the authority of
communities’’.
KEY SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
1. Family as a Social Institution
• Definition: The family is a fundamental social institution that involves a group of individuals
connected by blood, marriage, or adoption. It serves as a primary unit for socialization and
support.
• Functions: Family institutions contribute to emotional support, socialization of children, and
the transmission of cultural values and norms.
2. Education as a Social Institution:
• Definition: Education is an institutionalized system for the transmission of knowledge, skills,
and cultural values. It includes formal and informal processes of learning.
• Functions: Educational institutions prepare individuals for societal roles, facilitate social
mobility, and contribute to cultural continuity.

KEY SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
3. Religion as a Social Institution:
• Definition: Religion encompasses organized belief systems and practices that address questions
of ultimate meaning. It often involves rituals, moral codes, and community activities.
• Functions: Religious institutions provide a framework for moral guidance, community
cohesion, and addressing existential questions.
• Other Social Institutions:
• Political Institutions: These institutions regulate power and governance within a society,
shaping political structures and decision-making processes.
• Economic Institutions: These structures govern economic activities, resource allocation, and
wealth distribution, influencing the economic well-being of individuals and societies.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTITUTIONS
• The main characteristics of social institutions may be described here.
(1) Social in Nature. Institutions come into being due to the collective activities of the people.
They are essentially social in nature.
(2) Universality. Social institutions are ubiquitous. They exist in all the societies and existed at all
the stages of social development. The basic institutions like family, religion, property and some
kind of political institutions are observed even in the tribal or primitive societies.
(3) Institutions are Standardised Norms. An institution must be understood as standardised
procedures and norms. They prescribe the way of doing things. Marriage, as an institution, for
example, governs the relations between the husband and wife. Similarly, the school or college has
its own rules and procedures.
(4) Institutions as Means of Satisfying Needs. Institutions are established by men themselves.
They cater to the satisfaction of some basic and vital needs of man. These basic needs are-
– (1) the need for self-preservation, (2) the need for self-perpetuation, (3) the need for self-expression.
(5) Institutions are the Controlling Mechanisms, Institutions like religion, morality, state,
government, law, legislation, etc., control the behaviour of men. These mechanisms preserve the
social order and give stability to it.
(6) Relatively Permanent. Institutions normally do not undergo sudden or rapid changes.
Changes take place slowly and gradually in them. But under the pressure of circumstances they
also undergo changes.
(7) Abstract in Nature. Institutions are not external, visible or tangible things. They are abstract.
Thus marriage cannot be kept in a museum, religion cannot be rated or quantified.
(8) Oral and Written Traditions. Institutions may persist in the form of oral and/or written
traditions. For the primitive societies they may be largely oral. There may be written institutional
forms like constitutions, sacred text books, syllabus, governmental orders,, etc., relating to
political, religious, educational institutions and so on.

(9) Synthesising Symbols. Institutions may have their own symbols, material or non-material.
Ex. the state has flag emblem, national anthem as its symbols, religion may have its own symbols
like crucifix, crescent, star, swastika and so on.
(10) Institutions are Interrelated. Institutions, though diverse, are interrelated. The religious,
moral educational, political, economic and other types of institutions are essentially interlinked.
Means of
Social in Stratified
Universality Satisfying
Nature Norms
Needs
Controlling Oral or
Permanent Abstract
Mechanisms Written
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS
• Institutions are often classified into:
(i) Primary Institutions: The most basic institutions which are found even in primitive societies
like religion, family, marriage, property, some kind of political system, are primary in character.
(ii) Secondary Institutions: As societies grew in size and complexity, institutions became
progressive and more differentiated. Accordingly, a large number of institutions are evolved to
cater to the secondary needs of people. They may be called secondary institutions. Ex. education,
examination, law, legislation, constitution, parliamentary procedure, business, etc.
• Another classification is the crescive and the enacted institutions.
(i) Crescive Institutions: Those that evolved or developed naturally, unconsciously and even
spontaneously are called by him crescive, E.g., Language, Family and Religion.
(ii) Enacted Institutions: Those institutions that are consciously and purposefully and in a
planned way established are referred to by him as enacted. E.g., Government, Education and
Legal System.
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
• Institutions have great functional importance. Their main functions are as follows:
(1) Institutions Cater to the Satisfaction of Needs. Institutions contribute to the fulfilment of the
fundamental human needs such as the need for self-perpetuation, perpetuation, and self-
expression.
(2) Institutions Control Human Behaviour. Institutions organize and regulate the system of
social behaviour. They make clear for the members what is allowed and what is not, what is
desirable and what is undesirable.
(3) Institutions Simplify Actions for the Individual. Since the institutions prescribe a particular
way of behaviour for the fulfilment of our basic needs, they save much of our energy and also
time. They avoid confusion and uncertainties and contribute to a system and order in society.
(4) Institutions Assign Roles and Statuses to the Individual. Institutions such as family,
marriage, education, property, caste, religion, etc. provide some social standing for the individuals
concerned.
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
(5) Institutions Contribute to Unity and Uniformity. Institutions which regulate the relations
between individuals have largely been responsible for unity and uniformity that are found in a
society.
(6) Manifest Functions of Institutions. Every institution has two types of manifest functions-
(i) the pursuit of its objectives or interests, and (ii) the preservation of its own internal cohesion so
that it may survive. For example, the state must serve its citizens and protect its boundaries. At the
same time, the state must escape the danger of internal revolution and external conquests.
(7) The Negative Functions of Institutions. Institutions may cause harmful effects also. They do
not undergo changes easily and quickly even if the circumstances demand change. When they
become too conservative they retard progress. They even hamper the growth of personalities of
the people. Religion and caste can be mentioned here as examples to show how they often
discourage people to do achievements or adventures.

Association Institution
1. An association is a group of people 1. Institution refers to the organised way of
organised for the purpose of fulfilling a doing things. It represents common
need or needs. procedure.
2. Association denotes membership. We 2. Institution denotes only a mode or means
belong to political parties, trade unions, of service. We do not belong to
etc. institution. We do not belong to
3. Associations consist of individuals. marriage, education or law.
4. Associations are concrete. 3. Institutions consist of laws, rules, and
5. An association has a location. Thus, a regulations.
family can be located in space. 4. Institutions are abstract.
6. Associations are mostly created or 5. An institution does not have locations.
established. 6. Institutions are primarily evolved.
7. An association may have its own 7. Institution does not possess specific
distinctive name. names, but has a structure and may have
8. Associations may be temporary or symbol.
permanent. 8. Institutions are relatively more durable.
SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a
society based on various factors such as wealth, power, education, and social status.
• It involves the classification of people into different social classes, with varying levels of access
to resources and opportunities.
• This hierarchy is often characterized by unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and
privileges among different segments of the population.
• Social stratification influences an individual's life chances, access to education, economic
opportunities, and overall social status.
• Social stratification is a universal feature of human societies, though its specific forms may vary
across cultures and historical periods.
• It is a persistent and ingrained aspect of social organization that can impact various aspects of
individuals' lives.
DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
1. Ogburn and Nimkoff: "The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or
less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification’’
2. Gisbert: "Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories
linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination.’’
3. Melvin M. Tumin: Social stratification refers to "arrangement of any social group or society
into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation,
and/ or psychic gratification.’’
4. Lundberg: "A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among peoplethat
are evaluated by them as being lower and higher’’ .
5. Raymond W. Murry: "Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into high and
"lower' social units".

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• According to M.M. Tumin the main attributes of stratification are as follows:
1. It is Social. Stratification is social rather than biologically determined. While factors like
strength, intelligence, age, and sex may contribute to status differences, they alone do not explain
why some statuses receive more power, property, and prestige than others. Socially recognized
traits such as education, skills, experience, and personality are more significant in determining
social superiority and inferiority.
2. It is Ancient. The stratification system has ancient roots, evident in historical and
archaeological records, even within small wandering bands where age and sex were primary
criteria. Distinctions between rich and poor, powerful and humble, freemen and slaves existed in
most ancient civilizations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
3. It is Universal. The stratification system is a worldwide phenomenon. Difference between the
rich and the poor or the haves' and the "have nots' is evident everywhere.
4. It is in Diverse Forms. The stratification system varies across societies. Ancient Rome had
patricians and plebeians, while the ancient Aryan society had four varnas. Ancient Greek society
was divided between freemen and slaves. In the modern world, class, caste, and estate are
common forms of stratification, but complexity increases in civilized societies.
5. It is Consequential. The stratification system results in unequal distribution of essential
resources, leading to two main consequences: "life chances" and "lifestyles." "Life chances"
encompass factors like infant mortality, longevity, illness, childlessness, and marital conflict,
while "lifestyles" include housing, education, recreation, relationships, media exposure, and
transportation preferences. Life chances are often involuntary, whereas lifestyles reflect individual
preferences, tastes, and values.

OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• An open system of social stratification is one in which social mobility is relatively high, and individuals
have the opportunity to move between social classes based on factors such as education, occupation, and
achievement.
• Social mobility is possible, allowing individuals to move up or down the social hierarchy.
• Achieved status (based on individual accomplishments and choices) plays a significant role.
• Examples include modern Western societies where individuals can change their social status through
education, career success, and other achievements.
• In a Closed System of social stratification there is limited or no social mobility, with social status largely
determined by ascribed characteristics such as birth or caste.
• Ascribed status (attributes assigned at birth, like caste or hereditary nobility) is a primary factor.
• Examples include historical caste systems, where individuals are born into specific social groups with
little opportunity for mobility.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• There are two main theories concerning the origin of "social stratification":
(i) theory of economic determinism (conflict theory) of Karl Marx, and (ii) the functionalist
theory.
Theories of Social
Stratification
Theory of Economic
The Functionalist
Determinism
Theory.
(Conflict Theory)

THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
(1) Theory of Economic Determinism or the Conflict Theory:
• Developed by Karl Marx, a German philosopher and sociologist.
• Focuses on economic factors as the primary driver of social stratification.
• Views social stratification as a result of the unequal distribution of resources and the
perpetuation of power imbalances.
• Class struggle between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class) is
central to societal development.
• Predicts the eventual overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a classless, communist
society.

ORIGIN OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• (ii) Functionalist Theory: Developed by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore.
• Argues that social stratification is functional for society because it ensures that the most
important positions are filled by the most qualified individuals.
• Maintains that unequal rewards create motivation for individuals to acquire skills and pursue
important roles in society.
• Critics argue that it oversimplifies the complexities of social stratification and ignores issues of
social injustice.
• While Marx's Conflict Theory highlights conflict between stable groups, with strong community
sentiments, Functional Theory emphasizes the integrating function of social stratification based
on individual merit and reward. Both theories have their own merits and demerits.

CLASSICAL THEORIES
3. Weberian Theory:
• Key Points:
• Developed by Max Weber, a German sociologist.
• Acknowledges the significance of economic factors but emphasizes multiple sources of social
stratification, including class, status, and power.
• Three distinct dimensions of social stratification: class (economic position), status (social
prestige), and power (ability to influence others).
• Social stratification is seen as a complex interplay of these dimensions.

CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES
4. Feminist Theory:
• Explores how gender intersects with social stratification.
• Critiques traditional theories for often neglecting the experiences of women and addressing
gender-based inequalities.
• Intersectionality: Feminist theory recognizes how gender intersects with other social categories,
shaping individuals' experiences of oppression and privilege simultaneously, as proposed by
Kimberlé Crenshaw.
• Patriarchy: Feminist theorists argue that patriarchal systems prioritize men's power and
perpetuate gender inequality through the devaluation of women's labor and enforcement of
traditional gender roles, as articulated by Simone de Beauvoir.
• Gendered Division of Labor: Feminist analysis reveals how gender norms influence the
allocation of unpaid domestic work and caregiving responsibilities, limiting women's economic
opportunities and perpetuating dependence on men, as explored by Dorothy Smith.
TYPES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• Sociologists have recognised three major types of social stratification:
1. Caste,
Types of
2. Estates and Social
3. Social class. Stratification
Caste Estates Social Class
• Of these, caste system with all its peculiar features is to be found in India only.
• Estate system as a kind of stratification system existed in Europe during the medieval period.
But social classes are almost universal in nature. They are found in all the civilised,
industrialised and literate societies of the world.
a. Class System:
• Based on economic factors such as wealth, income, and occupation.
• Social mobility is possible, allowing individuals to move up or down in the social hierarchy.
• Prevailing in many modern, industrialized societies where individuals can change their social
status based on achievements and economic success.
b. Caste System:
• Determined by birth and hereditary factors.
• Rigid social hierarchy with limited or no social mobility between castes.
• Each caste has its own social roles, occupations, and rules.
• Historically prevalent in India, though variations of caste systems have existed in other cultures.

c. Estate System:
• Historically associated with feudal societies.
• Divides society into three estates: clergy (religious leaders), nobility (aristocracy), and
commoners.
• Social status is often inherited, and mobility is restricted.
• Prevalent in medieval Europe but has largely declined over time.

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
1. Encourages hard work. Social Stratification motivates people to work hard and embody
societal values. Those who best adhere to these values often receive greater prestige and social
acceptance. Highly ranked occupations. Individuals in highly ranked positions are rewarded
with money, prestige, and comforts thus encouraging work to reach there.
2. Ensures circulation of elites. To some extent class stratification helps to ensure what is often
called "the circulation of the elite". The process of competition helps to ensure that the more
efficient people are able to rise to the top, and this process continues.
3. Serves an economic function. Competition serves an economic function by promoting the
rational use of available talent. Differential rewards are functionally necessary, especially in
systems like the caste system where top positions are largely inherited. Even in such systems,
individuals at the top can lose prestige if they fail to meet certain standards, thus incentivizing
them to maintain their positions through hard work and adherence to societal norms

4. Prevents waste of resources. The stratification system prevents the wastage of scarce
resources by ensuring that individuals with elite status possess socially valued abilities and
qualities, whether inherited or acquired. For example, training doctors and engineers only to
assign them menial tasks would be counterproductive. Once individuals are selected and trained
for difficult positions, it would be inefficient to waste their time and energy on tasks that could be
performed by others.
5. Stabilises and reinforces the attitudes and skills. Members of a class typically restrict their
interactions to their own class, forming more intimate relationships with fellow class members.
This tendency serves a function by stabilizing and reinforcing the attitudes and skills that underpin
upper-class positions. Association with individuals who share similar values and interests
reaffirms these commonalities, further solidifying social cohesion within the class.

6. Helps to pursue different professions or jobs., The variation in values, attitudes, and qualities
among different social classes serves a functional role in society. This diversity ensures that both
manual and non-manual labour needs are met.
7. Social Control. One way it contributes to social control is by establishing and reinforcing
norms and expectations within different social strata. Those at higher levels of the hierarchy often
have more resources and influence, allowing them to shape societal norms and maintain control
over those below them. Additionally, social stratification can create a sense of competition and
conformity among individuals striving to attain higher status, thus regulating behaviour within
society.
Stabilises and
Ensures Serves an
Encourages Prevents waste Reinforces
Circulation of Economic
Hard Work of Resources attitudes and
Elites Function
Skills
Helps to
pursue Social Control
different Jobs
MERITOCRACY
• Meritocracy is a hypothetical system where social stratification is based on merit
and personal effort, with high levels of effort resulting in a higher social position
• Characteristics:
• Based on the idea that individuals should be rewarded and assigned positions in
society based on their abilities, achievements, and merit.
• Meritocratic systems aim to eliminate biases related to social background, gender,
or other ascribed characteristics.
• Advocates argue that it promotes fairness and efficiency in allocating resources
and opportunities.

CASTE SYSTEM

CASTE SYSTEM
• Definition:
• The caste system in India is a social stratification system that classifies individuals into distinct
hereditary groups based on their birth. Each caste, known as a "varna," has specific social roles,
occupations, and rules governing interactions.
• Hereditary: Caste is determined by birth, and individuals inherit their caste from their parents.
• Occupational Specialization: Each caste traditionally had assigned occupations, and
individuals were expected to follow the profession associated with their caste.
• Endogamy: Marriages were traditionally restricted within one's own caste, reinforcing social
boundaries.
• Ritual Purity and Pollution: Different castes had varying levels of ritual purity, and
interactions between castes were often governed by rules to prevent pollution.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION
• Ancient Roots: The caste system has ancient roots in Indian society, with early Vedic literature
mentioning the varna system based on occupation.
• Varna System to Caste System: Over time, the varna system evolved into a more complex
caste system with the addition of "jatis" or sub-castes. Jatis were often associated with specific
communities or regions.
• Impact of Social and Political Changes: The caste system underwent changes during different
historical periods, influenced by social, political, and economic factors. Islamic invasions and
the Mughal period had some impact on social structures but did not eliminate the caste system.
• British Colonial Rule: The British colonial administration categorized people based on caste
for administrative purposes, further solidifying the caste identities.
• Post-Independence Reforms: After India gained independence in 1947, efforts were made to
address caste-based discrimination through affirmative action policies and legal measures.

IMPACT ON SOCIAL INTERACTIONS AND MOBILITY:
• Social Interactions: Caste traditionally dictated social interactions, including whom one could
marry, dine with, or socialize. Breaking these norms could result in social ostracization.
• Discrimination and Untouchability: The lowest caste, historically referred to as "Dalits" or
"Untouchables," faced severe discrimination and were often excluded from various aspects of
social life.
• Limited Social Mobility: Traditionally, social mobility was limited, and individuals were
expected to follow the occupation of their caste. Changing one's caste was considered
impossible.
• Modern Challenges and Changes: Despite legal reforms and affirmative action policies, caste-
based discrimination still persists in some areas. However, individuals are challenging
traditional norms and pursuing education and careers beyond their caste occupations.
• Reservation System: The Indian government has implemented a reservation system to provide
opportunities for historically marginalized castes in education and employment, aiming to
address historical injustices.
CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA
• The term 'caste' is derived from the Spanish (also Portuguese) word ‘caste’ meaning 'breed" or
lineage.
• The Sanskrit word for caste is 'Varna' which means 'colour’.
• Races and colour seem to be the bases of Indian caste in addition to the division of labour and
occupation.
• The popular equivalent of caste is "Jati“.
• The caste stratification of the Indian Society has had its origin in the "Chaturvarna system.
• According to the Chaturvarna doctrine, the Hindu society was divided into four main varnas
namely: the Brahmins, the Kashtriyas, the Vaishyas, and the Shudras.
• The Varna system which was prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on the
division of labour and occupation. The Caste system owes its origin to the Varna system.
• Varnas which were four in number and castes which are found in hundreds and thousands are
not one and the same. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA
• The term 'caste' is derived from the Spanish (also Portuguese) word ‘caste’ meaning 'breed" or
lineage.
• The Sanskrit word for caste is 'Varna' which means 'colour’.
• Races and colour seem to be the bases of Indian caste in addition to the division of labour and
occupation.
• The popular equivalent of caste is "Jati“.
• The caste stratification of the Indian Society has had its origin in the "Chaturvarna system.
• According to the Chaturvarna doctrine, the Hindu society was divided into four main varnas
namely: the Brahmins, the Kashtriyas, the Vaishyas, and the Shudras.
• The Varna system which was prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on the
division of labour and occupation. The Caste system owes its origin to the Varna system.
• Varnas which were four in number and castes which are found in hundreds and thousands are
not one and the same. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
CASTES IN INDIA
• In the context of Indian society, social stratification is evident in the traditional caste system, which has
been a significant aspect of the country's social structure for centuries.
• The caste system divides people into distinct groups, or castes, based on their birth.
• Each caste has its own social and economic roles, and there are strict rules regarding interactions
between different castes. Here’s an example of social stratification in Indian society using the caste
system:
1. Brahmins (Priests and Scholars)
2. Kshatriyas (Warriors and Rulers)
3. Vaishyas (Merchants and Landowner)
Castes in India
4. Shudras (Laborers and Servants)
5. Dalits (formerly known as Untouchables)
Brahmins Kshatriyas Vaishyas Shudras

(Priests and (Warriors and (Merchants and (Laborers and Dalits
Scholars) Rulers)
Tawqeer ul Islam @EACTLand
Classes Owners) Servants)
DEFINITIONS OF CASTE SYSTEM
(1) Sir Herbert Risely: Caste is a "collection of families, bearing a common name, claiming a common
descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling
and regarded by those who are competant to give an opinion as forming a single homo- geneous
community.’’
(2) Maciver and Page: "When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without any
hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste.’’
(3) CH. Cooley: "When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste.’’
(4) A.W. Green: "Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status ladder, at
least ideally may not occur".
(5) Ketkar: "A caste is a group having two characteristics, (i) membership is confined to those who are
born of members and includes all persons so born, (ii) the members are forbidden by an inexorable
social law to marry outside the group.’’
(6) D.N. Majumdar and T.N. Madan have said that caste is a closed group'.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTE
• The following have been the main traditional features of the caste system.
1. Caste - As a Hierarchical Division of Society. Hindu society operates on a gradational hierarchy,
divided into numerous castes and subcastes, each associated with a sense of superiority or inferiority.
Brahmins occupy the highest position, considered pure and supreme, while the so-called
"untouchables" or Harijans are relegated to the lowest end of the hierarchy.
2. Caste - As a Segmental Division of Society. The Hindu society is deeply entrenched in the caste
system, dividing individuals into distinct segments with rigid boundaries. Membership in a caste is
determined solely by birth, making it immutable and non-negotiable. Each caste maintains its own
customs, traditions, and informal rules, often regulated by caste councils or panchayats. While these
institutions were once influential, they have become weaker in modern times, yet caste loyalty remains
strong, particularly in rural areas, limiting the extent of community cohesion.

3. Restrictions on Food Habits. The caste system dictates strict rules regarding food habits, varying from
caste to caste. Brahmins, for example, may accept only pakka food from lower castes and kachcha food
only from their own caste. Food prepared by Brahmins is generally acceptable to all castes, explaining
their dominance in the hotel industry historically. Certain vegetables may also be restricted based on caste,
with some Brahmins avoiding onions, garlic, and other items and beef consumed by Harijans.
4. Restrictions on social Relations. The caste system enforces restrictions on social interactions, driven
by the concept of "pollution" where contact with lower castes, especially Harijans, is considered defiling
for higher castes. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, specific distances were mandated between different castes,
leading to the practice of untouchability and complete segregation of lower castes from higher ones.
5. Social and Religious In traditional caste societies, particularly among lower castes like Harijans,
various civil, social, and religious disabilities were imposed. They were often relegated to living on the
outskirts of cities or villages, with restricted access to certain areas. Socially, they faced segregation and
were denied access to public amenities like wells and public places. Educational, legal, and political rights
were also withheld from them, and in South India, restrictions extended to their housing, clothing, and
ornamentation choices.
6. The Civil and Religious Privileges of Certain Castes. In contrast to lower caste individuals, higher
caste groups like the Brahmins often enjoy various privileges. Brahmins typically receive more freedom
and respect, including the privilege of being saluted by others and not bowing to idols of lower castes.
Education, teaching, and the chanting of Vedic Mantras are often monopolized by Brahmins, while upper
caste individuals in general benefit from social, political, legal, and religious privileges.
7. Restrictions on Occupational Choice. Occupations were traditionally associated with specific castes,
often passed down hereditarily. Certain professions like weaving, shoe-making, and scavenging were
deemed "degrading," while occupations like learning, priesthood, and teaching were prestigious and
mainly pursued by Brahmins.
8. Restrictions on Marriage. The caste system enforces endogamy, wherein individuals are expected to
marry within their own caste or subcaste. Intercaste marriages were historically forbidden and remain
uncommon today. However, exceptions to this rule exist in certain regions, such as the hill parts of Punjab
and Malabar, where exogamous marriages like Sapinda and Sagotra are allowed.

SAGOTRA EXOGAMY AND SAPRAVARA EXOGAMY
1. Sagotra exogamy, that is, marrying outside one's own gotra is very much prevalent among the upper
caste such as Brahmins and Kshatriyas.
– Marriage within the gotra is prohibited.
– This restriction has been imposed since people of one gotra are believed to have similar blood.
2. Similarly, Sapravara marriages are also forbidden especially for the Brahmins.
– Persons belonging to the same pravara cannot intermarry.
– People who utter the name of a common saint at religious functions are believed to belong to the same pravara.
The pravara is a kind of religious and spiritual bond.
– Sapravara exogamy, that is, marrying outside one's own pravara, has been imposed as a rule for the upper
castes, especially for the Brahmins.
3. Sapinda Exogamy (pinda = common parentage) dictates that marriage partners must not be closely
related by blood, usually within seven generations, to maintain social and genetic diversity. It is prohibited
in Hinduism.

SOCIAL LEGISLATION ON CASTE
Some of the legislations which the British introduced shook the integrity of the caste system.
Specific mention can be made of a few of the legislations such as the following:
(i) The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850 [which served to remove some of the disabilities
associated with caste including the practice of untouchability].
(ii) The Special Marriage Act of 1872 [which legalised intercaste and inter-religious marriages).
(iii) The Hindu Widows Remarriage Act of 1856 (which gave legal permission for widows to
remarry).

MERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA
(1) Caste represents a harmonious division of society based mainly on division of labour and occupation.
(2) Caste promotes the spirit of cooperation and fellow-feeling at least within its range. It helps the poor,
the needy and strengthens group sentiment.
(3) Caste is a source of social stability. It has given strength to the Indian society to withstand the "shocks
of politics and the cataclysms of nature".
(4) The caste functions as the constitution of the Hindu society. It rendered most important services in the
past and continues to sustain the social order and its solidarity.
(5) The caste preserves the racial purity by prohibiting inter-marriages and by imposing endogamy on its
members.
(6) It defines the economic pursuits and provides professional career to each individual. It provides for
cultural diffusion within the group. The 'caste culture' is passed on from one generation to the next,
very systematically.

DEMERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA
(1) The caste system has unwarrantedly divided the Hindu society into mutually hostile and conflicting
groups and sub-groups. It has given scope to the inhuman practice of untouchability.
(2) As Gandhiji has said, untouchability is "the hatefullest expression of the caste."
(3) It has hindered the growth of a strong national unity.
(4) The excessive caste loyalty has brought political disunity and affected working of the multiparty
system.
(5) It has prevented the proper growth of democracy. Strictly speaking, democracy and caste cannot go
together. The caste engenders inequality while democracy assures equality.
(6) It has retarded progress. It is more conservative, reactionary and orthodox. It is for the status quo.
(7) It has hindered mobility, it has made our society more static than dynamic.
(8) It has lowered the status of women as they have only a subordinate role to play in caste ridden society.
(9) It has given scope for religious conversions. The lower caste people are getting converted into Islam
and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM
Theories of Origin of Caste System
Occupational /
Economic / Traditional / Evolutionary
Racial Theory Political Theory Religious Theory
Functional DivineTheory Theory
Theory
(1) Racial Theory: Proposed by Herbert Hope Risley, the racial theory suggests that the caste system
originated from the segregation of racial groups, particularly Aryans and indigenous Dravidians, into
hierarchical social strata based on physical and cultural differences.
(2) Political Theory: M.N. Srinivas proposed the political theory, suggesting that the caste system
emerged as a means of maintaining social order and political control by the ruling elite, who
institutionalized caste divisions to consolidate power and exploit labor.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM
(3) Occupational/Economic/Functional Theory: The occupational or functional theory, proposed by G.S.

Ghurye, posits that the caste system developed as a functional division of labor, with each caste assigned
specific occupations and roles to ensure the smooth functioning of society.
(4) Traditional/Divine Theory: According to the traditional or divine theory, advocated by traditional
Hindu texts and religious beliefs, the caste system was divinely ordained and rooted in the concept of
varna, where individuals are born into specific social categories based on their karma and dharma.
(5) Religious Theory: Proposed by Louis Dumont, the religious theory suggests that the caste system
originated from the religious ideology of Hinduism, where caste distinctions are justified through religious
scriptures and rituals, with each caste assigned a specific religious duty or status.
(6) Evolutionary Theory: The evolutionary theory, proposed by D.D. Kosambi, suggests that the caste
system evolved over time through a process of social stratification and differentiation, influenced by
historical, economic, and cultural factors, rather than being a static or divine institution.

SOCIAL CLASS

SOCIAL CLASS
• Definition:
• Social class refers to a group of individuals in a society who share a similar economic and social
position. It is typically determined by factors such as income, occupation, education, and
wealth.
• Economic Position: Social classes are often defined by an individual's or a family's economic
standing, including income and wealth.
• Occupational Status: The type of work or profession a person engages in is a crucial element of
social class.
• Education: Educational attainment is another key determinant, as it often correlates with
occupational opportunities and income.
• Lifestyle and Social Prestige: Social classes may exhibit distinct lifestyles, values, and social
prestige associated with their economicTawqeer
position.
ul Islam @EACT Classes
DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL CLASS
1. P. Gisbert: A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in society
which permanently determines their relation to other groups.
2. Ogburn and Nimkoff: A social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the same
social status in a given society“
3. Maciver and Page: "A social class is any portion of the community marked off from the rest by
social status.
4. Max Weber: Social classes are aggregates of individuals 'who have the same opportunities of
acquiring goods, the same exhibited standard of living’.
5. Lapire: 'A social class is culturally defined group that is accorded a particular position of
status within the population as a whole’.
Thus, it is clear that social class is a segment of society with all the members of all ages and both
the sexes who share the same general status.
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CLASS
1. Class-A Status Group. Social class is intricately tied to status, reflecting the varied activities
and vocations people pursue within society. This perspective allows for the application of
class as a status group across diverse societies with multiple strata. The concept of social
status not only physically separates individuals but also influences their mental perceptions
and interactions
2. Achieved Status and Not Ascribed status. In a class system, status is achieved rather than
ascribed, meaning it is based on individual accomplishments rather than birth. Factors such as
income, occupation, wealth, education, and lifestyle determine one's status, offering
opportunities for individuals to change or improve their social standing..
3. The Class System is Universal. Class is almost a universal phenomenon. The class system
appears in all the modern complex societies of the world. It is a phenomenon that is absent
only inthe smallest, the simplest, and the most primitive of societies. All other soceities of any
size have a class structure.
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CLASS
4. Mode of Feeling. In a class system, individuals may experience three main types of feelings:
(i) a sense of equality with those in their own class, (ii) a feeling of inferiority toward those of
higher socioeconomic status, and (iii) a sense of superiority over those of lower status. These
feelings can lead to the development of class-consciousness and ultimately foster class solidarity
within each group.
5. Element of Prestige. In society, each social class holds a distinct status, which is closely linked
to prestige. The level of prestige associated with a class is determined by various factors such as
wealth, knowledge, descent, religion, and bravery. These qualities vary across societies and can
change over time within the same society, influencing the relative position of different classes
within the social hierarchy.
6. Element of Stability. Social classes exhibit stability compared to transient groups like crowds
or mobs. While status within a class can change, it generally remains relatively stable. However,
in exceptional circumstances such as wars, revolutions, or social crises, significant shifts in class
status may occur. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
SOCIAL CLASS
7. Mode of Living. Social classes are delineated by their customary behaviors, often termed as
"life-styles." These encompass various aspects such as dress, housing, recreation, cultural
consumption, familial dynamics, media exposure, social circles, spending habits, and more. Life-
styles reflect the unique preferences, tastes, and values inherent to each class.
8. Social Class an Open Group. Social classes are considered "open groups" within an open
social system, allowing for vertical social mobility. In such systems, individuals can move up or
down the social hierarchy with minimal restrictions, although entirely open or closed systems are
theoretical constructs.
9. Social class an Economic Group.
Social classes are primarily rooted in economic factors, yet they transcend mere economic
divisions. While wealth, income, occupation, and education play crucial roles, subjective elements
like class-consciousness and solidarity are equally significant. Therefore, classes are not solely
economic entities but encompass broader social identities and affiliations.
SOCIAL CLASS
10. Classification of Social Classes: Sociologists offer various classifications of social classes,
including the three-fold division into Upper, Middle, and Lower classes. Warner and Lunt further
divide these classes into six sub-categories based on nuanced distinctions. Conversely, Karl Marx
simplifies the classification into two major classes: the wealthy "haves" and the impoverished
"have nots," highlighting class conflict. Sorokin introduces three types of class stratification:
economic, political, and occupational classes, emphasizing multifaceted class structures.
11. Class Consciousness. Class consciousness, defined as the awareness and identification with
one's social class, plays a crucial role in shaping group dynamics and collective action. Ginsberg
outlines three conditions influencing class consciousness: social mobility, rivalry, and the
development of shared traditions. Karl Marx underscores the significance of class consciousness,
particularly among the working class, as a precursor to class solidarity and collective struggle
against exploitation and oppression
CRITERION OF CLASS
• It is true that society has been divided into different classes at different times. Classification of
social classes has been made on the basis of objective criterion or subjective criterion or both.
• Subjective Criteria like class consciousness, solidarity, and identification are vital in
determining social class, fostering unity among members with shared interests. Warner and
Lunt's study on the American class system highlights the importance of these psychological
factors in class determination. According to them,:
(i) belonging to the 'right family’,
(ii) doing the right things.
(iii) knowing how to 'act right’
(iv) associating with the 'right people’,
(v) living in the 'right' section of the town,
(vi) one's feelings and beliefs concerning certain things - all have their impact on the status
of individuals according to which their class
Tawqeeris determined.
CRITERION OF CLASS
• Objective Criteria. Objective criteria include those factors with the help of which one's status
may be determined. They may include
– (i) wealth, property or income,
– (ii) family or kinship,
– (iii) location of residence,
– (iv) occupation,
– (v) level of education,
– (vi) physical marks of difference such as skin colour, etc.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE DETERMINATION OF SOCIAL CLASS
• Income: The amount of money an individual or a household earns is a primary factor in determining
social class. High income generally places individuals in higher social classes.
• Occupation: The type of job or profession one holds is a significant determinant of social class.
Occupations with higher social prestige and income contribute to a higher social class status.
• Education: Educational attainment plays a crucial role in social class. Higher levels of education often
lead to better job opportunities, increased income, and upward social mobility.
• Wealth: Wealth includes assets, properties, and investments. Individuals with substantial wealth may
have a higher social class status, even if their income is not exceptionally high.
• Social Connections: Networks and social connections can influence social class, as relationships with
influential individuals or groups may provide access to opportunities and resources.
• Cultural Capital: Cultural capital refers to non-economic resources such as education, knowledge, and
cultural awareness. Possessing cultural capital can enhance social status.
• Occupational Prestige: The level of prestige associated with a particular occupation contributes to
social class. Professions with high social esteem elevate individuals within the class hierarchy.
WEALTH AS A COMPONENT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• Definition: Wealth refers to the accumulated assets, resources, and financial holdings owned by
individuals, families, or groups. It encompasses various forms, including real estate,
investments, savings, and personal property.
• Wealth as a Social Stratification Factor: In social stratification, wealth is a key determinant of
an individual's or a family's position within the hierarchy.
• Access to Opportunities: Wealth provides individuals with access to opportunities such as
quality education, healthcare, and investment options. It contributes to an individual's ability to
navigate and influence economic and social spheres.
• Intergenerational Impact: Wealth can be passed down through generations, leading to the
perpetuation of privilege or disadvantage within families. This intergenerational transfer of
wealth contributes to long-term social stratification.
• Gini Coefficient: The Gini coefficient is a commonly used measure of wealth inequality. It
quantifies the extent to which the distribution of wealth deviates from perfect equality. A Gini
coefficient of 0 represents perfect equality, while 1 indicates perfect inequality.
SOCIAL
MOBILITY
SOCIAL MOBILITY
• Definition: Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups within the social
hierarchy with time.It involves changes in individual's social class, status, or economic position.
• Types of Social Mobility:
a. Vertical Mobility
b. Horizontal Mobility Social Mobility
Types
c. Intragenerational Mobility
d. Intergenerational Mobility
Horizontal Intragenerational Intergenerational

Vertical Mobility
Mobility Mobility Mobility

KINDS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
• Social mobility is primarily of two main types :
(1)Vertical Social Mobility: Vertical Mobility refers to the movement of people of groups from
one status to another. It involves change in class, occupation or power. For example, the
movement of people from the poor class to the middle class, from the occupation of the labourers
to that of the bank clerks, from the power position of the opposition to that of the ruling class.
- Upward Mobility: The movement of individuals or groups to a higher social class or position.
- Downward Mobility: The movement of individuals or groups to a lower social class or position.
(2) Horizontal Social Mobility: Horizontal Mobility is a change in position without the change
in status. For example, an engineer working in a factory may resign from his job and join another
factory as an engineer and may work in more or less the same capacity. Similarly, a teacher may
leave one school to join another as a teacher.

CLASS MOBILITY AND ITS PATTERNS
• Intragenerational Mobility: Intragenerational mobility refers to changes in social class status
within an individual's lifetime. For example, a person may experience upward mobility through
career success.
• Intergenerational Mobility: Intergenerational mobility considers changes in social class status
between generations. A family's social class position may change over time due to factors like
education and economic opportunities.
• Structural Mobility: Structural mobility occurs when societal changes, such as economic shifts
or technological advancements, impact social class positions for large groups of people.
• Cyclical Mobility: Cyclical mobility refers to changes in social class status influenced by
economic cycles. During economic downturns, individuals may experience downward mobility,
while periods of prosperity may facilitate upward mobility.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL MOBILITY
• Education: Access to quality education can significantly influence social mobility. Higher educational attainment
often opens up opportunities for better-paying jobs and improved social status.
• Occupation and Employment Opportunities: The type of occupation and employment opportunities available
can impact social mobility. Certain professions and industries may offer more upward mobility than others.
• Income and Wealth: The distribution of income and wealth within a society can affect social mobility. Limited
access to financial resources can hinder an individual's ability to invest in education or entrepreneurship.
• Social Networks: Social connections and networks can play a role in social mobility. Individuals with strong
connections may have access to job opportunities, mentorship, and other resources that facilitate upward mobility.
• Discrimination and Bias: Discrimination based on factors such as race, gender, or socioeconomic background can
impede social mobility. Systemic biases may limit opportunities for certain individuals or groups.
• Economic and Technological Changes: Economic shifts and technological advancements can create new
opportunities or challenges for social mobility. Industries experiencing growth may provide more avenues for
upward mobility.
• Government Policies: Social and economic policies, including education initiatives, welfare programs, and
affirmative action, can influence social mobility. Policies aimed at reducing inequalities can enhance opportunities
for upward mobility. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
SOCIAL
FOLKWAYS
FOLKWAYS
• Definition: Folkways are informal, customary behaviours and practices within a society that are
followed by tradition. They represent the accepted way of doing things and are considered socially
appropriate.
• Folkways are generally less severe in terms of social consequences when violated, often resulting in mild
disapproval or social awkwardness.
• Examples of Folkways in Daily Life:
• Greetings: Commonly accepted ways of greeting people, such as handshakes, hugs, or verbal greetings.
• Table Manners: Unwritten rules about eating behavior, like using utensils, not talking with a full mouth,
and waiting for others to start eating.
• Characteristics of Folkways include:
• Informal Nature: Folkways are not codified or formalized but are ingrained in everyday interactions.
• Routine Practices: They are often routine actions that are expected in specific social situations.
• Mild Social Consequences: Violating folkways may result in mild disapproval or social awkwardness
rather than severe sanctions. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
FOLKWAYS
• Folkways', 'mores', and 'customs' represent different kinds of social norms.
• 'Social norms' refer to the group shared standards of behaviour.
• A social norm is a pattern setting limits on individual behaviour.
• Norms are broadly, they are grouped into-folkways, mores, customs, fashions, rites, rituals, ceremonies,
taboos, traditions, conventions, statutes, laws, etiquettes and the like.
• The term 'folkways' was introduced into sociological literature by W.G. Sumner in a book with the title
'Folkways' published in 1906.
• The word means literally "the ways of the folk". "Folk’ means people and 'Ways' refers to their
behavioural habits.
• "Folkways' are norms to which we conform because it is customary to do so in our society. Folkways are
the accepted ways of behaviour.
• According to Sumner, folkways represent man's unique means of adapting himself to the environment.
• The term is often broadly used to include customs, conventions, usages, etiquettes, etc. It includes
several modes of behaviour which men have evolved to meet the needs of their social life.
FOLKWAYS
• Definitions
(i) Gillin and Gillin say that "Folkways are behaviour patterns of everyday life which
generallyarise unconsciously in a group".
(ii) A. W. Green opines, "Those ways of acting that are common to a society or a group and
thatare handed down from one generation to the next are known as folkways.“
(iii) Lundberg has said that "Folkways are the typical or habitual beliefs, attitudes and styles
ofconduct observed within a group or community".
(iv) Merill says that folkways "are literally the ways of the folk, that is, social habits or
groupexpectations that have arisen in the daily life of the group".
(v) In simple words, 'folkways' can be understood as "repetitive petty acts of the people".

TYPES OF FOLKWAYS
• Here are different types of folkways:
1. Social Etiquette: Social etiquette encompasses the customary behaviors and manners accepted
in various social situations.
• Example: Saying "please" and "thank you," holding the door open for others, and waiting for
everyone to be served before starting to eat are examples of social etiquette folkways.
2. Gestures and Non-Verbal Communication: Customary gestures and non-verbal
communication practices that are considered polite or appropriate in a given cultural context.
• Example: Nodding in agreement, maintaining eye contact during a conversation, and using
specific hand gestures in greetings.
3. Dress Code: Accepted norms regarding clothing and appearance that vary across different
social settings.
• Example: Wearing formal attire to a wedding, dressing professionally in the workplace, or
adhering to a specific dress code in religious institutions.
TYPES OF FOLKWAYS
4. Table Manners: Informal rules and behaviors related to dining etiquette and table manners.
• Example: Using utensils in a particular way, waiting for everyone to be served before starting to
eat, and refraining from speaking with a full mouth.
5. Greeting Customs: Socially accepted ways of greeting others, often varying based on cultural
and regional norms.
• Example: Handshakes, hugs, bows, or verbal greetings like "hello" and "good morning.“
6. Gift-Giving Practices: Customs related to giving and receiving gifts, including appropriate
occasions and gestures.
• Example: Bringing a gift to a host when visiting someone's home, giving gifts on special
occasions, and expressing gratitude for received gifts.
7. Respect for Elders: Traditional norms emphasizing respect for older individuals and deference
to their opinions or authority.
• Example: Using polite forms of address, listening
Tawqeer attentively
ul Islam @EACT Classes to elders, etc.
TYPES OF FOLKWAYS
8. Queueing and Waiting in Line: Unwritten rules regarding waiting in lines, reflecting cultural
expectations of fairness and order.
• Example: Waiting one's turn, refraining from cutting in line, and maintaining a reasonable
distance from the person in front.
9. Politeness and Small Talk: Cultural norms around politeness and engaging in small talk
during social interactions.
• Example: Expressing gratitude, using polite language, and engaging in casual conversations to
establish rapport.
10. Traffic Rules and Norms: Informal norms related to traffic behaviors, guiding how
individuals interact on roads.
• Example: Following traffic signals, yielding to pedestrians, and maintaining a safe distance
between vehicles.
NATURE OF FOLKWAYS
(i) Social in Nature. Folkways are the products of man's group life. They are created by the
groups for their sustenance and maintenance. Individuals get social recognition by conforming to
the folkways.
(ii) Repetitive in Character. A social practice becomes a folkway when majority of people
observe it constantly and regularly. The oft-repeated practices of the majority normally become
the folkways, because such practices become standardized practices by constant repetition. In this
sense also folkways represent the mass phenomena and not the individual peculiarity.
(iii) Unplanned Origin. The origins of folkways are very obscure. Sumner posited that folkways
emerge spontaneously and unconsciously within a group, lacking deliberate planning. They often
begin with an individual adopting a new practice, such as a hairstyle or greeting style, which gains
popularity over time as more people adopt it. However, the originator and the exact time of origin
become obscure once the practice becomes a widely accepted folkway.

NATURE OF FOLKWAYS
(iv) Informal Enforcement. Folkways serve as informal mechanisms of social control, differing from
laws or morals in their non-compulsory nature. While adherence to folkways is not legally mandated nor
enforced by authorities, deviating from them may result in social disapproval and ridicule rather than
formal punishment. Although individuals may choose to violate some folkways, complete disregard for all
of them is generally socially unacceptable.
(v) Follways Differ a Lot. Folkways exhibit variations across different groups and societies and may
evolve over time within the same group or society. Cultural norms regarding hair length or meal customs
can differ significantly between regions or ethnic groups. Additionally, folkways may vary based on factors
such as age, gender, occupation, and caste within a society.
(vi) Folkways are Numerous. The sheer diversity and abundance of folkways make it impossible to
catalogue them comprehensively.
(vii) Folkways are subject to Change. Folkways are subject to change in response to evolving social
conditions, yet resistance to change is common. Some folkways, termed "fashions" by Sumner, experience
rapid shifts, particularly those related to attire, grooming, and design. However, deeply ingrained folkways
pertaining to family dynamics, property, andTawqeer
otherul Islam
core@EACT
aspects
Classes of life often resist change.
SOCIAL MORES

MORES
• Definition: Mores are more deeply ingrained and fundamental norms that reflect the core values
of a society. They carry a moral significance and often involve strong social sanctions for
violations.
• Examples of Mores in Society:
• Respect for Human Life: The prohibition against murder reflects a more that is fundamental to
the preservation of societal order and moral values.
• Truthfulness: The expectation of honesty and truthfulness is a more that underpins trust and
integrity in interpersonal relationships.
• Characteristics include:
• Moral Significance: Mores are linked to the moral fabric of society and involve principles that
are considered essential for its well-being.
• Strong Social Consequences: Violating mores can result in severe social consequences,
including social ostracism, legal action,Tawqeer
or exclusion.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN FOLKWAYS AND MORES
1. Nature of Violations:
• Folkways: Violations are generally minor and lead to mild disapproval or social discomfort.
• Mores: Violations are considered serious breaches of moral or societal values, resulting in
significant social consequences.
2. Consequences for Violations:
• Folkways: Consequences are social in nature, often involving disapproval, embarrassment, or
informal correction.
• Mores: Consequences can be legal, moral, or social, and they are typically more severe,
including legal action, social ostracism, or strong disapproval.
3. Moral Significance:
• Folkways: Lack strong moral significance and are more about social customs.
• Mores: Have a strong moral component and are deeply embedded in the ethical fabric of a
society. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
MORES
• The 'mores' represent yet another category of norms. 'Mores' is a term used to denote behaviour
patterns which are not only accepted but are prescribed. All the folkways are not equally
important. Some of them become more compulsive and regulative in character. These folkways
which become regulators of behaviour are normally referred to as 'mores’.
• Definition
(i) R.M. Maciver and C.H. Page, "When the folkways have added to them conceptions of
group welfare, standards of right and wrong, they are converted into mores".
(ii) Gillin and Gillin say that "Mores are those customs and group routines which are thought
by the members of the society to be necessary to the group's continued existence".
(iii) As Edward Sapir has pointed out, "The term 'mores' is best reserved for those customs
which connote fairly strong feelings of the rightness or wrongness of mode of behaviour".
(iv) In simple words, we can say when the folkways clearly represent the group standards, the
group sense of what is fitting, right and conducive to well-being, then they become mores.
TYPES OF MORES
• A distinction is made between two kinds of mores:
(i) 'positive mores', and (ii) 'negative mores".
(i) Positive Mores. Positive mores always "prescribe' behaviour patterns. They represent the
'do's". They give instructions and provide guidance for the people to behave in a particular way.
Examples: respecting elders, protecting children, taking care of the diseased and the aged people,
loving one's country, doing service to the society, worshipping God, speaking the truth, leading a
righteous life, etc.
(ii) Negative Mores. Negative mores 'prescribe' behaviour patterns. They represent the 'dont’s'.
They are often called 'taboos'. Taboos forbid or prohibit certain behaviour patterns. Taboos put
severe restrictions on the range of one's behaviour. Examples: Don't appear before the people
without dress, don't be cruel to the wife and children, don't steal, don't commit adultery, don't tell
lies, don't be irreligious, don't disrespect the God, don't be unpatriotic, etc

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MORES
(i) Mores are the regulators of our social life. Mores represent the living character of the group or community. They
are always considered as right by the people who share them. They are morally right and their violation morally
wrong. Hence, they are more compulsive in nature. They put restrictions on our behaviour.
(ii) Mores are relatively more persistent. Mores exhibit greater durability than ordinary folkways and can become
conservative forces within society, often resisting change; however, they are not immutable and can undergo subtle
shifts over time, as evidenced by historical changes such as the abolition of practices like slavery, child marriage,
human sacrifice, and "sati".
(iii) Mores vary from group to group. Mores are not universally uniform; practices considered morally acceptable
in one group or society may be deemed immoral or prohibited in another, like female infanticide among Eskimos and
the prohibition of such practices in modern societies, or the practice of cannibalism among the Mundugumor tribals of
New Guinea compared to its absence in modern society. Additionally, moral standards can evolve over time, with
practices like sati and slavery once considered moral but now widely condemned..
(iv) Mores are backed by Values and Religion. Mores normally receive the sanction and back- ing of values and
religion. When this occurs they become still more powerful and binding. Mores backed by religious sanctions are
strongly justified by people. Ten commandments, for example, are considered to be important and essential for the
Christians, because they are backed by their religion
SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OR FUNCTIONS OF MORES
• MacIver and Page have mentioned the following social functions of mores.
(i) Mores determine much of our individual behaviour. Mores always bring direct pressure on
our behaviour. They mould our character and restrain our tendencies. They act as powerful instru-
ments of social control. Mores are indoctrinated into the personalities of the individuals from the
beginning and hence they help them to exercise constraints over their own behaviour.
(ii) Mores identify the individual with the group. Mores are the means by which the individual
gains identification with his fellows. As a result of that, he maintains social relations with others
that are clearly essential for satisfactory living.
(iii) Mores are the guardians of social solidarity. Mores serve to unify and strengthen social
groups by providing shared norms and behavioral patterns, applicable across various
demographics from gender and age to social class and nationality. However, as society evolves,
mores become more specialized and their influence on individuals diminishes, leading to
supplementation by legal frameworks and legislation to maintain social order.
FOLKWAYS AND MORES: DIFFERENCES
(i) Mores are relatively wider and more general in character than the folkways.
(ii) Mores imply a value-judgement about the folkways.
(iii) Out of the mores comes our conviction of right and wrong and not out of the folkways.
(iv) An individual may disobey the ordinary folkways without incurring any severe punishment.
But violation of the mores brings him strong disapproval and severe punishment.
(v) Mores are more compulsive, regulative and rigid than the folkways. Hence, mores are more
effective and influential in moulding our character and restricting our tendencies.
(vi) When the folkways take on a philosophy of right living and a life policy of welfare, folkways
become mores. Hence the mores always contain a welfare element in them.
(vii) Folkways are less deeply rooted in society and change more rapidly. On the other hand,
mores are deeply rooted in society and change less frequently.
(viii)Folkways may change with one's social status and occupational position. But mores do not
change in that manner for they are permanent
Tawqeer ulstandards of right conduct
Islam @EACT Classes
SOCIAL VALUES

DEFINITION OF SOCIAL VALUES
1. "Values are group conceptions of the relative desirability of things" G.R. Leslie, R.F. Larson,
H.L. Gorman.
2. According to H.M. Johnson, "Values are general standards and may be regarded as higher
order norms".
3. "Values are assumptions, largely unconscious, of what is right and important"-Young and
Mack
4. "A value is a belief that something is good and worthwhile. It defines what is worth having
and worth striving for."-Michael Haralambos.
5. "Values are general conceptions of "the good", ideas about the kind of ends that peoples
hould pursue throughout their lives and throughout the many different activities in which they
engage".-Peter Worsley.
6. In simple words, values may be defined as measure of goodness or desirability.
TYPES OF VALUES
• Values within social institutions refer to the enduring beliefs and principles that guide the
behavior, decisions, and interactions of individuals within those institutions..
• Here are some common types of values:
1. Ethical Values:
• Description: Ethical values are principles that guide individuals in determining right from wrong
and ethical from unethical behavior.
• Example: Honesty, integrity, fairness, and justice.
2. Moral Values:
• Description: Moral values are deeply ingrained beliefs about what is considered morally
acceptable or unacceptable.
• Example: Compassion, kindness, empathy, and altruism.

TYPES OF VALUES
1. Cultural Values: Description: Cultural values are shared beliefs and norms within a specific
cultural or ethnic group.
• Example: Collectivism vs. individualism, respect for elders, and cultural identity.
2. Religious Values: Description: Religious values are principles and beliefs derived from
religious teachings and doctrines.
• Example: Love, forgiveness, charity, and adherence to religious rituals.
3. Personal Values: Description: Personal values are individual beliefs that guide personal
choices and actions.
• Example: Independence, creativity, ambition, and self-respect.
4. Social Values: Description: Social values are principles that guide behavior within a society or
community, influencing social interactions.
• Example: Equality, justice, freedom, and respect for diversity.
TYPES OF VALUES
5. Environmental Values:
• Description: Environmental values reflect beliefs about the importance of environmental
conservation and sustainable practices.
• Example: Conservation, ecological responsibility, and sustainable living.
6. Aesthetic Values:
• Description: Aesthetic values pertain to individuals' preferences and appreciation for beauty, art,
and aesthetics.
• Example: Appreciation for art, music, literature, and creativity.
7. Economic Values:
• Description: Economic values involve beliefs about economic principles and priorities,
influencing financial decisions.
• Example: Hard work, financial success, frugality, and entrepreneurship.
TYPES OF VALUES
8. Political Values:
• Description: Political values are beliefs about the role of government, political systems, and
governance.
• Example: Democracy, freedom of speech, human rights, and political participation.
9. Educational Values:
• Description: Educational values are beliefs about the importance of education and the principles
guiding the learning process.
• Example: Lifelong learning, academic excellence, critical thinking, and intellectual curiosity.
10. Family Values:
• Description: Family values are principles that guide behavior and relationships within a family
unit.
• Example: Love, loyalty, support, and commitment to family members.
TYPES OF VALUES
11. Health Values:
• Description: Health values involve beliefs and practices related to physical and mental well-
being.
• Example: Healthy lifestyle, wellness, balance, and self-care.
12. Global Values:
• Description: Global values are principles that transcend national borders, emphasizing the
importance of global cooperation and understanding.
• Example: Peace, human rights, global citizenship, and environmental sustainability.

FUNCTIONS OF VALUES
1. Values provide goals or ends for the members to aim for.
2. Values play a crucial role in fostering stability and cohesion within group interactions by
providing shared principles and beliefs. Shared values contribute to social unity and solidarity, as
individuals who hold similar values are more likely to perceive others as part of their social group,
fostering a sense of belonging and connection to the wider society
3. Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities. The rules are accepted as
rules and followed mainly because they embody the values that most people accept.
4. Values facilitate the harmonization of diverse sets of rules by guiding individuals toward
common objectives across various aspects of life. For instance, if a society values "the principle of
equality," it may adjust rules governing interpersonal relationships to align with this value, such as
those between spouses or genders.
FOUR ASPECTS OF VALUES
4 Aspects of
Values
General and Hierarchically Explicit and Conflict with

Specific Values Arranged Implicit Values One Another
• 1. General and Specific Values
• (a) General Values. Values such as democracy, freedom, the right to dissent, respect for
fundamental rights and dignity of labour, etc., for example, are very general in character. These
values are abstract in nature and they pervade many aspects of life. A large proportion of values
are found to be very general in nature. Sociologically, these are more significant.
• (b) Specific Values. Values are often stated in specific terms. For example, we may value
physical health or affluence. More specifically, we may value silk over nylon or the writing of a
particular novelist over that of another. Values normally range from highly abstract to specific
levels.
• 2. Values are Hierarchically Arranged All the values are not equally significant. We can make
a distinction between-Means Values', 'Ends Values', 'Dominant Values' and 'Ultimate Values.
(a) 'Means Values' are instrumental values. They are sought as part of the effort to achieve other
values,
(b) 'Ends Values' are more general and more important from the point of view of the groups who
are doing the valuing work. For example, if health is the value, then the maintenance of good
nutrition, securing proper rest, avoid-ance of alcoholic drinks and drug addictions, doing proper
exercises regularly, etc., become means to that end. This difference is based on contexts and
situations. But it helps us to understand how the values are patterned and how one is related to
another.

(c) 'Dominant Values' are those values which influence and condition the behaviour of the people
to a great extent. Sociologist Williams has suggested the following criteria for dominant values:(i)
Extensiveness. Whether the value is extensively found in the total activity of the people? (ii)
Duration. Whether the vlaue has been durable and observed over a long period of time ?(iii)
Intensity. With what intensity the value is pursued or maintained by the people? (iv) Prestige of
Value Carriers: To what extent the value carriers such as persons, objects, or organisations enjoy
prestige in the society? For example, 'sacrifice' and 'service' are the two among many dominant
values of the Indian society. Similarly, 'individual enterprise' and 'success in life' represent two
dominant values of American society.
d) The 'Ultimate Values' refer to those values of the group that give meaning, substance and
direction to the lives of people. Example: If we take the above-mentioned example of the physical
health we may say, that it is required for longevity. Longevity or longer life span can be justified
in terms of 'ultimate value to do service to the humanity and to be worthy of God's creation. There
canbe no higher or more ultimate value than this.
• 3. Explicit and Implicit Values Social values can be either explicitly stated and actively
promoted or implicitly held and not emphasized by societal leaders. Explicit values, such as
democracy and freedom, are taught to children, reinforced through official channels, and
promoted by mass media. Implicit values, like respect for elders and authority, may not be
emphasized by leaders but are still ingrained in society's norms and behaviors
• 4. Values may Conflict with One Another
• In complex societies, conflicting value systems often coexist, leading to tensions and clashes
between groups holding opposing values. For example, values such as the right to dissent and
respect for authority may clash, causing discord within society. Similarly, during historical
periods like British rule in India, conflicting values of obedience to authority and resistance to
oppression led to divisions among Indian nationals.

SOCIAL NORMS

NORMS
• M. Sherif in "The Psychology of Social Norms", used the term for the first time to describe the
common standards or ideas which guide members' responses in all established groups.
• Today, the word norm is often used as a generic term to represent folkways, mores, laws,
customs, etc.
• If, today, some action is called a norm or normative it only emphasises that it conforms to
community expectations of behaviour.
• "Social norms" refer to the group-shared standards of behaviour. Norms represent
"standardized generalization" concerning expected modes of behaviour.
• A norm is a pattern setting limits on individual behaviour. Norms are the blueprints for
behaviour. They determine, guide, control and also predict human behaviour. Norms are group-
shared expectations.
• Such expectations are reflected in statements such as-"A good citizen always respects laws", "A
gentleman pays his debts", "Younger one must always respect elderly people“.
DEFINITION OF NORMS
1. According to Young and Mack, 'norms" refer to the "group-shared expectations".
2. According to H.M. Johnson, "A norm is an abstract pattern held in the mind, that sets certain
limits for behaviour".
3. Norms refer to "the rules that guide behaviour in everyday situations and are derived from the
value"-Donald Light Jr. and Suzanne Keller.
4. As Robert Bierstedt has pointed out, "A norm is a rule or standard that governs our conduct in
the social situations in which we participate."
5. "Social norms are rules developed by a group of people that specify how people must, should,
may, should not and must not behave in various situations."-G.R. Leslie, R.F. Larson and B.L..
Gorman.
• It is clear from the above definition that norms can be understood as rules and regulations that
groups live by. Norms are the means through which values are expressed in behaviour.
TYPES OF NORMS
1. Descriptive Norms: Descriptive norms refer to the observed or perceived behaviors that are
commonly exhibited by members of a social group.
• Example: If people in a community commonly leave their shoes outside when entering a house,
this behaviour becomes a descriptive norm.
2. Prescriptive Norms: Prescriptive norms prescribe or dictate what behavior is deemed
acceptable or appropriate in a given social context.
• Example: Formal dress codes in certain workplaces prescribe the type of clothing employees are
expected to wear.
3. Injunctive Norms: Injunctive norms involve the perception of what behaviors are approved or
disapproved by others.
• Example: An injunctive norm in a classroom may be the expectation that students should not
cheat on exams, and such behavior is generally disapproved of by peers and instructors.
TYPES OF NORMS
5. Proscriptive Norms: Proscriptive norms prohibit or discourage certain behaviors, specifying
actions that are considered unacceptable.
• Example: Cultural or societal norms may proscribe behaviors like theft, violence, or plagiarism.
6. Formal Norms: Formal norms are explicitly written and codified rules and regulations
established by institutions or authorities.
• Example: Laws, regulations, and official policies are examples of formal norms within a society.
7. Informal Norms: Informal norms are unwritten, implicit rules that govern everyday behavior
and emerge through social interactions.
• Example: Unwritten rules about waiting in line, not interrupting others, or practicing good
manners are informal norms.
8. Cultural Norms: Cultural norms are shared expectations and behaviors within a specific
cultural or ethnic group.
• Example: Bowing as a form of greetingTawqeer
in some Asian
ul Islam @EACT cultures represents a cultural norm.
Classes
TYPES OF NORMS
9. Subcultural Norms: Subcultural norms are specific to smaller groups or subcultures within a
larger society, often having unique expectations.
• Example: A subcultural norm within a group of skateboarders may involve specific clothing
styles, language, and behaviors associated with the skateboarding subculture.
10. Gender Norms: Gender norms prescribe and describe behaviors considered appropriate for
individuals based on their gender identity.
• Example: Traditional gender norms may dictate certain expectations for men and women in
terms of clothing, occupations, and social roles.
11. Role Norms: Role norms are expectations associated with specific social roles or positions
within a group or society.
• Example: Expectations for a teacher, parent, or police officer represent role norms associated
with those positions.
EXAMPLES OF NORMS IN DIFFERENT SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
1. Family: Examples: Respect for elders, sharing household responsibilities, and adherence to
family traditions.
• Function: Reinforces familial bonds, socializes individuals into cultural values, and fosters a
sense of identity.
2. Education: Examples: Classroom etiquette, academic honesty, and respect for teachers.
• Function: Establishes a conducive learning environment, encourages cooperation, and prepares
individuals for societal expectations.
3. Religion: Examples: Attendance at religious services, observance of rituals, and adherence to
moral codes.
• Function: Facilitates spiritual and moral guidance, fosters a sense of community, and reinforces
cultural values.

EXAMPLES OF NORMS IN DIFFERENT SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
4. Workplace: Examples: Punctuality, professional dress code, and adherence to company
policies.
• Function: Promotes efficiency, teamwork, and a harmonious work environment.
5. Legal System: Examples: Respect for property rights, adherence to traffic rules, and
compliance with legal contracts.
• Function: Ensures public safety, resolves disputes, and maintains societal order through a legal
framework.

FUNCTION OF NORMS IN MAINTAINING SOCIAL ORDER
• Guiding Behaviour: Norms serve as behavioural guidelines, shaping individual and collective
actions. They provide a shared understanding of how individuals should interact within a given
society.
• Social Control: Norms act as mechanisms of social control, influencing behavior through
rewards for conformity and sanctions for deviation. They help maintain order and cohesion
within a community.
• Cultural Transmission: Norms contribute to cultural transmission by passing down values,
beliefs, and acceptable behaviors from one generation to the next. This ensures continuity in
societal customs.

PERSONAL OR PRIVATE NORMS AND SOCIAL NORMS
• We can make a distinction between personal or private norms and social norms.
• Private norms are purely individual in character and they reside with individuals
only. They may influence only the behaviour of the individual concerned. For
example, an individual may make some individual resolutions on the New Year's
Day and decide to comply with them. Similarly, one may impose on oneself the
norm of doing routine things on time schedule.
• Operative social norms are always backed by sanctions. Because of sanctions, the
violators of norms suffer some penalties in the group, while those who conform
are rewarded. Sociology studies in detail the types of social norms, the manner in
which they are implemented, the way in which they differ from society to society,
the way in which they are backed by sanctions, the functions they perform and so
on. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
NORMS AND VALUES
• Values may be defined as measures of goodness or desirability. They provide general guide-
lines for conduct. In this sense they are often referred to as "higher order norms".
• But norms are given much more specific meaning. They define appropriate and acceptable
behaviour in particular situations.
• Values are cherished only through the observance of norms. The relationship between the two
can be made clear by the following example.
• Example. A society may cherish the value of "privacy". This value provides only a general
guide to behaviour. Norms define how the value of "privacy' is translated into action in
particular situations and circumstances. For instance, norms relating to privacy may insist that
person's mail must not be opened by other people. Similarly, an individual's house must not be
entered without his permission, etc. A person's private life or individual life is his own concern
and others must not poke their nose into the personal affairs. In this way a series of norms direct
how people should behave in terms of the value of privacy".
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL NORMS
1. Social norms are universal. Social norms are the very basis of social order. No society can
function smoothly in the absence of norms.
2. Norms are related to the factual order. In every society we find two types of order-(1) the
normative order that insists how the individuals should or ought to behave, and (ii) the
factual order that is related to and based on the actual behaviour of the people. The normative
order in society regulates behaviour based on real-world events and circumstances, ensuring
that rules align with practical realities. For norms to be effective, they must accurately reflect
the relationships between real events and behaviours, taking into account the factual situation
and practical considerations.
3. Norms incorporate value judgements. Norms serve as shared standards or expectations for
behaviour within a group, embodying "standardized generalizations" with inherent value
judgments. They provide criteria for judging actions as right or wrong, good or bad, based on
group-defined values.
• 4. Norms are relative to situations and groups. Norms exhibit variation across societies and
even within the same society, differing among various groups based on factors such as age,
gender, occupation, and social status. Each societal group adheres to its own set of norms,
tailored to its specific context and needs.
5. Norms are not always obeyed by all. Norms are not always followed rigidly by individuals
within a society, as people may selectively obey or disregard them based on circumstances. As
seen in instances of large political or religious gatherings where typically law-abiding individuals
may behave erratically when provoked. If everyone consistently followed norms, the need for
rules or laws would be redundant.
6. Norms vary with sanctions. Norms dictate acceptable behaviour and sanctions serve as
punishments or rewards for adherence or violation of these norms. Individuals may receive
rewards such as smiles, praise, or money for conforming to norms, while punishments are applied
for violations, ensuring conformity through a combination of rewards and penalties.
7. Norms are normally internalised by the people. Norms are deeply ingrained in individuals through
the process of socialization, becoming an integral part of their personality. Socialization involves the
internalization of cultural norms and rules from a young age, leading individuals to accept and follow these
norms without questioning them. As a result, people tend to honour and obey norms implicitly, considering
them as natural aspects of their behaviour.
Characteristics
of Norms
Related to Incorporate Relative to

Not always Vary with Internalised
Universal Factual Value Situations
Obeyed Sanctions by People
Order Judgments and Groups

CONFORMITY TO AND VIOLATION OF NORMS
• Conformity to Norms: Society exerts its pressure upon people to conform to the norms. A
norm by definition implies a sense of obligation. It lays down a standard of behaviour which
everyone ought to follow. Conformity to norms is normal. The sanctions behind the mores make
us to follow them. But hope of reward and fear of punishment are not the only reasons for
conformity to the norms of our society. There are other bases for conformity. Some are
mentioned below:
1. Indoctrination. We conform to the norms because we have been indoctrinated to do so from
our very childhood.
2. Habituation. We conform to them because we become habituated to them.
3. Utility. We appreciate the utility of the norms and hence we conform to them.
4. Group Identification. By conforming to the norms we gain identification with the group.
Hence we prefer to conform to them.

VIOLATION OF NORMS
• Society typically operates smoothly because individuals conform to group norms without much thought,
following expected behaviors in various aspects of life. However, deviance occurs when individuals
violate these normative expectations, disrupting the social order. Despite widespread conformity,
deviance remains a constant presence in social dynamics. The violation of norms may be traced to at
least three sources:
(a) Simple Violations of norms. Some norms which are not strongly enforced are often violated.
Government officials may often use their official vehicles for personal purposes. Some may force their
entry into the bus without observing the rule of queue, etc.
(b) Norm Conflict. In complex societies like America, diverse and conflicting value systems lead to
normative conflicts, such as those surrounding attitudes towards pre-marital and extra-marital sex. These
conflicts reflect broader societal tensions and are integral to processes of social change, highlighting the
dynamic nature of cultural norms.
(c) Existence of Systematic Norms Evasion. Norms are sometimes deliberately circumvented or evaded,
as seen in the illegal sale and use of forbidden drugs at festivals, casual gatherings, and university
campuses. Additionally, tax evasion represents a more permanent and systematic evasion of norms,
reflecting individuals' strategic efforts to avoid compliance
FUNCTIONAL IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL NORMS
• 1. Norms assist Survival. Norms related to courtship, marriage, childbearing, and childcare
serve a vital function in ensuring human survival. By providing guidelines for behavior, such
norms protect vulnerable individuals, such as young girls, from exploitation and help maintain
the well-being and stability of society.
• 2. A normless society is an impossibility. Norms are fundamental to society, as they govern
social interactions and ensure order and stability. Without norms, social life would be chaotic
and fraught with danger. Society relies on norms to establish a framework for behavior,
facilitating cooperation and cohesion among its members. Thus, human existence and societal
functioning are intricately linked to the presence of norms.
• 3. Norms guide behaviour. Norms serve as guidelines for behavior across various social
contexts, including dress codes, interactions with family, friends, and strangers, and conduct in
specific settings like the home, workplace, or place of worship. They delineate acceptable
behaviour in diverse situations, contributing to the smooth functioning of social interactions and
relationships. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
• 4. Norms permit efficient functioning. Norms streamline behaviour, allowing for efficient
execution of learned tasks by making responses habitual across diverse social situations. They
minimize the need for conscious decision-making in everyday interactions, ensuring smooth
functioning of social life and reducing the burden of constant decision-making. Without norms,
even routine activities like cooking would become challenging, highlighting their crucial role in
providing practical solutions and enhancing the efficiency of social life.
• 5. Norms help the maintenance of social order. Social norms play a crucial role in
establishing and maintaining social order by ensuring predictability in human behavior. Without
adherence to norms, chaos would ensue in various social settings, such as classrooms or busy
streets. Human culture, functioning as a vast integrated normative system, allows for greater
variability and flexibility in behavior compared to instinctual controls seen in other animals,
contributing to the remarkable complexity observed in human societies.

• 6. Norms give Cohesion to Society. A society without norms would be, as Hobbes pointedout,
'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." The collective and co-operative life of people is made
possible because of norms. The normative system gives to society an internal cohesion without
which social life is not possible. This cohesion or unity contributes to co-operation and mutual
helpfulness.
• 7. Norms help self-control. Norms serve not only to regulate social behavior but also to foster
self-control within individuals. By internalizing societal norms, individuals are able to exert
discipline over their own actions and behavior, influencing their attitudes, motives, and intuitive
judgments of themselves and others. This internalization leads to the development of
conscience, feelings of guilt, and the drive for personal improvement, becoming deeply
ingrained within the individual's personality.

SOCIAL NORMS AND ANOMIE
• The French sociologist Emile Durkheim used the term 'anomie' for the first time in his book
"The Division of Labour in Society" (1893), and again in his sociological study of suicide rates
(1897).
• According to Durkheim, "anomie" refers to "Any state where there are unclear, conflicting or
unintegrated norms, in which the individual had no morally significant relations with others
or in which there were no limits set to the attainment of pleasure...“
• Anomie literally means normlessness. It signifies a state of normlessness in both the society and
the individual. In such a state social norms become confused or breakdown and people feel
detached from their own fellows. Having little commitment to shared norms, people lack social
guidelines for personal conduct. They are inclined to pursue their private interests without
regard for the interests of society as a whole. Social control of individual behaviour becomes
ineffective. Hence the society is threatened with or even disorganisation.

MARRIAGE

MARRIAGE
• Definition: There is no definition which adequately covers all types of human marriage.
(i) Edward Westermarck in his "History of Human Marriage" defines marriage as "the more or
less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of
propagation till after the birth of offspring“
(ii) Malinowski says marriage is a "contract for the production and maintenance of children".
(iii) According to Robert H. Lowie, "Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between
permissible mates".
(iv) Broadly speaking, however, marriage may be defined as "a socially sanctioned sex
relationship involving two or more people of the opposite sex, whose relationship is
expected to endure beyond the time required for gestation and the birth of children".-
Duncan Mitchell's "A dictionary of Sociology".
(v) Alfred McClung Lee writes, "Marriage is the public joining together, under socially
specified regulations of a man and woman as husband and wife".
CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE
1. Universality: Marriage is a widely recognized institution across cultures, with various
societies enforcing it as a social norm. For instance, in Japan and Korea, celibacy and
remaining unmarried are socially condemned, while among Hindus, marriage is considered a
sacrament and almost obligatory.
2. Relationship Between Man and Woman: Marriage is a union of man and woman. It
indicates relationship between one or more men to one or more women. Who should marry
whom? One should marry how many?-are the questions which represent social rules regarding
marriage which differ significantly.
3. Marriage Bond is Enduring: Marriage signifies a lasting commitment beyond mere sexual
relations, extending to emotional and social bonds between partners. In many cultures,
including Hinduism, marriage is regarded as sacred and enduring, persisting even after
physical intimacy. This view emphasizes the spiritual and emotional connection between
spouses, transcending mere physical satisfaction.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE
1. Marriage Requires Social Approval: A union of man and woman becomes a marital bond
only when the society gives its approval. When marriage is given the hallmark of social
approval, itbecomes a legal contract.
2. Marriage is Associated with Some Civil or Religious Ceremony. Marriage gets its social
recognition through some ceremony. This ceremony may have its own rites, rituals, customs,
formalities, etc. It means marriage has to be concluded in a public and solemn manner.
Sometimes it receives as a sacrament the blessings of religion. Marriage among the Hindus,
for example, is regarded as a sacrament. It is connected with rituals such as-Homa, Saptapadi,
Panigrahana, Mangalya-Dharana, etc.
3. Marriage Creates Mutual Obligations. Marriage imposes certain rights and duties on both
the husband and wife. Both are required to support each other and their children.

FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF MARRIAGE
• The main functions of marriage are as follows:
1. Regulation of Sex Life. Marriage serves as a crucial mechanism for regulating human sexual
behaviour, providing a socially accepted framework for satisfying sexual impulses.
2. Marriage leads to the Establishment of the Family. Sexual satisfaction offered by marriage
results in self-perpetuation. It means marriage insists on the couple to establish a family of
procreation.
3. Provides for Economic Cooperation. Marriage makes division of labour possible on the basis
of sex. Partners of marriage distribute and divide work among themselves and perform them.
Even in the modern industrial societies, we find husband and wife working outside the family to
get more income to elevate their economic status.
4. Contributes to Emotional and Intellectual Interstimulation of the Partners. Marriage
brings life-partners together and helps them to develop intense love and affection towards each
other. It deepens the emotions and strengthens the companionship between the two.
FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF MARRIAGE
5. Marriage aims at Social Solidarity. Marriage not only brings two individuals of the opposite
sex together but also their respective families, groups and kindreds. It is often suggested that by
encouraging marriage between different groups, castes, races, classes, religious, linguistic and
other communities, it is possible to minimise the social distance between groups and strengthen
their solidarity.
Functions of
Marriage
Leads to the Provides Contributes to

Regulation of Social
Establishment Economic Emotional
Sex Life Solidarity
of the Family Cooperation Intersimulation

FORMS OF MARRIAGE
Forms of
Marriage
Group
Polygyny Polyandry Monogamy Endogamy Exogamy
Marriage
• The main forms of marriage are: Polygyny, Polyandry, Monogamy, Group Marriage,
Endogamy and Exogamy. Each of these types may be analysed here.
1. POLYGYNY: Polygyny, the marriage of one man to multiple women simultaneously, has
historical roots in many ancient civilizations and is still practiced in various societies today,
particularly among some primitive tribes and within certain wealthy classes.
• While not as prevalent as monogamy, polygyny remains widespread in cultures such as among
African tribes, Indian communities like the Nagas and Gonds, and is permitted within the
Muslim community. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
TYPES OF POLYGYNY
• Types of Polygyny: Polygyny is of two types: (1) Sororal Polygyny and(ii) Non-Sororal
Polygyny.
• (1) Sororal Polygyny is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is
often called 'sororate". The Latin word "Soror" stands for sister. When several sisters are
simultaneously, or potentially the spouses of the same man, the practice is called 'sororate'. It is
usually observed among the tribes which pay a high bride price, The death of the wife or her
childlessness is compensated by supplying a new spouse who is generally the younger sister of
the deceased woman.
• (ii) Non-Sororal Polygyny as the term indicates, is a type of marriage in which the wives are
not related as sisters. For social, economic, political and other reasons, both the types are
practised by some people.

CAUSES OF POLYGYNY
• Causes of Polygyny: Sociologists and anthropologists have made several studies to find out the
causes of polygyny. Some of the factors mentioned by them are as follows:
(a) More Women Less Men. Polygyny becomes a natural practice whenever there is an excess of
females over males. Even though the balance of sex-ratio is normally maintained, it is likely to
be upset for some reason or the other. Such a situation makes the members to practise either
polygyny or polyandry if they want to have legitimate sex life. Plains Indians and Eskimos,
for example, practise polygyny due to the imbalance in the sex-ratio.
(b) Economic Advantage. Some of the African tribes (Ex: Longos and the Thongas) practise
polygyny for economic reasons. In the tribes women contribute to the family income by
various means. Sometimes the first wife compels the husband to go for second marriage so
that she can reduce her load of work at home.
(c) Women as Badges of Distinction. Among some tribals, a man's social status is often
measured in terms of the number of wives that he has. Greater the number of women greater is
the prestige. Early Kings used to marry more
Tawqeer ul Islam women
@EACT Classesfor this reason also.
CAUSES OF POLYGYNY
(d) Childlessness of the First Wife, Barrenness on the part of the first wife is also the cause of polygyny.
The childless wife herself may insist on the husband to go for the second marriage.
(e) Constancy of Sex Urge in Man. Unlike the woman, man is susceptible to sex stimulation throughout
the year. Polygyny provides him opportunity to enjoy sex life throughout the year.
• Other Factors. In addition to the above, the following factors also favour polygyny.
(i) Taste for variety. Men go after several women for they have a taste for variety.
(ii) Enforced Celibacy, Sex relations with a woman during her menstrual, pregnancy and lactation periods
are tabooed. This enforced celibacy is a case in favour of polygyny.
(iii) Earlier Ageing of the Female. Among some tribes men marry more women because, they believe that
ageing is faster in women.
(iv) Desire for More Children. The desire for more children on the part of men also supports polygyny.
The African 'Guni' and 'Hihi" tribals practise polygyny for this reason.
(v) Captured Women in wars and fights are normally taken and enjoyed by the victorious menas their
additional wives.
(vi) Men may also marry more women to establish their masculinity.
POLYANDRY
2. POLYANDRY: Polyandry is the marriage of one woman with several men. It is much less
common than polygyny. It is practised among the Tibetans, Marquesan Islanders of Polynesia, the
Bahama of Africa, the tribals of Samoa and others. In India, the tribes such as Tiyan, the Toda, the
Kota, the Khasa and Ladakhi Bota also practise polyandry. The Nairs of Kerala were polyandrous
previously.
• Polyandry is of two types. (1) Fraternal Polyandry, and(ii) Non-Fraternal Polyandry.
• (1) Fraternal Polyandry. When several brothers share the same wife, the practice can be called
adelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential, to one's
husband's brothers is called "levirate." It is prevalent among the Todas.
• (ii) Non-Fraternal Polyandry. In this form of polyandry, husbands do not have prior close
relationships, and the wife spends time with each husband separately. While living with one
husband, the others have no rights over her. This type, exemplified by the Nair community and
Tibetans, differs from "wife-sharing or wife-lending," which is temporary and more common
among primitive societies. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
CAUSES OF POLYANDRY
• No universal generalisations can be made with regards to the causes of polyandry. Still factors
such as scarcity of women, the desire to keep the property intact, heavy bride price, poverty and
the sterility of men, etc., are favourable to polyandry though not always.
• The Todas of India used to practise female infanticide prior to the British influence. This led toa
surplus of males and naturally to polyandry.
• For the same reason the Marquesan Islanders practise polyandry. Still, in Ladakh polyandry was
practised even though women outnumbered men there. Polyandry is often practised due to
poverty and heavy bride price.
• Poor young men who are not capable of paying the bride price and maintaining the wife
individually often marry a woman collectively.
• Still, in some instances, even the rich people practised polyandry. Among the Toda, property
considerations and sex-parity have also caused polyandry.
• The Tibetans practised polyandry in order to keep the joint property intact.
SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF POLYANDRY
• Polyandry poses challenges in determining biological paternity, leading to the development of
social methods like "sociological fatherhood" among primitives.
• For instance, the Toda community practices a ceremony where one husband becomes the legal
father until the others perform the same ritual.
• Among the Samoa, children can choose their permanent parents after a few years.
• Polyandry, often seen as an adaptation to poverty, can lower birth rates but may also lead to
complex interpersonal dynamics and extra-marital relations.
• Despite its existence, monogamy is increasingly favored over polyandry, which is gradually
fading away.

MONOGAMY
3. MONOGAMY
• Monogamy is the form of marriage in which one man marries one woman.
• This is the most widespread form of marriage found among the primitives as well as the
civilised people. If it was very popular during the early times, it has almost become a universal
practice at present.
• Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle had recommended only monogamous marriage.
• Ancient Jews, Christians and Indians had given importance to it. Ancient Hindus regarded
monogamy as the most ideal form of marriage.
• Serial Monogamy: Involves sequential monogamous relationships over one's lifetime, with
each partnership ending before entering a new one.
• Strict Monogamy: Lifelong commitment to a single partner without engaging in relationships
outside the partnership.
ADVANTAGES OF MONOGAMY
• Monogamy seems to be superior to other forms of marriage. It enjoys certain merits over other
forms. Some of them may be noted,
(i) Universally practicable. Since there is one-to-one ratio (One-man-to-one-woman) in almost
all the societies, only monogamy can provide marital opportunity and satisfication to all the
individuals. Neither polygyny nor polyandry can equally satisfy all.
(ii) Economically Better Suited. No man of ordinary income can think of practising polygyny.
Only a rich man can maintain a couple of wives and their children. Only monogamy can adjust
itself with poverty. For example, even though Koran permits a Muslim to have four wives at a
time, no ordinary Muslim can think of marrying four wives for the simple reason that he cannot
maintain them.
(iii) Promotes Better Understanding Between Husband and Wife. Monogamy produces the
highest type of love and affection between husband and wife. It contributes to family peace,
solidarity and happiness. Vatsayana, an authority on "Kama Sutra" remarked, "At best a man can
only please one woman physically, mentally
Tawqeer ul and spiritually.
Islam @EACT Classes Therefore, the man who enters into
ADVANTAGES OF MONOGAMY
(iv) Contributes to Stable Family and Sex Life. Monogamous families are often regarded as
more stable and enduring compared to polyandrous and polygynous arrangements, with fewer
conflicts and less potential for sexual jealousy. Monogamy's stricter regulation of sexual relations
reduces the likelihood of extramarital affairs. Herbert Spencer noted that monogamy fosters
stronger family bonds and stability
(v) Helps to Better Socialisation. Since husband and wife have better understanding, they can
give greater attention to the socialisation of their children. Children are well looked after and the
parents can give their special attention to them. Under polygyny, the husband cannot devote
himself fully to each of his wives and children because they are too numerous.
(vi) Aged Parents are not Neglected. In monogamy old parents are protected and looked after
properly. Old wives are often discarded and in their place younger wives are brought in.
(vii) Provides Better Status for Women. Women are given only a very low position in polygyny.
Their rights are never recognised. They can be divorced at will. But in monogamy, women enjoy
better social status. In the modern societies they
Tawqeer enjoy
ul Islam almost equal social status with men,
@EACT Classes
GROUP MARRIAGE
• 4. GROUP MARRIAGE
• Theoretically group marriage means the marriage of two or more women with two or more
men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives.
• Children are regarded as the children of the entire group as a whole.
• Children call men of such a group their fathers and all the women their mothers. Some of the
tribals in Australia, India, Tibet and Ceylon are believed to have practised group marriage.
• Some writers have said that group marriage is not in existence. If at all it is in practice, it is
clubbed with polyandry.
• For example, two Toda brothers marry two women as their common wives.
• It is also said that monogamous or polygynous or polyandrous marriage associated with the
practice of concubinage, sexual hospitality or socially tolerated adultery, is mistaken to be group
marriage. Many studies have revealed that the practice of group marriage is almost on the verge
of extinction. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
GROUP MARRIAGE
• MARRIAGE RESTRICTIONS OR RULES OF MARRIAGE
• No society gives absolute freedom for its members to select their life-partners.
• Even in societies where 'free marital choice is allowed, the selection is not absolute but relative.
• Rules regarding "who should marry whom" always govern such a selection.
• Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice.

ENDOGAMY
• 5. ENDOGAMY
• Endogamy is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It
is marriage within the group, and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious
group, etc.
• Thus, we have caste endogamy, class endogamy, subcaste endogamy, race endogamy, tribal
endogamy and such other forms.
• Example. In caste endogamy, marriage has to take place within the caste. Brahmin has to marry
a Brahmin. In subcaste endogamy, it is limited to the subcaste groups.
• Here a Shivalli Brahmin has to marry within Shivalli subcaste, a Gangadiagar Vokkaliga has to
marry within his sub-caste group, and so on. Endogamy prohibits marriage outside the group.
Even today intercaste marriages are not encouraged.
• Factors, such as the policy of separation, virtual geographic separation of people, the desire to
keep wealth within the group, religious, racial and cultural differences between peoples, sense
of superiority or inferiority, etc., are said to be the causes of endogamy.
ADVANTEGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ENDOGAMY
• Endogamy as a rule of marriage has its own advantages. It contributes to the group unity and
solidarity. It keeps women happier within their group. It helps to preserve the property within
the group. It also safeguards the purity of the group. Finally, it helps to keep under secret the
strength and weakness and also the professional secrets of the group.
• Endogamy has its, disadvantages also.
• (i) By dividing the society into small endogamous units, it strikes at national unity.
• (ii) By limiting the choice of life-partners, it often gives scope for evil practices such as
polygyny, dowry system, bride price, etc.
• (iii) It may also make its followers to develop hatred and contempt for other groups.
• (iv) It is also said that close-in-breeding caused by endogamy may affect the biological
potentiality of the off springs. For these disadvantages, endogamy is condemned. The modern
civilised people are more in favour of exogamy than endogamy.
EXOGAMY
6. EXOGAMY
• Exogamy is almost the opposite of endogamy.
• Exogamy is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It
prohibits marrying within the group.
• The rule of exogamy insists that the so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital
connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.
• Near relatives are not supposed to marry among themselves. But the degree of nearness differs
from community to community.
• In Malenesia and Australia among some people, a son may marry his father's wife if she is not
his direct mother.
• Similarly, marriage of cousins is allowed among Muslims.

EXOGAMY
• Forms of Exogamy
• Exogamy assumes various forms in India.
• (1) Gotra Exogamy. The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own 'gotra' is gotra
exogamy.
• (ii) Pravara Exogamy. Those who belong to the same pravara (uttering the name of a common
saint at religious functions) cannot marry among themselves.
• (iii) Village Exogamy. Many Indian tribes (Example: Naga, Garo, Munda) have the practice of
marrying outside their village.
• (iv) Pinda Exogamy. Those who belong to the same "Pinda" (or sapinda) cannot marry within
themselves ('Pinda' means common parentage).

CAUSES OF EXOGAMY
• Causes of Exogamy
• Various factors must have caused exogamous marriages.
• 1. The desire on the part of a few to show that they are distinct from others must have encour
aged exogamy.
• 2. Some people feel that they become very cheap and insignificant if they marry within the
known circle of relatives and friends. Hence, they want to go out of the group to select their life-
partners.
• 3. The practice of female infanticide must have compelled a few tribals to go out of the tribe to
find out mates for them. Due to the shortage of girls they are forced to do this. Some used to
kidnap girls belonging to other groups.
• 4. The belief that close in-breeding would affect the biological quality of the off springs, has
also added to the practice of exogamy.
OTHER MARRIAGE FORMS
• Hypergamy: Hypergamy refers to the practice of marrying or forming relationships with
individuals of higher social, economic, or educational status. In hypergamous unions, one
partner typically marries "upwards" in terms of social standing.
• Anuloma marriage refers to a marriage in which the husband belongs to a higher varna (caste)
than the wife.
• Hypogamy: Hypogamy is the opposite of hypergamy and involves marrying or forming
relationships with individuals of lower social, economic, or educational status. In hypogamous
unions, one partner typically marries "downwards" in terms of social standing.
• Pratiloma marriage, on the other hand, refers to a marriage in which the wife belongs to a
higher varna than the husband. .
• Homogamy: Homogamy refers to the tendency for individuals to marry or form relationships
with others who share similar characteristics, such as social background, education level,
religious beliefs, ethnicity, or age. Homogamous unions are based on the principle of "like
marrying like," in terms of demographic, cultural, or social attributes.
HINDU MARRIAGE -A RELIGIOUS DUTY AND NOT A CONTRACT
• Every Hindu is committed to marriage for the regards it as a great sacrament. [sacred Vivaha
Samskara).
• For the Hindus, marriage is not a matter of "social contract", nor is it deemed as "a licence for
sex life".
• In the Hindu scheme of the Ashramas, one can enter the much praised "grihasthashrama" only
after the marriage.
• With the marriage sacrament, man and woman as husband and wife establish the family, the
home or "griha“
• Among the Hindus, marriage is not a social contract; it is religious sacrament. Marriage to a
Hindu is of great individual and social significance. It is a socially approved union of man and
woman aiming at procreation, pleasure and observance of certain social obligations.

AIMS OF THE HINDU MARRIAGE
• (A) Aims of the Hindu Marriage: The main aims of the Hindu marriage are: dharma", "praja'
and 'rati". Of these aims, dharma is given the first place, 'rati or pleasure is given only the third
place, and 'praja' or progeny is given the second place.
– 1. Dharma. Marriage is desired not so much for sex or for children as for acquiring a partner for the
fulfilment of one's religious duties. The basic aim of marriage is Dharma for it necessarily involves
the fulfilment of a number of moral duties.
– 2. Praja Progeny. The desire to get issues or children is completely felt by all the people. The desire
for 'praja' or progeny is regarded by the Hindu Shastrakaras as one of the sacred purposes of
marriage. The Upanishads have also stressed the continuance of the line of progeny. Getting a son is
essential for a Hindu, for it is believed that one can fulfil one's "Pitri Rina" [paternal obligations]
only by getting a son. It is "Kutumba Dharma" [family obligation] also.
– 3. Rati Kama or Pleasure. Though sex is one of the functions of marriage it is given the third. place.
It is least desirable aim of marriage. To stress the lower role of sex in marriage, the marriage of a
Shudra is said to be for pleasure only. The Brahmanic legislations enjoins that the Shudra wife would
be taken only for pleasure. However, sex is ulnever
Tawqeer condemned
Islam @EACT Classes or degraded.
IMPORTANT RITES ASSOCIATED WITH HINDU MARRIAGE
• (B) Important Rites Associated with Hindu Marriage
• Among the Hindus there are certain rites which must be performed for marriage to be complete.
The main rites are: vagdana, kanyadaana, homa, panigrahana, saptapadi and
mangalyadharana. These rites and the importance attached to them have added to the sanctity
of the Hindu marriage.
• (i) Vagdana [Oral Promise). In the presence of the people gathered for the marriage the names,
gotras and pravaras of the bride and the bridegroom are announced along with the
announcement that they are ready for the marriage. This ritual is known as "Panigrahana
sankalpa" or Vagdana)
• (ii)Homa. "Homa' refers to the offering in the sacred fire. A number of 'homas' or fire ( rituals
are observed in the marriage of which "Laja Homa" is an important one. This "homa" is
symbolic of fecundity and prosperity. Fred grains dipped in ghee are offered to fire [that is to
lord Agni] by the couple with a prayer to the God requesting him to bless them with progeny
and prosperity. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
IMPORTANT RITES ASSOCIATED WITH HINDU MARRIAGE
• (iii) Kanyadaana. This is the most important ceremony connected with marriage. It is the
ceremony of father giving away the bride as a gift to the bridegroom in the presence of the
sacred fire and in the presence of the people gathered with a promise (repeated thrice) on his
part that he would not transgress her "in the attainment of piety, wealth and desire".
• (iv) Panigrahana [Holding the Hand of the Bride). This ritual refers to taking the right hand
of the bride with the words: "I seize thy hand for the sake of happinness that you may live to old
age with me..." With this the bridegroom takes the responsibility of looking after the bride.
• (v) Mangalaya Dharana [Tying of the Tali or Mangalasutra). This involves the act of tying
the tali or mangalasutra [which is regarded as the sign of longevity of the husband] round the
neck of the bride by the bridegroom.
• (vi) Saptapadi. The husband makes the bride step forward in the northern direction seven steps
with the words: "one step for sap, two for juice, three for wealth, four for comfort, five for
cattle, six for seasons, friend be with seven steps united to me". Hindu marriage is regarded
legally complete only after it is performed.
IMPORTANT LAWS RELATED TO MARRIAGE
• The laws enacted in India relate to: (i) age at marriage, (ii) field of mate selection; (iii) number
of spouses in marriage, (iv) breaking of marriage, (v) dowry to be given and taken and (v)
remarriage. The most important legislations relating to these six aspects of marriage passed from
time to time could be briefly explained here.
• 1. The Prevention of Sati Act 1829. Widows were often forced to make a vow or "sankalpa" to
die after their husbands. Some were forcibly pushed to their husbands' funeral pyres.
• 2. The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856. To remove the deplorable condition. of the Hindu
widows, a leading social reformer of the day, Pandit Ishwara Chandra Vidya Sagar brought
pressure on the British Government to make legal provision for widow marriages. The Hindu
Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 was hence passed.
• 3. The Civil for Special Marriage Act, 1872. This legislation treated Hindu marriage as a
"civil marriage" and provided legal permission for intercaste, inter-religious and even
"registered" marriages.
• 4. The Child Marriage Restraint Act-1929 (Sharda Act). Came into force on April 1, 1930.
According to this Act, marriage of boys under 18 and girls under 14 years of age was an
offence.
• The Act was amended in 1978 which raised the age for boys to 21 years and 18 years for girls.
• It provides punishment 3 months of simple imprisonment and a fine of upto Rs. 1000/- for
bridegroom, parent, guardian and the priest who are party to the marriage.
• No woman is, however, punishable with imprisonment under this Act.
• 5. The Hindu Marriage Act-1955. This Act applies to the whole of India, except Jammu and
Kashmir. The word "Hindu“ in the Act includes Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists and the SCs.
• Conditions for valid marriage as provided in this Act. (1) neither party has a spouse living; (2)
neither party (bridegroom or bride) is an idiot or a lunatic; (3) the groom must have completed
21 years and the bride 18 years of age; (4) the parties should not be "sapindas' of each other
unless the custom permits such a marriage.
• 6. The Dowry Prohibition Act-1961. This Act which prohibits the practice of dowry was
passed on May 20th 1961. The Act does not apply to Muslims. It permits exchange of gifts for
not more than Rs. 2000. It prescribes the penalty of 6 months imprisonment or a fine upto Rs.
5,000/- or both for its violation. This Act got amended in 1986 and thereafter its rules have
become still more stringent.

MUSLIM MARRIAGE
• In the Muslim community marriage is a Sunnah.
• Main Aims and Objects of Muslim Marriage
• Muslims call their marriage "nikah". Marriage among the Muslims is regarded not as a religious
sacrament but as a secular bond. The important objectives of Muslim marriage are control over
sex, ordering of domestic life, procreation of children and perceptual increase of family, and
upbringing of children.
• Muslim Marriage is a Civil Contract. According to Roland Wilson, "Muslim marriage is a
contract for the purpose of legalising sexual intercourse and the procreation of children." S.C.
Sarkar has also said that "marriage among Muslims is not a sacrament but purely a civil
contract.“
• Marriage is a Religious Duty Also. Marriage in the Muslim society is a religious duty also. It is
a devotion and an act of "ibadat" [or religious duty]. It is believed that a person who does
comply with it is rewarded in the next world, and he who does not, commits a sin.
CHARACTERISTICS OR PRECONDITIONS OF MUSLIM MARRIAGE
• The important pre-conditions or characteristics of valid Muslim marriage called "Nikah" are as
follows.
• 1. Marriage Proposal and its Acceptance-Ijab and Qubul: In Islam, marriage is considered a
civil contract. For a marriage to be valid, there must be a proposal (ijab) and its acceptance
(qubul). The groom proposes to the bride in the presence of witnesses and a Muslim priest. Both
the proposal and acceptance must be clearly stated by the individuals involved or their
representatives of sound mind.It is necessary that both the proposal and its acceptance must take
place at the same meeting to make it a "sahi nikah" (or "regular marriage").
• 2. Capacity of a Person to Contract Marriage: This is the second condition of marriage
according to which only adult persons of sound mind can enter into a marriage contract. Child
marriages and marriages of people of unsound mind are not recognised. However, the marriage
of a minor could be contracted by his or her guardians.

CHARACTERISTICS OR PRECONDITIONS OF MUSLIM MARRIAGE
• 3. Observance of the Doctrine of Equality. It is a matter of tradition among the Muslims to
have marriage among equals. Though there is no legal prohibition to contract marriage with a
person. of low status, such marriages are looked down upon. The run-away marriages called
"kifa [girls running away with boys and marrying them on their own choice] are not recognised.
Marrying idolators and slaves is also not approved.
• 4. Preference System in the Mate Selection. There is traditional insistence on the preferential
system in mate selection. For example, a person is expected to give preferences to his cousins
and of the cousins, first preference to parallel and next to the cross cousins’ [maternal].

CONDITIONS OF VOID OR INVALID MARRIAGE
• Muslim marriage held according to the stipulated Islamic rules is called "sahi nikah' or regular
marriage or valid marriage. Marriage which is held contrary to the Islamic rules is called 'batil’
or invalid marriage or void marriage. Some of the conditions of invalid marriage are mentioned
below:
• 1. Polygamy: A woman cannot marry second time as long as she has a living husband who has
not divorced her. A man also cannot marry the fifth woman as long as the first four are alive and
not divorced.
• 2. Marriage within the Circle of Close Relatives. Marriage with relatively close kins such as -
mother, mother's mother, sister, sister's daughter, mother's sister, father's sister, daughter, wife's
mother, wife's daughter born to the first husband, son's wife is not allowed.
• 3. Marriage with Idolators. Islam opposes idolatory. Hence marriage with idolators is not
permitted. However, a man can marry a non-Muslim girl if he believes that her idolatory is only
nominal. The purpose is to keep idolatory out of the islamic body politic, but a Muslim woman
under no circumstances is permitted to Tawqeer
marry non-muslims.
CONDITIONS OF VOID OR INVALID MARRIAGE
• 4. Marriage with People of Prematured Age and Unsound Mind. Marriage with a man of
unsound mind is regarded as invalid. Marriage of immatured persons without the prior consent
of their parents is also treated as invalid marriage.
• 5. Sisters Becoming Co-wives. As per the Islamic rule sorrate is not allowed. Sisters cannot be
married simultaneously by the same person. However, one can marry one's wife's sister only
after the death of the wife or only after giving divorce to the wife.
• 6. Marrying a Woman During Her 'Iddat' Period. No Muslim woman is allowed to marrya
man as long as she is undergoing "iddal".

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IRREGULAR MARRIAGE AND INVALID MARRIAGE
• Difference Between Irregular Marriage and Invalid Marriage :Fasid" and "Batil
• Muslims distinguish between two types of unacceptable marriages called "irregular marriage
"and "invalid marriage", specifically known as 'fasid' and 'batil'. Main differences between the
two can be mentioned here. Fasid or irregular marriage, îs one which could be converted into
'sahi marriage" or "nikah' by removing its impediments or irregularities. 'Batil marriages, on the
contrary, cannot be converted to 'sahi' marriages.
• (1) Examples for Fasid: (i) Absence of witnesses at the time of making or accepting the pro-
posal; (ii) Muslim man marrying the fifth woman; (iii) marriage with a woman who is
undergoing 'iddar', etc. These irregularities could be corrected.Social Institutions
• (2) Example For Batil. (i) Marriage within the close circle of relatives; (ii) Muslim woman
marrying an idolator; (iii) Muslim man marrying two-three women who are sisters, etc. These ir-
regularities cannot be corrected and hence such marriages become invalid.

IMPORTANCE OF MEHR OR DOWER IN MUSLIM MARRIAGE
• Mehr or dower is a practice associated with Muslim marriage. "Dower is the sum of money or
other property which a wife is entitled to get from her husband in consideration of the marriage.
Purpose of Mehr: As per the Muslim law, dower is an obligation imposed upon a husband asa
mark of respect for wife. Its main purposes are
• (i) to put a check on the husband to divorce wife
• (ii) to enable a woman to look after herself after her husband's death or divorce. Proposal of
Mehr before the Marriage. Marriage proposals and Mehr discussions normally go together. The
bride's relative called 'wali' plays an important role in the discussion. He onlykeeps the account
of "Mehr". Normally, a part of "Mehr' [in majority of the instances 1/3 of the amount agreed
upon) is paid by the bridegroom to "wali" [an elderly relative of the wife who may be her own
father or any other such responsible person] on the third day of the marriage. The balance is
generally paid when the husband dies or divorces the wife. It is her right to claim the Mehr from
her husband. She may even refuse to acompany him if the agreed-upon-instalment of Mehr is
not paid. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
• Mehr is Different from Bride-price. Mehr is not bride-price for the wife is not purchased just
by throwing some money as it was the case centuries ago. In the modern Islamic societies the
bride's consent [qubul] has become pre-requisite for marriage.
• As it is made clear the main purpose of mehr is to give financial security to the woman and to
create responsibility in man.
• Determinants of Mehr.
• The Muslim law does not fix the amount of mehr. The husband is obliged to pay some amount
as mehr. The amount to be paid as mehr is normally decided before or after or at the time of the
marriage ceremony. The amount of mehr, depends upon the social position, descent, age,
intelligence, beauty and other qualities of the bride. The amount of mehr cannot be reduced but
it can be increased at husband's will. A wife can voluntarily agree to reduce the amount or make
a gift of whole of it to her husband or to his heirs. The amount of Mehr varies from one 'dinar'
upwards. There is no maximum limit for that.
• Muslim Wife's Right Over Mehr. As per the Islamic law, the wife has absolute right over the
mehr amount. A widow's claim for mehr is normally regarded as her claim over her husband's
property. She can retain the property till her mehr is paid. she need not wait for the consent of
heirs for the possession of her husband's property. In case the divorce takes place through
mutual agreement or by wife's initiative, her right to mehr gets extinguished.
• Specified Mehr and Proper Mehr.
• When the amount of mehr is fixed between the two parties, it is called "specified Mehr". The
minimum specified amount cannot be less than ten dinars.
• When the amount is not fixed but is given whatever is considered to be proper it is called
"proper Mehr". The amount given here normally depends upon the financial position of the
husband.
• Prompt Mehr and Deferred Mehr.
• The amount which is payable on demand is called "prompt Mehr'. Mehr which is payable on the
dissolution of marriage [that is, after husband's death or di vorce] is called 'deferred mehr.
DIVORCE AMONG THE MUSLIMS
• Muslim marriage which is treated as a contract can be dissolved in the following ways.1.
Divorce as per the Muslim law but wihout the intervention of the court;2. Divorce as per the
Shariah Act, 19373. Divorce as per the Muslim Marriage dissolution Act, 1959, that is, as per
the court's intervention.
• 1. Divorce According to Muslim Law: Khula/Mubarat and TalaqMarriage in India345According
to the traditional Muslim law, divorce can be obtained directly in two ways without the
intervention of the civil court. They are:
• (a) Khula/Mubarat and (b) Talaq.
• (A) Khula or Kohl and Mubarat: Husband and wife can obtain divorce by mutual consent
either by 'Khula' or by 'Mubarat'. Difference between Khula and Mubarat is simple: In Khula
divorce is initiated at the instance of the wife. In Mubarat, since both the parties desire
separation,the initiative may come either from the wife or from the husband.

DIVORCE AMONG THE MUSLIMS
• (B) Talaq: Talaq represents one of the ways according to which a Muslim husband can give divorce to
his wife as per the Muslim law without intervention of the court. In talaq, the husband has the right to
dismiss his wife by repeating the dismissal formula thrice. The talaq may be affected either orally by
making some pronouncements or in writing by presenting "talaqnama". Talaq maybe given in any one
of the following three ways:
• (i) Talaq-e-Ahsan. This involves a single pronouncement of talaq followed by a period ofconjugal
abstinence till the completion of 'iddat".
• (ii) Talaq-e-Hasan. This consists of three pronouncements of Talaq made during three- successive
menstrual periods and no sexual contact has taken place between the spouses during these months.
• (iii) Talaq-ul-Bidat. Here, talaq, pronouncement takes place in any one of the following ways.
• (a) in a single sentence, for example, "I divorce thee thrice" or in three separate sentences: "I divorce
thee, I divorce thee, I divorce thee"
• (b) in a single but clear pronounce-ment such as, "I divorce thee irrevocably".In the first two types cited
above, there is a chance for re-establishing the martial ties but not inthe thrid form.
2. DIVORCE AS RECOGNISED BY SHARIAH ACT, 1937
• 2. Divorce as Recognised by Shariah Act, 1937: The Shariah Act, 1937 provides for three
forms of divorce. They are mentioned below.
• (i) Illa. If the husband swears by God to abstain from sexual relations with his wife for aperiod
of four months or more, or for a specified period, he is said to make illa. If he sticks on to his
words, then marriage gets dissolved.
• (ii) Zihar. In this type the husband of sound mind declared in the presence of two witnesses that
his wife is like the back of his mother to him. Though marriage is not dissolved with this, it
gives scope for the wife to go to court on this ground.
• (iii) Lian. In this type the husband accuses his wife of being guilty of adultery. This,
however,gives an opportunity for the wife to go to court insisting on her husband either to with-

IMPORTANCE OF "IDDAT" IN MUSLIMS' DIVORCE
• "Iddat" plays an important role in Muslim divorce cases. "Iddat" denotes a period of awaiting.
Iddat refers to a period of seclusion for three menstrual periods for a woman after the death of
or divorce by her husband to ascertain whether she was pregnant."Iddat" "....implies the
period of waiting incumbent on a woman between disolution of one marriage and the
contracting of another." It is important to note that in this period of waiting for three consecutive
menstrual periods husband and wife are not supposed to have sexual contact. Legal and Social
effects of Iddat.
• Legal Effects:
• (1) In a divorce case the wife involved is bound to wait for "iddat" period.
• (ii) During the period of "iddat" the husband is obliged to provide for her maintenance.
• (iii) the wife is not supposed to give her consent for another marriage till the iddat period is
completed.
• (iv) On the completion of 'iddat" period, the wife can legitimately demand the "deferred mehr".
IMPORTANCE OF "IDDAT" IN MUSLIMS' DIVORCE
• Social Effects:
• (i) 'Iddat serves as a restraining influence on inconsiderate haste on the part of the husband and
on the tempo of divorce. It gives time for the husband to think and act. The husband may simply
take back the wife during the period of iddat and suspend the divorce,
• (ii) Iddat makes it clear whether the wife is pregnant or not. The fact of pregnancy sometimes
brings reconciliation between them.
• (iii) It it becomes apparent during 'iddar' that the divorced wife is pregnant, the husband is
recommended to take her back and treat her with consideration till the child is born. The child
belongs to the husband if it is not born out of adultery. The wife also cannot marry any one else
until her delivery.
• (iv) The iddat period is normally three months. In the case of a widow the duration is 4 months
10 days. It may be noted that according to the Muslim Women's Protection of Rights on Divorce
Act 1986 and Iddat, a wife can demand from her husband her maintenance during the Iddat.
KINSHIP

KINSHIP
• Kinship system represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most
societies plays a significant role in the socialisation of individuals and the maintenance of group
solidary. It is supremely important in the primitive societies and extends its influence on almost
all their activities - social, economic, political, religious, etc.
• Definition of Kinship
• 1. Robin Fox: "Kinship is simply the relations between 'kin 'that is persons related by real,
putative or fictive consanguinity".
• 2. Aberchrombie and others: "The social relationships deriving from blood ties (real and
supposed) and marriage are collectively referred to as kinship“
• 3. A.R. Radcliffe Brown: Kinship is "a system of dynamic relations between person and
person in a community, the behaviour of any two persons in any of these relations being
regulated in some way, and to a greater or less extent by social usage“
• 4. In simple words, "The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in group is
called kinship“
STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES OF KINSHIP
• The kinship system is governed by some basic principles which can be called the "facts of life":
• Principle-1: The women have the children
• Principle-2: The men impregnate the women
• Principle-3: The men usually exercise control
• Principle-4: Primary kin do not mate with each other.
• These principles emphasise the basic biological fact on which kinship system depends. Men and
women indulge in sexual interaction and as a result women bear children. This leads to blood
ties between the individuals and the special terms are used to recognise this relationship:
mother, child, father. The relationship based on blood ties is called "consanguineous kinship",
and the relatives of this kind are called 'consanguineous kin’. The desire for reproduction gives
rise to another kind of binding relationship. "This kind of bond, which arises out of a socially or
legally defined marital relationship, is called affinal relation-ship", and the relatives so related
are called 'affinal kin". The affinal kins [husband and wife] are not related to one another
through blood.
RULE OF DESCENT
• 'Descent' refers to the social recognition of the biological relationship that exists between the
individuals. The 'rule of descent' refers to a set of principles by which an individual traces his
descent. There are three basic rules of descent: patrilineal descent, matrilineal descent and
bilateral descent.
• (a) Patrilineal Descent. According to this rule, descent is traced through the father's or male
line. Here the descent criterion is restricted to males, and only descendants of a common
ancestor in the male line will be recognised as kin. These are known as agnatic or patrilineal kin.
• (b) Matrilineal Descent. Here the descent of the individual is traced through the mother or
female exclusively. The descendants are called here uterine or matrilineal kin. These two modes
of tracing the descent are called "unilineal", that, they select one "line" only either the male or
female. These principles or rules are not necessarily mutually exclusive within a society.

RULE OF DESCENT
• (c) Bilateral Descent. This is a rule in which the descent is traced through both the lines, the
female line and also the male line for some or the other purpose. What is important here is that
almost all kinship systems recognise "bilateral' relationships, that is, relationships to both
maternal and paternal kins. Ex: Some societies such as the "Yake" of Nigeria, utilise matrilineal
descent for some purposes and patrilineal descent for others. Here there exists a system of
'double unilineal descent' which is normally known as "double descent".
• Importance of the Rule of Descent
• The rule of descent is very important for two main reasons:
• (a) Rule of descent establishes for every individual a network of social positions in which he
participates. He comes to know about his obligations and rights.
• (b) Rule of descent invariably defines some rights of inheritance. Inheritance and succession
would go normally along the line of descent.

PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY KINS
• On the basis of nearness or distance, kins are classified into:
• (i) primary kins, (ii) secondary kins, and (iii) tertiary kins.
• (i) Primary Kins. Every individual who belongs to a nuclear family finds his primary kins
within the family. There are 8 primary kins: husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, father-
daughter, mother-daughter, younger brother-elder brother, younger sister-elder sister, and
brother-sister.
• (ii) Secondary Kins. Outside the nuclear family the individual can have 33 types of secondary
relatives: Example: Mother's brother, brother's wife, sister's husband, father's brother, etc....
• (iii) Tertiary Kins. Tertiary kins refer to the secondary kins of our primary kins. Example:
wife's brother's son, sister's husband's brother, and so on. Anthropologists have spoken of 151
tertiary kins.

1. KINSHIP USAGES
• Kinship usages or the rules of kinship are significant in understanding kinship system.
• Kinship’ usages serve two main purposes:
• 1. Firstly, they create groups or special groupings or kin. Example: Family, clan etc.
• 2. Secondly, the kinship rules govern the role of relationships among the kins. Kinship usage
provides guidelines for interaction among persons in these social groupings. It defines proper
and acceptable role relationships. Thus it acts as a regulator of social life.
• The kinship relations are regulated according to usages prevalent in the society. Some of these
relationships are: avoidance, teknonymy, avunculate, amitate, couvade and joking
relationship.
Kinship
Relationships
Joking
Aviodance Teknonymy Avunculate Amitate Couvade
Relationship
1. RULE OF AVOIDANCE
• Avoidance means that two kins normally of opposite sex should avoid each other. "In almost
all societies avoidance rules prescribe that men and women must maintain certain amount of
modesty in dress, speech, gait and gesture in a mixed company".
• Example, the father-in-law should avoid daughter-in-law. The bride must also avoid mother- in-
law's brothers.
• In some societies, even the husband and wife are not supposed to touch each other or show
affection in the presence of others.
• The rule of avoidance is believed to serve two purposes:
• 1. Avoidance rules serve to stop the development of complications in the relations between the
parties concerned. It is said it seeks to minimise the chance of the development of open hostility
in the relations between the parties.
• 2. According to the Murdock G.P., rules of avoidance exists because they reinforce incest
taboos.
2. JOKING RELATIONSHIPS
• A joking relationship involves a particular combination of friendliness and antagonism
between individuals and groups in certain social situations. In these situations one individual
or group is allowed to mock or ridicule the other without offence being taken".
• Such relationships prevail between a grandson or grand-daughter on the one hand, his or her
grand-father and grand-mother, on the other. Example:
• The origins and causes of joking relationships are not clearly known.
• Some anthropologists say this kind of relationship acts as a "safety valve" for giving expression
or release to the pent up feelings and emotions.
• As Chapple and Coon have said these relationships help the individuals to develop intimacy and
closeness among themselves.

• 3. TEKNONYMY: According to this usage, a kin is not referred to directly but is referred to
through another kin. Examples:
• (i) In a traditional Hindu family, wife does not directly utter the name of her husband but refers
to her husband as the father of so and so, say, Deepti or Swathi, or Vikram or Varun,
• (ii) amongst the Hopi, a woman refers to her mother-in-law as the grand-mother of so and so.
• 4. AVUNCULATE (AVUNCIATE) This refers to "the special relationship that persists in some
societies between a man and his mother's brother“. This term, from the Latin "avunculus"
[mother's brother] is sometimes used to describe the authority of the mother's brother over his
sister's children in à matrilineal society. This usage is found in a matriarchal system in which
prominence is given to the maternal uncle in the life of his nephews and nieces.

• 5. AMITATE: Amitate is a usage which gives special role to the father's sister. Here the father's
sister is given more respect than the mother. Examples: This usage is more prevalent amongst
the Kongs of Polynesia, Thodas of Nilgiri, and amongst the Crow-Indians. Amongst the Thodas,
the child gets its name not through its parents but through the father's sister. Because, naming
the child is her privilege. This usage is normally prevalent in patrilineal systems.
• 6. COUVADE: This kinship usage involves only husband and wife. According to this usage, the
husband is made to lead the life of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a
child. He is then not supposed to engage himself in hardwork but expected to observe dieting
and certain other taboos. It is prevalent among Khasi and Toda tribes of India.

TYPES OF KINSHIP SYSTEM
• Lineal Kinship System: Emphasizes descent through either the maternal or paternal line.
• Example: A lineage traced through the father's side, known as patrilineal descent.
• Collateral Kinship System: Focuses on relationships between siblings or cousins.
• Example: Siblings sharing the same parents are considered consanguineous or full siblings.
• Bifurcate Merging Kinship System: Distinguishes between the maternal and paternal sides but
merges certain categories.
• Example: Different terms for maternal and paternal uncles but a common term for both maternal
and paternal aunts.
• Bifurcate Collateral Kinship System: Distinguishes between the maternal and paternal sides
and differentiates among various categories of relatives.
• Example: Separate terms for maternal and paternal uncles, aunts, and cousins.

KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY
• Descriptive and Classificatory Systems:
• Descriptive System: Uses specific terms to describe each individual relative based on their
actual relationship.
• Example: Distinguishing between a maternal uncle and a paternal uncle.
• Classificatory System: Groups relatives into broader categories, often based on generational or
gender similarities.
• Example: Using a single term for both maternal and paternal uncles, categorizing them as
"uncles."

FAMILY

FAMILY
• The word "Family' has been taken over from Latin word 'Famulus' which means a servant.
• In Roman Law the word denoted a group of producers and slaves and other servants as well as
members connected by common descent or marriage.
• Thus, originally, family, consisted of a man and woman with a child or children and servants. 1.
M.F. Nimkoff says that "Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife
with or without child, or of a man or woman alone, with children".
• 2. Burgess and Locke. "Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or
adoption constituting a single household interacting and intercommunicating with each other
in their respective social roles of husband and wife, father and mother, son and daughter,
brother and sister, creating a common culture".
• 3. Eliot and Merrill: Family is "The biological social unit composed of husband, wife and
children".
• 4. MacIver: Family is "a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring
to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children".
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FAMILY
(i) A Mating Relationship. A family comes into existence when a man and woman establish
mating relation between them.
(ii) Selection of Mates. Wife or husband may be selected by parents or by the elders, or the choice
may be left to the wishes of the individuals concerned. Various rules govern this selection.
(iii) A Form of Marriage. The mating relationship is established through the institution of
marriage. Marriage is an institutional arrangement made by the society according to which the
individuals establish marital relationships among themselves. Marriage may assume any one of
the forms-monogamy, polygamy, polyandry or group marriage.
(iv) A System of Nomenclature. Every family is known or recognised by a distinctive name.
(v) A Way of Tracing the Descent: Every family has its own mode of tracing the descent. Descent
refers to the social recognition of biological relationship between individuals. Descent may be
traced through the male line (Patrilineal Descent) or through the female line (Matrilineal De-
scent) or through both the lines (Bilateral Descent).
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FAMILY
(vi) A Common Residence. Family requires a home or a household to live in. After the marriage
the wife may reside in husband's parental home (Patrilocal or Virilocal Residence) or she may stay
in her parental home to which the husband pays occasional visits (Matrilocal or Uxorilocal
Residence) or both of them may establish a separate home of their own (Neolocal Residence).
(vii) An Economic Provision. Family provides for the satisfaction of the economic needs of its
members.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE FAMILY
• The family, unlike other institutions, enjoys a unique position in society. Its distinctive features
may be noted here.
• 1. Universality. There is no human society in which some form of the family does not appear
nor has there ever been such a society. The irresistible sex need, the urge for reproduction and
the common economic needs have contributed to this universality.
• 2. Emotional Basis. The family is grounded in emotions and sentiments. It is based on our
impulses of mating, procreation, maternal devotion, fraternal love and parental care. It is built
upon sentiments of love, affection, sympathy, co-operation and friendship..
• 3. Limited Size. As a primary group its size is necessarily limited. It seems to be the smallest
social unit. The biological conditions have also contributed to its small size.
• 4. Formative Influence. The family is the earliest social environment which surrounds, trains
and educates the child. It shapes the personality and moulds the character of its members. It
emotion-ally conditions the child. It is the nursery of human nature', and the 'breeding ground of
our mores and the nurse of our loyalties".
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE FAMILY
• 5. Nuclear Position in the Social Structure. The family is the nucleus of all other social
organisations. The whole social structure is built of family units. It influences the whole life of
society.
• 6. Responsibility of the Members. The member of the family has certain responsibilities,
duties and obligations. The smooth running of family depends on how best the members
discharge their responsibilities in co-ordination with the other individuals of the family.
• 7. Social Regulation. The family is peculiarly guarded both by social taboos and by legal
regulations. The society takes precaution to safeguard this organisation from any possible break-
down: by divorce, desertion or separation.
• 8. The Permanent and Temporary Nature of the Family. The family as an institution is
permanent. Since it is based on the organic and emotional nature of man, it continues to exist.
But family as an association may be temporary in character. These characteristics indeed reveal
the sociological significance of the family.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY
• The family as a social institution performs several functions. Various opinions have been ex-
pressed regarding the functions of family. Kingsley Davis speaks of four main functions of the
family:
(i) Reproduction, (ii) Maintenance, (iii) Placement, and (iv) Socialisation.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff have mentioned six major functions of family:

• (1) Affectional, (ii) Eco- nomic, (iii) Recreational, (iv) Protective, (v) Religious, and (vi)
Educational.
• Reed has described four functions of the family:

• (i) Race perpetuation, (ii) Socialization, (iii) Regulation and satisfac tion of sex needs, and
(iv) Economic functions.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OR ESSENTIAL AND NON -ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS
• Maclver classifies the functions of family into two types: Essential and Non-essential
functions.
• According to him, the essential functions include:
(i) the stable satisfaction of sex need,
(ii) production and rearing of children, and
(iii) provision of a home.
• Under the non-essential functions. He includes, religious, educational, economic, health and
recreation, and other functions.

OTHER PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
• (v) Family-An Instrument of Culture Transmission and An Agent of Socialisation. The family
serves as an instrument of culture transmission. The family guarantees not only the biological continuity
of the human race but also the cultural continuity of the society of which it is a part. It transmits ideas
and ideologies, folkways and mores, customs and traditions, beliefs and values from one generation to
the next.
• (vi) Status Ascribing Function. The family also performs a pair of funtions- (1) status ascription for the
individual, and (ii) societal identification for the individual. Statuses are of two kinds: Ascribed and
achieved. The family provides the ascribed statuses. Two of these, age and sex are biological ascriptions.
Others, however, are social ascriptions. It is the family that serves almost exclusively as the conferring
agency or institution. People recognise us by our names, and our names are given to us by our family.
Here, the family is the source of our societal identification. Various statuses are initially ascribed by our
families.
• (vii) Affectional Function. Man has his physical, as well as mental needs. He requires the fulfilment of
both of these needs. Family is an institution which provides the mental or the emotional satisfaction and
security to its individual members. It is the family which provides the most intimate and the dearest
relationship for all its members.
TYPES OR FORMS OF THE FAMILY
• (1) On the basis of marriage family has been classified into three major types:
(i) Polygamous or Polygynous Family.
(ii) Polyandrous Family, and
(iii) Monogamous Family.
• (2) On the basis of the nature of residence family can be classified into:
(i) Family of Matrilocal Residence,
(ii) Family of Patrilocal Residence, and
(iii) Family of Changing Residence.
(iv) Family of Neolocal Residence
• (3) On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classified into :
(i)Matrilineal Family,
(ii) Pratrilineal Family
(iii) Bilineal Family Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
TYPES OR FORMS OF THE FAMILY
• (4) On the basis of the nature of authority family can be classified into two main types.
(i)Matriarchal Family, and
(ii) Patriarchal Family.
(5) On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generations family can be classified into two
main types:
(i) the Nuclear or the Single Unit Family, and
(ii) The Joint or the Undivided Family.
(6) On the basis of the Nature of Relations among the family members the family can be classified
into two main types:
(i) The Conjugal Family which consists of adult members among whom there exists sex
relationship, and
(ii) Consanguine Family which consists of members among whom there exists what is known as
Tawqeer
"blood relationship"-brother and sister, ul Islam @EACT
father and Classes
son, etc.
MATRIARCHAL FAMILY
• The matriarchal family is also known as the mother-centred or mother-dominated family. Here, the
mother or the woman is the head of the family and she exercises authority. She is the owner of the
property and the manager of the household. Characteristics of Matriarchal Family:
• 1. Descent, Inheritance and Succession. Here the descent is traced through the mother. Descent is
traced through the mother. Inheritance follows this line, with daughters inheriting property from their
mothers and often holding a higher status in society.
• 2. Matrilocal Residence. Matriarchal family is matrilocal in residence. After the marriage the wife stays
back in her mother's house. The husband who normally stays in his sister's house, pays occasional visits
to the wife's house.
• 3. Exercise of Power. In theory, the mother exercises authority and power in the matriarchal family. She
is the head of the family and her decisions are final. But in practice, some relative of the mother, mostly
her brother, exercises authority in the family and looks after property.
• 4. The Structure of the Family. The maternal family brings together the kinsmen-(the wife, her mother
and grandmother, her children and brothers, etc.) and welds them together into a powerful group. This
type of family is normally associated with Tawqeer
exogamyul Islam @EACT Classes
PATRIARCHAL FAMILY
• The patriarchal family is also known as father-centred or father-dominated family. Here, the
father or the eldest man is the head of the family and he exercises authority. He is the owner and
administrator of the family property. On all family matters his is the final voice and opinion.
• Characteristics of Patriarchal Family
• 1. Descent, Inheritance and Succession. These are recognised through the male line.
Patriarchal families are partilineal in character, because the descent is traced through the male
line. Here, only the male children inherit the property of the father. Children are recognised as
the children of the father and the mother is practically ignored.
• 2. Residence. Patriarchal family is Patrilocal in residence. Sons continue to stay with the father
in his own house even after their marriages. Only the wives come and join them.
• 3. Authority. Here the father or the eldest male member of the family is the dominant person.
He is the owner and the manager of the family property.

THE NUCLEAR FAMILY
• It can be defined as "a small group composed of husband and wife and immature children which
constitutes a unit apart from the rest of the community.“
• In simple words, a nuclear family is one which consists of the husband, wife and their children.
• Soon after their marriage, the children leave their parental home and establish their separate
household. Hence, a nuclear family is an autonomous unit free from the control of the elders.
• Since there is physical distance between parents and their married children, there is minimum
interdependence between them. Thus, a nuclear family is mostly independent.
• The American family is a typical example of the modern independent nuclear family.

THE STRUCTURE OF NUCLEAR FAMILY
• The nuclear family depends very much on incest taboos. The members of the family cannot
have marriage from among themselves. Hence it is confined to two generations only. A third
generation can be established by the formation of new families. This can be done by an
exchange of males and females between existing nuclear families. It means daughters can be
given in marriage to other nuclear families and girls of the other nuclear families can be taken in
as spouses to the sons. This gives rise to two kinds of nuclear families:
• (a) the family of orientation, and (b) the family of procreation
• Every normal adult in every human society belongs to two nuclear families. The first is the
family of orientation in which the person was born and brought up, and which includes his
father, mother, brothers and sisters.
• The second is the family of procreation which the person establishes by his marriage and which
includes the husband or wife, the sons and daughters. The structure of the nuclear family is not
the same everywhere.
THE JOINT FAMILY
• The joint family is also known as "undivided family and sometimes as 'extended family".
• It normally consists of members who at least belong to three generations: husband and wife,
their married and unmarried children, and their married as well as unmarried grandchildren.
• Definition of Joint Family
• (1) The joint family is a mode of combining smaller families into larger family units through
inextension of three or more generations including at least grandparents, parents and children.
• (ii) The joint family is one which consists of members related through blood and spread over
several generations living together under a common roof and work under a common head.
• (iii) The definition given by Smt. Iravati Karve seems to be more satisfactory. According to her,
the joint family may be defined as "a group of people who generally live under one roof, who
eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common, and who participate in common
family worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred"
FAMILY
• Types of Joint Family
• The joint family may assume two forms:
• (i) Patriarchal joint family, and
• (ii) Matriarchal joint family. Both the forms are found in India.
• The patriarchal joint family is father-centred and the matriarchal joint family is mother-
dominated.
• Examples: The patriarchal joint families are found among the Nambudaris of Malabar, the
Mundas of Chhotanagpur and the Angami Nagas of Assam. The Nambudari joint family is
generally described as "Illom".
• The matriarchal joint families are found among the Nairs of Malabar, the Khasis and Garos
living on the Garo hills of Assam. The Nair joint family is popularly known as Tarawad".

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JOINT FAMILY
• 1. Depth of Generations. The joint family consists of people of three or more generations
including at least grandparents, parents and children. Sometimes, other kith and kin such as
uncles, aunts, cousins and great grandsons also live in the joint family itself.
• 2. Common Roof. Members of the joint family normally reside together under the same house-
hold. Due to the scarcity of accommodation or due to educational and employment problems,
mem-bers of the joint family may reside separately. Still, they try to retain regular contacts and
the feeling of belonging to the same family.
• 3. Common Kitchen. Members eat the food prepared jointly at the common kitchen. Normally,
the eldest female member of the family supervises the work at the kitchen. In the patriarchal
joint families, women serve the food to men at first and take their meals afterwards.
• 4. Common Worship. The Hindu joint family derives its strength from religion. Hence, it is
associated with various religious rituals and practices. Every family may have its own deity of
Kuladevata and its own religious tradition. Members of the family take part in common
worship, rites and ceremonies. Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
• 5. Common Property. The members hold a common property. As Melley writes: the joint
family "is a co-operative institution similar to a joint stock company in which there is a joint
property". The head of the family manages the family property like a trustee. The total earnings
of the members are pooled into a family treasury and family expenses are met with out of this.
• 6. Exercise of Authority In the patriarchal joint family usually the eldest male member
exercises authority. The super-ordination of the eldest member and the subordination of all the
other members to him is a keynote of the joint family. His commands are normally obeyed by
others. As opposed to it, in the matriarchal joint family the eldest female member in theory
exercises the supreme authority.
• 7. Arranged Marriages. In the joint family, the head considers it as his privilege to arrange the
marriages of the members. The individual's right to select his/her life-partner is undermined.
The younger members rarely challenge their decisions and arrangements. But now-a-days, the
feelings of younger ones are being given due weightage.
• 8. Procreation. The size of the joint family is by nature bigger. It is found to be associated with
higher rate of production. It is so because in the past procreation was regarded as a religious
duty. Members rarely practised birth control measures. But today the situation has changed.
• 9. Identification with obligations towards the Family. The members tend to identify them-
selves with their family. Every member has his own duties and obligations towards the family.
The family in turn, protects the interests and promotes the welfare of all. The senior-most
member of the family acts as the guide for other members.
• 10. Self-sufficiency. There was a time when the joint family was mostly self-sufficient. It used
to meet the economic, recreational, medical, educational and other needs of the members. The
rural agricultural joint families were mostly self-reliant. But they can hardly depend on
themselves today. No type of family is self-reliant that way to day.

MERITS OF JOINT FAMILY
• (i) Stable and Durable. The joint family is more stable and durable than the single unit familyor
the nuclear family. Individuals may come and go but the family as a unit stands. It contributes
much to the continuation of the cultural tradition.
• (ii) Ensures Economic Progress. The joint family meets the basic needs of its members-food,
clothing and shelter-a first condition of economic progress.Further, it provides larger labour
force especially for the agricultural communities. It prevents the sub-divisions and
fragmentation of land-holdings and helps scientific farming.
• (iii) Ensures Economy of Expenditure. Savings are possible here since the household pur-
chases are done jointly. No single member has an absolute right in family property. Everyone is
bound to become spendthrift. The head of the family does not permit the members to become
extravagant.
• (iv) Secures the Advantage of Division of Labour. Here the work is distributed among the
members on the basis of age and sex. Members co-operate with one another since they hold the
property in common. Especially for agricultural tasks,
Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT the joint family is better fitted.
Classes
• (v) Serves as a Social Insurance Company. For the people such as orphans, widows, the de-
serted, divorced, separated and the neglected, the joint family serves as a social insurance
company. It gives them food, shelter and protection.
• (vi) Provides Social Security. The joint family gives social security to the weak, aged, sick,
infirm, the unabled, the disabled and such other needy persons. An individual's life from cradle
to cremation is looked after by the joint family. In times of accidents, crises and emergencies,
one can rely on one's joint family for the needed help.
• (vii) Provides Leisure. Since the work is shared by all the members on the basis of age, sex and
experience, they get more leisure time. More hands at home can finish off the work with
minimum time and provide enough leisure to the members to relax. Here women are the main
beneficiaries of leisure.

• (viii) Provides Recreation Also. The joint family is an ideal place of recreation for all the
members. Childish play between the too aged and the little babies, the funny talks of the old, the
broken language of the younger ones, the expression of sisterly, brotherly and motherly love and
the like make the joint family life a pleasureable one. Social and religious ceremonies that take
place at the family bring even the relatives together and tigthen the ties.
• (ix) Helps Social Control. The joint family by exercising control over the behaviour of its
members acts as an agency of social control. The individuals are taught to subordinate their
individual interests to the group interests.
• (x) Provides Psychological Security The joint family provides psychological security to its
members. By creating a harmonious atmosphere in the family, it contributes to the development
of social solidarity. It prevents the growth of excessive individuation inside the family.
• (xi) Promotes Co-operative Virtues. Joint family is said to be the breeding ground of love, self-
help, co-operation, tolerance. discipline, loyalty, generosity, sacrifice, service-mindedness and
obedience and such other virtues of life. It instils
Tawqeer theClasses
ul Islam @EACT socialistic spirit among the members.
DEMERITS OF JOINT FAMILY
• (1) Retards the Development of Personality. The joint family does not provide enough scope
for the members to develop qualities of adventure, self-determination, industriousness, etc. The
elder ones take up too many responsibilities and the younger ones are overprotected.
• (ii) Damages Individual Initiative and Enterprise. The joint family does not provide proper
opportunities for the members to develop their talents. Any new enterprise or adventure on the
part of the young people is discouraged by the head of the family. This adversely affects the
individuality, originality and creativity of the young members.
• (iii) Narrows Down Loyalties. Joint family makes the members to develop narrow-mindedness.
It is said that a member is more likely to develop a sense of loyalty to the family rather than to
the larger society. These family units develop strong opposite principles which result in
disintegration and division within the society at large.

• (iv) Promotes Idleness. The joint family is said to be the home of idlers and drones. Since all
the members are assured of their basic necessities of life, no one takes much interest in the
productive activities. Further, all the relatives may flock to the joint family with their idle habits
and may become life-long parasites.
• (v) Not Favourable for Saving and Investment. The need for saving does not arise here
because all are assured of their basic needs. There is no inspiration for the accumulation of
capital and invest-ment. Saving is not possible also for one has to share one's income with the
large family.
• (vi) The Centre of Quarrels. The joint family is said to be the hotbed of quarrels and
bickerings especially among the womenfolk. Since women come to the family (after the
marriage) from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds, they may find it difficult to
adjust themselves properly. Quarrels very often take place between the elder and the younger
members of the family.
• (vii) Denies Privacy. Since the joint family is always overcrowded, privacy is denied to the
newly wedded couple. They cannot express openly their love and affection for the invariable
presence of other members causes embarrassment for them. They rarely get opportunity to talk
about their personal matters. Hence they fail to develop intimacy.
• (viii) Affects Socialisation of Children. Due to the lack of intimacy and privacy between the
husband and wife, the socialisation of children is affected very badly. The parents cannot always
give personal attention to the upbringing of their children. The children become more attached
to their grandparents and often they pick up the idle habits and age-old ideas.
• (ix) Undermines the Status of Women. In patriarchal joint families, women have only
secondary role. They are not given sufficient freedom to express and to develop their
personality. Their inner feelings are never recognised. They are made to work like servants.
Women are treated as men entities here. They can hardly resist their elders even for just causes
because obedience is enforced upon them. In such families sons are preferred to the daughters.
• (x) Encourages Litigation. The joint family encourages litigation. Normally disputes over the
common property crop up at the time of partition. Such disputes are taken to the courts which
are dragged on for years leading to the waste of time, energy, money and more than that, loss of
mental peace.
• (xi) Favours Uncontrolled Reproduction. The joint family is found to be associated with
higher birth rate. Members do not feel the need to adopt birth-control measures.
• (xii) Limits Social Mobility. The joint family is said to be more conservative in nature. Since it
is dominated by tradition, it is slow to respond to the modern trends. It does not encourage its
members to go after change. Members are more concerned with safeguarding their statuses
rather than with changing them. Hence social mobility is very much limited here.
• (xiii) Encourages Nepotism. Some are of the opinion that the joint family system is the root
cause of nepotism and discrimination. It is said that the public servants and officials belonging
to one or the other family are more likely to favour their own kith and kin on public issues or in
matters of providing job even at the cost of ulmerit.
Tawqeer Islam @EACT Classes
SOCIAL CHANGE:
INDUSTRIALIZATION,
GLOBALIZATION,
MODERNIZATION

INDUSTRIALIZATION
• The process of economic and social transformation characterized by the shift from agrarian and
manual labor-based economies to industrial and mechanized production.
• Mass Production: Industrialization involves the shift from artisanal and small-scale production
to large-scale, mechanized production methods.
• Technological Innovation: Industrialization is marked by the adoption of new technologies and
machinery to streamline production processes.
• Urbanization: Industrialization leads to the growth of urban areas as people migrate from rural
to urban areas in search of employment opportunities.
• Division of Labor: Industrialization is characterized by the division of labor, where tasks are
specialized and workers focus on specific aspects of production.
• Factory System: Industrialization introduces the factory system, where workers congregate in
centralized locations to perform specialized tasks under the supervision of managers.
CAUSES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
• Technological Advancements: The development and adoption of new technologies, such as the
steam engine, electricity, and assembly lines, drive industrialization by increasing productivity
and efficiency.
• Access to Resources: Industrialization often occurs in regions with abundant natural resources
like coal, iron ore, and water, which are essential for manufacturing processes.
• Capital Investment: Access to investment capital from investors, banks, and governments
enables the establishment and expansion of industries and infrastructure.
• Market Demand: Growing demand for goods and services, fueled by population growth and
rising incomes, creates opportunities for industrial expansion.
• Transportation Infrastructure: Improved transportation networks, including railways, canals,
and later highways, facilitate the movement of raw materials and finished products, supporting
industrial growth.

ADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION:
• Economic Growth: Industrialization leads to increased production, GDP growth, and job
creation, driving economic prosperity.
• Technological Innovation: Industrialization spurs innovation, leading to the development of
new technologies and processes that improve efficiency and productivity.
• Standard of Living Improvement: Industrialization raises living standards by providing access
to a wider range of goods and services, including healthcare and education.
• Urban Development: Industrialization leads to the growth of cities and urban areas, providing
opportunities for employment, infrastructure development, and cultural enrichment.
• Global Trade: Industrialized nations can produce surplus goods for export, contributing to
international trade and economic interconnectedness.

DISADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION:
• Environmental Degradation: Industrial activities often lead to pollution of air, water, and soil,
as well as deforestation and habitat destruction.
• Labor Exploitation: Rapid industrialization can lead to poor working conditions, low wages,
and exploitation of labor, especially in developing countries.
• Social Disparities: Industrialization may exacerbate income inequality and social disparities,
leading to marginalization and poverty for certain groups.
• Resource Depletion: Industrialization can lead to the depletion of natural resources, such as
fossil fuels and minerals, which are used as inputs in production processes.
• Health Impacts: Industrialization can lead to health issues such as respiratory diseases from
pollution, occupational hazards, and lifestyle-related illnesses due to changes in diet and
sedentary lifestyles.

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALISATION ON SOCIAL STRUCTURE
• Class Transformation:
– Emergence of distinct social classes – bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers).
– Class-based inequalities and struggles.
• Urbanization:
– Growth of cities as centers of economic activity.
– Changes in lifestyle, family structures, and community dynamics.
• Technological Advances:
– Revolutionized production processes, leading to increased efficiency.
– Redefined work, altering the nature of employment.

GLOBALIZATION
• The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of societies on a global scale, driven by
advancements in communication, transportation, and economic integration.
• The term 'globalisation' was introduced by Theodore Levitt.
• Interconnectedness: Globalization involves increased connectivity and interdependence among
countries, economies, and cultures through trade, communication, and transportation networks.
• Cross-border Movement: Globalization facilitates the movement of goods, services, capital, and people
across national borders, leading to increased international trade and investment.
• Cultural Exchange: Globalization leads to the exchange of ideas, values, and cultural practices among
different societies, contributing to cultural diversity and hybridization.
• Technological Integration: Globalization is driven by advances in technology, such as the internet,
telecommunications, and transportation, which facilitate global communication and collaboration.
• Standardization: Globalization often leads to the standardization of products, services, and regulations
across countries to facilitate international trade and harmonization.
CAUSES OF GLOBALIZATION:
• Advances in Technology: Breakthroughs in communication and transportation technologies,
such as the internet, shipping containers, and air travel, have greatly reduced the cost and time
of conducting international transactions.
• Trade Liberalization: Policies promoting free trade, such as trade agreements and tariff
reductions, have facilitated the flow of goods and services across borders, encouraging
globalization.
• Market Liberalization: Economic reforms promoting deregulation, privatization, and foreign
investment have opened up markets to foreign competition and investment, fostering
globalization.
• Global Financial System: The integration of financial markets and the rise of multinational
corporations have enabled capital to flow freely across borders, driving globalization.
• Cultural Exchange: Increased cultural exchange through media, entertainment, and tourism has
facilitated the spread of ideas, values, and lifestyles, contributing to globalization.
ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALIZATION
• Economic Growth: Globalization promotes economic growth by expanding markets, increasing
efficiency, and fostering specialization and innovation.
• Increased Trade: Globalization leads to increased international trade, allowing countries to
access a wider range of goods and services at competitive prices.
• Foreign Investment: Globalization attracts foreign investment, which stimulates economic
development, creates jobs, and brings in new technologies and management practices.
• Cultural Exchange: Globalization fosters cultural exchange and understanding, promoting
tolerance, diversity, and appreciation for different cultures.
• Global Collaboration: Globalization enables countries to address common challenges, such as
climate change, terrorism, and disease outbreaks, through international cooperation and
collaboration.

ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALIZATION
• Income Inequality: Globalization may exacerbate income inequality within and between
countries, as it tends to benefit skilled workers, capital owners, and developed regions at the
expense of low-skilled workers and less-developed regions.
• Job Displacement: Globalization can lead to job displacement and wage stagnation in certain
industries and regions, as companies relocate production to countries with lower labor costs.
• Environmental Degradation: Globalization can contribute to environmental degradation
through increased consumption, resource extraction, pollution, and deforestation, as well as the
transportation of goods over long distances.
• Cultural Homogenization: Globalization may lead to the dominance of Western culture and
values, resulting in the loss of cultural diversity and the erosion of traditional customs and
identities.
• Dependency: Globalization can create dependencies among countries, as developing countries
may become reliant on foreign investment, technology, and markets, which can leave them
vulnerable to economic downturns and external shocks.
GLOBALIZATION
• Impact on Social Structure:
• Economic Changes:
– Integration of national economies into a global system.
– Shifts in employment patterns, outsourcing, and international trade.
• Cultural Homogenization and Hybridization:
– Exchange of cultural elements leading to both homogenization (global cultures) and hybridization
(unique local-global blends).
• Social Movements and Activism:
– Emergence of global social movements addressing issues like human rights, environmental concerns,
and social justice.
– Activism facilitated by global communication networks.

MODERNIZATION
• The process of societal transformation involving technological, economic, and cultural changes to align
with modern ideals.
• Daniel Lerner introduced the term "modernization" in his 1958 book The Passing of Traditional Society
• Technological Advancement: Modernization involves the adoption and integration of advanced
technologies in various aspects of society, including communication, transportation, and production
• Urbanization: Modernization is often accompanied by the growth of urban areas as people migrate from
rural to urban areas in search of employment opportunities and improved living standards.
• Industrialization: Modernization entails the transition from agrarian economies to industrial economies,
with a focus on manufacturing, mechanization, and mass production.
• Education and Literacy: Modernization is characterized by increased access to education and literacy,
as societies invest in schools, universities, and vocational training programs.
• Secularization: Modernization leads to the decline of traditional religious beliefs and practices in favor
of secular ideologies and institutions, suchTawqeer
as democracy, science, and individualism.
CAUSES OF MODERNIZATION
• Technological Innovation: Advances in technology drive modernization by improving
efficiency, productivity, and communication, and enabling economic and social development.
• Globalization: The interconnectedness and interdependence fostered by globalization contribute
to modernization by facilitating the exchange of ideas, technologies, and capital across borders.
• Urbanization: The growth of urban areas creates demand for modern infrastructure, services,
and industries, driving modernization processes.
• Education and Enlightenment: Increased access to education and exposure to new ideas
promote modernization by empowering individuals with knowledge, skills, and critical thinking
abilities.
• Political Reforms: Political reforms, such as democratization and decentralization, can
accelerate modernization by promoting transparency, accountability, and citizen participation in
governance.

ADVANTAGES OF MODERNIZATION
• Economic Development: Modernization leads to economic growth, job creation, and increased
prosperity through industrialization, technological innovation, and trade.
• Improved Quality of Life: Modernization improves living standards by providing access to
better healthcare, education, infrastructure, and consumer goods.
• Technological Innovation: Modernization fosters technological innovation and scientific
progress, leading to improvements in various fields, including medicine, agriculture, and
transportation.
• Social Progress: Modernization promotes social progress by fostering individual rights, gender
equality, and social mobility, and reducing poverty and inequality.
• Cultural Exchange: Modernization facilitates cultural exchange and understanding by
promoting tolerance, diversity, and cosmopolitanism through increased communication and
interaction among different societies.

DISADVANTAGES OF MODERNIZATION
• Social Dislocation: Modernization can lead to social dislocation and cultural disorientation as
traditional norms, values, and institutions are challenged or undermined by rapid social change.
• Environmental Degradation: Modernization may contribute to environmental degradation
through pollution, resource depletion, deforestation, and urbanization, as societies prioritize
economic growth over environmental conservation.
• Marginalization: Modernization can marginalize certain groups, such as indigenous peoples,
rural communities, and traditional artisans, who may lack the resources or skills to compete in
modern economies.
• Alienation: Modernization may result in social alienation and anomie as individuals become
disconnected from traditional communities, values, and identities in fast-paced urban
environments.
• Cultural Imperialism: Modernization can lead to cultural imperialism as Western values,
lifestyles, and consumerism dominate global media, markets, and institutions, leading to the
erosion of cultural diversity and local traditions.
MODERNIZATION
• Impact on Social Structure:
• Educational Changes:
– Increased access to education as a means of social mobility.
– Shift towards knowledge-based economies.
• Economic Development:
– Transition from agrarian economies to industrial and service-oriented economies.
– Changes in occupational patterns and employment structures.
• Cultural Shifts:
– Transition towards secularism and a decline in traditional religious authority.
– Changes in values, norms, and lifestyle choices.

MODERNIZATION DETAILED
• Meaning of Modernisation
• The term modernisation "does not denote any philosophy or movement, but it only symbolises a
process of change.
• In fact, "Modernisation" is understood as a process which indicates the adoption of the modern
ways of life and values".
• The term was being used previously to refer only "to change in economy and its related effect
on social values and practices".
• It was also described as a process that changed the society, from primarily agricultural to
primarily industrial economy.
• Today, the term, "Modernisation" is understood as an attempt, on the part of the people,
particularly those who are custom-bound, to adopt themselves to the present time, conditions,
styles, and ways in general.
DEFINITION OF "MODERNISATION“
• 1. Daniel Lerner. Daniel Learner who introduced the term "Modernisastion" for the first time in his study
of the middle-Eastern societies-uses it to refer to the changes brought about in a non-Western country by
contract, direct or indirect with a Western country. To quote his own words: "Modernisation is the
current term for an old process of social change whereby less developed societies acquire the
characteristics common to more developed societies".
• 2. Smelser. Modernisation refers to "a complex set of changes that take place almost in every part of
society as it attempts to be industrialised. Modernisation involves ongoing change in a society's
economy, politics, education, traditions, and religion".
• 3. Alatas. "Modernisation is a process by which modern scientific knowledge is introduced in the
society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and a more satisfactory life in the broadest
sense of the term as accepted by the society concerned".
• 4. Rutow and Ward (1964) have said that the basic process in Modernisation is the application of
modern science to human affairs.
• 5. Eisenstadt says that Modernisation refers to both (a) structural aspects of social organisation, and
(b) socio-demographic aspects of societies.
THE PROCESS OF MODERNISATION
• 1. It involves a change from simple, traditional techniques such as hand-weaving toward the use
of scientific knowledge and technology, for example, powerlooms.
• 2. Agricultural shifts from subsistence farming to commercial farming on a larger scale. This
means growing cash crops, buying non-agricultural products in the markets on a large quantity
and often hiring people to do farm work.
• 3. "In industry there is a movement away from the use of human and animal power and towards
the use of machinery driven by non-human power". For example, ploughs pulled by oxen are
replaced by tractors driven by hired hands.
• 4. The society changes from the farm and the village centred one to that of the industry and city
centred one (Ref.: "Sociology" by N.J. Smelser 4th Edition, 1993 Page: 395).In addition to the
four major patterns, other patterns of change have been observed in modernising social
structure. Traditional religious systems tend to lose influence. Powerful non- religious
ideologies such as patriotism, nationalism, democracy, secularism, etc. arise.
CRITERIA OF MODERNITY OR MEASURES OF MODERNISATION
• Modernisation has been referred to as a process whereby less developed societies acquire
characteristics common to more developed societies. Rustow and Ward (1964) have such
specific aspects of changes as: mentioned of some measures of modernisation. They include
1. industrialisation of economy and adopting a scienetific technology in industry, agriculture,
dairy farming, etc., to make them highly productive,
2. secularisation of ideas that is, a diffusion of secular rational norms in culture;
3. a remarkable increase in geographic and social mobility which includes occupational mobility
also;
4. a spread of scientific and technical education;
5. a transition from ascribed to achieved status;
6. an increase in material standard of living;
7.
CRITERIA OF MODERNITY OR MEASURES OF MODERNISATION
high proportion of working force employed in secondary and tertiary rather than primary
production, that is, manufacturing and services as opposed to agriculture and fishing;
8. an increment of mobility in the society, understood in terms of urbanisation, spread of literacy
and media participation;
9. high expectancy of life at birth;
10. relatively greater measure of public particiation in the polity or at least democratic
representation in defining and choosing policy alternatives.

CAUSES OF MODERNISATION
• 1. Education: Education, that too higher education, pertaining to the fields of science and
technology, provides the basis of modernisation.
• 2. Mass Communication: The development of mass communication (including newspapers,
periodicals and magazines, T.V., radio telephone, movies, etc.) is an important means of
spreading modern ideas at a faster rate. "The mass media is the device that can spread the
requisite knolwedge and attitudes quickly and widely".
• 3. Ideology Based on Nationalism: Nationalism and democracy are very much linked with
modernisation. Nationalism is connected with national awareness and political consensus. As far
as the West is concerned, the democratic system came to be strengthened along with the
development of nationalism. The nationalistic ideologies serve as unifying influence in bridging
social clevages within plural societies.
• 4. Charismatic Leadership: A Charismatic leader is in a better position to impress upon the
people to adopt modern beliefs, values, practices and behaviour patterns.
MODERNIZATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
• 5. Coercive Governmental Authority: A strong and stable government may adopt coercive
measures to compel people to accept the modern values and ways of life.
• 6. Other Factors: To the list of factors explained above, we may add two other factors: (a)
urbanisation and industrialisation; and (b) universal legal system.
• (a) Urbanisation and Industrialisation: Urbanisation and industrialisation are the two
interrelated processes that are assumed to be invariably linked up with modernisation.
Urbanisation refers to the process of growth and expansion of cities. Most of the modernised
countries are either dominated by the cities or under the grip of the process of urbanisation.
"Industrialisation" refers to the unprecedented growth and expansion of industries. It has
become virtually the sine quo non of economic and technological development.
• (b) Universal Legal System: In a traditional society bound by traditional values and customs
the rate of change is relatively slow. But a society that functions on the basis of the universally
accepted legal system is bound to be more "open". The modern legal system has contributed a
great deal to the scientific managementTawqeer
of the industries.
DISADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION
• Prof. Ram Ahuja speaks of five main problems of modernisation. They are:
• 1. Modernisation demands that society must change in all ways at once. But such a regular
and co-ordinated pattern of growth cannot be planned and materialised. Some amount of social
interest, hence, is bound to be there. Example. Discrepancy between mass education and
employment opportunities.
• 2. During the period of modernisation structural changes mostly remain uneven. Example.
Industries may be modernised but religious system, family system etc., remain conservative.
• 3. Modernisation of social and economic institutions may-create conflicts with the traditional
ways of life. Example, trained M.B.B.S. doctors may pose a threat to the traditional medical
practitioners.
• 4. Another problem is that, most often roles adopted by the people are modern, but their
values continue to be traditional. Example. New Business firms and industrial establishments
and, shops etc., are either opened or inaugurated as per the dictates of the traditional
"Muhurtam".
PROBLEMS OF MODERNISATION
• 5. Yet another problem is that there is lack of cooperation among agencies which modernise
and among those institutions and systems which are already modernised. This is more or less
like the problem of "cultural lag".
• 6. Finally, though modernisation raises the aspirations of people, the social system does not
provide enough chances to materialise them. This creates frustration, disappointment and
social unrest.

SANSKRITIZATION
• Sanskritization was introduced by M.N. Srinivas, an Indian sociologist, in his seminal work
"Social Change in Modern India."
• Srinivas used the term to describe the process by which lower-caste groups in India emulate the
customs, rituals, and practices of higher-caste groups in their quest for upward social mobility.

100 MCQS
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MCQS
• Which of the following is not a type of society?
1. Agrarian
2. Industrial
3. Modern
4. Hunting and Gathering Answer: 3. Modern
• Choose the correct sequence of following in order of decreasing complexity?
1. Hunting Gathering, Agrarian, Pastoral, Industrial, Post Industrial
2. Post Industrial, Industrial , Agrarian, Pastoral, Hunting Gathering
3. Post Industrial, Agrarian, Industrial , Pastoral, Hunting Gathering
4. Post Industrial, Industrial , Pastoral, Agrarian , Hunting Gathering Answer: 2. Post Industrial, Industrial , Agrarian, Pastoral,
Hunting Gathering
• Which type of society is characterized by a high degree of division of labour and individualism?
1. Agrarian
2. Industrial
3. Modern
4. Feudal Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes Answer: 2. Industrial
MCQS
• Which type of society is characterized by a dominance of primary relations and cultivation of land as primary means of
subsistence?
1. Agrarian
2. Industrial
3. Modern
4. Nomadic Answer: 1. Agrarian
• A group organised to achieve a certain purpose is known as which among the following?
1. Institution
2. Community
3. Association
4. State Answer: 3. Association
• Which one of the following is not a characteristic of a community?
1. Historical Heritage
2. Specific Locality
3. A small patch of localities spread over many areas
Tawqeer
4. A social, religious, occupational group sharing common ul Islam @EACT
features Classe3. A small patch of localities spread over many areas
Answer:
MCQS
• What are the attributes of rural communities?
1. Weak community sentiment, lesser importance of neighbourhood and heterogeneity.
2. Strong community sentiment, importance of neighbourhood and homogeneity
3. Predominence of primary relationships and industry and services sector.
4. High degree of informal social control and low incidence of extended families.
Answer: 2. Strong community sentiment, importance of neighbourhood and homogeneity
• Match
A. Community
the following? 1. Caste
B. Institution 2.Shared Vales
C. Association 3.Trade Union
D. Culture 4.We Feeling
1. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
2. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
3. A-4, B-1, C-3, D-2
4. A-1, B-2, C-2, D-3 Answer: 3. A-4, B-1, C-3, D-2
Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classe
MCQS
• The process of assimilation of social values is called?
1. Modernization
2. Socialization
3. Westernization
4. Secularism Answer: 2. Socialization
• Which of the following is an example of a group?
1. Passengers waiting at a railway station
2. Cinema audience
3. Audience of music concert
4. Members of family Answer: 4. Members of family
• In which form of society does social stratification become more pronounced due to the accumulation of wealth and property?
1. Foraging
2. Pastoral
3. Industrial
4. Agricultural Answer: 3. Industrial
MCQS
• Assertion (A): Marriage has a large variety of forms.
Reason (R): The forms can be identified on the basis of number of partners and rules.
1. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
2. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
3. (A) is true but (R) is false.
4. (R) is true but (A) is false. Answer: 2. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
• Who marries in Monogamy?
1. One male and one female
2. One male and two female
3. Two male and Three female
4. One male and Three females Answer: 1. One male and one female
• Real brothers-sisters are known as
1. Siblings
2. Half Siblings
3. Unilineal
4. Collateral Answer: 1. Siblings
MCQS
• Industrial revolution is
1. a process by which drastic change has occurred in the European societies.
2 an unique phenomenon.
3. a process illustrates a pattern of change that has taken place in the past and is likely to be repeated in future in other societies.
4. None of the above Answer: 3. a process illustrates a pattern of change that has taken place in the past and is likely to
be repeated in future in other societies.
• Proximity to nature is a characteristic feature of–
(A) Agrarian society
(B) Urban society
(C) Industrial society
(D) Post-industrial society Answer: (A) Agrarian society
• The total organisation of social life within a limited area may be termed as–
(A) A community
(B) An association
(C) An institution
(D) A society Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes Answer: (A) A community
MCQS
• Which of the following will not be considered as Primary group?
(A) Family
(B) Peer Group
(C) Neighbourhood
(D) Crowd Answer: (B) Peer Group
• As per Hindu Dharrnsastra marriage between a Brahmin woman and a man from 'Vaishya Varna' is called–
(A) Pratiloma
(B) Anuloma
(C) Exogamy
(D) Love marriage Answer: (A) Pratiloma
• Social mobility is the most important feature of .
A) Urban society
B) Rural society
C)Tribal society
D) Industrial Society Answer: A) Urban society
MCQS
• --------- is the basic unit of Indian rural social structure.
A) Marriage
B) Caste system
C) Family
D)Community Answer: (C) Family
• The main duty of the family
A) schooling
B) socialization
C) internalization
D)Agriculture Answer: (B) socialization
• In the Industrial Society the family is limited to husband, wife and their children is called
A) Extended family
B) Family
C) Nuclear family
D) None of these Answer: C) Nuclear family
MCQS
• . ............... family the bride resides with the husband’s family
A) patrilocal
B) Matrilocal
C) patriarchal
D) Matriarchal Answer: (A) patrilocal
• In the .............. family the ancestors are men
A) Matrilineal
B) Partilocal
C) Partiarchal
D) Patrilineal Answer: (D) Patrilineal
• Endogamy is a rule of marriage in which the life partners are to be selected within the …
A) group
B) country
C) society
D) None of these Answer: (A) group
MCQS
• ..................... is a rule of marriage in which a man has many outside his own group
A) monogamy
B) endogamy
C) exogamy
D) Hypergamy Answer: (C) exogamy
• Who says that, Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children?
A) Alfred MC Clung Lee
B) Edward Westmark
C) Robert H. Lowie
D) Malinowski Answer: (D) Malinowski
• ...................... is a marriage between two equals
A) exogamy
B) Village gothra
C) Pinda exogamy
D) Isogamy Answer: (D) Isogamy
MCQS
• ........... is a marriage of a person with someone of higher varna or Superior Caste.
A) Hypergamy
B) Hypogamy
C) Endogamy
D) Exogamy Answer: (A) Hypergamy
• . .................... is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than women at a time.
A) Polygyny
B) Polyandry
C) Monogamy
D) Group Marriage Answer: (A) Polygyny
• ..................... is a form of marriage of one woman with more than one man
A) Polygyny
B) Polyandry
C) Monogamy
D) Polygyny Answer: B) Polyandry
MCQS
• Several brothers share the same wife which practice is often called .............
A) Sororal polygyny
B) Non-Sororal
C) Fraternal polyandry
D) None of these Answer: (C) Fraternal polyandry
• Father is the head of the family and the familial power and authority rests in the father this type of family is known as
A) Patriarchal
B) Matrilineal
C) Patrilocal
D) Matrilocal Answer: (A) Patriarchal
• The bond of blood is called ......................... kinship
A) affinal kinship
B) Primary
C) consanguineous Kinship
D) None of these Answer: (C) consanguineous Kinship
MCQS
• The .............. refers to a set of Principles by which an individual trace the descent.
A) Matrilineal descent
B) Patrilineal descent
C) Bilateral descent
D) rule of descent Answer: (D) rule of descent
• Some relatives are very close and near that is called ..............
A) Affinal
B) Primary kins
C) Secondary kins
D) Consanguineous Answer: (B) Primary kins
• The bond of marriage is called ................ kinship
A) affinal kinship
B) Consanguineous kinship
C) both (a) and (b)
D) None of these Answer: (A) affinal kinship
MCQS
• Who introduced the term modernization?
a) Lundbekg
b) Gait
c) Page
d) Daniel Lerner Answer: (d) Daniel Lerner
• When a special role is given to the father’s sister, it is known as ............
A) Avoidance
B) Amitate
C) Couvade
D) Tecknonymy Answer: (B) Amitate
• The kin is not referred to directly but he is referred to through another kin is called
A) Avunclate
B) Tecknonymy
C) Amitate
D) Joking relationship Answer: (B) Tecknonymy
MCQS
• When did the Caste Disabilities Removal act established?
a) 1931
b) 1879
c) 1872
d) 1873 Answer: (c) 1872
• Who called the name Harijan was given to the Untouchables
a) Nehru
b) Nadabai Navaroji
c) Ambedkar
d) Ghandhi Answer: (d) Ghandhi
• Which article provides a citizen of India, shall not discriminate against anyone on the basis of religion, caste, sex
a) Article 15
b) Article 17
c) Article 28
d) Article 27 Answer: (a) Article 15
MCQS
• Social change is responsible for–
(A) Social progress
(B) Social evolution
(C) Social disorganisation
(D) All the above Answer: (D) All the above
• Whose theory is known as functional theory of social stratification?
(A) Marx
(B) Max Weber
(C) Davis and Moore
(D) Sorokin Answer: (C) Davis and Moore
• Which of the following is NOT a characteristic feature of society?
a) Dynamic
b) Abstract
c) Rigid
d) Interdependent Answer: (c) Rigid
MCQS
• Associations in sociology refer to:
a) Voluntary alliances pursuing shared interests
b) Government welfare schemes
c) Philanthropic initiatives
d) Business partnerships a) Voluntary alliances pursuing shared interests
• The social contract theory is attributed to:
a) Auguste Comte
b) Karl Marx
c) John Locke
d) Max Weber Answer: (c) John Locke
• The evolutionary theory of societal origin is attributed to:
a) Emile Durkheim
b) Auguste Comte
c) Herbert Spencer
d) Karl Marx Answer: (c) Herbert Spencer
MCQS
• Primary social groups are characterized by:
a) Weak social ties
b) Anonymity between members
c) A commercial orientation
d) Intense emotional bonds Answer: (d) Intense emotional bonds
• Voluntary participation is an essential feature of:
a) Community
b) Society
c) Primary groups
d) Family structures Answer: (a) Community
• The varna schema classifies society into how many hierarchical classes?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6 Answer: (b). 4
MCQS
• Which constitutional provision officially abolished the practice of untouchability?
a. Article 12
b. Article 15
c. Article 16
d. Article 17 Answer: (d) Article 17
• Which of the following is NOT a function of social institutions?
a) Transmission of culture
b) Population growth
c) Social welfare and development
d) Provision of recreational activities Answer: (b) Population growth
• What are mores?

a) Informal norms
b) Formal laws
c) Values
d) Serious norms with moral significance Answer: (d) Serious norms with moral significance
MCQS
• Which is NOT an example of a folkway?
a) Etiquette
b) Law
c) Custom
d) Tradition Answer: (b) Law
• In a Muslim marriage ceremony, what does ‘Ijab-e-qubool’ refer to?
a) Marriage contract
b) Dowry
c) Bridal veil removal
d) Circumambulations Answer: (a) Marriage contract
• In Islam, …………. is a waiting period after a woman's husband dies or she gets divorced, during which she is not allowed
to marry another man.
a) Halala
b) Iddat
c) Talaq
d) Haj Answer: (b) Iddat Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes
MCQS
• What is industrialization?
A. A process of cultural exchange
B. Economic and social transformation from agrarian to industrial
C. The spread of globalization
D. Technological stagnation Answer: B. Economic and social transformation from agrarian to industrial
• Globalization is characterized by:
A. A decrease in cross-border flows of information.
B. Increased interconnectedness and interdependence.
C. Isolationism and cultural homogeneity.
D. A shift towards traditional economic structures. Answer: B. Increased interconnectedness and interdependence.
• Modernization involves:
A. A return to traditional values and practices.
B. The decline of education and knowledge-based economies.
C. Adoption of technology and cultural shifts.
D. A focus on agrarian economies Answer: C. Adoption of technology and cultural shifts.
MCQS
• Which of the following is a characteristic of industrialization?
A) Increased reliance on traditional production methods
B) Decreased urbanization
C) Adoption of new technologies
D) Reduction in factory-based production Answer: C) Adoption of new technologies
• What is one of the main causes of industrialization?
A) Preservation of natural resources
B) Reduction in transportation infrastructure
C) Technological advancements
D) Decrease in urbanization Answer: C) Technological advancements
• Which of the following is a disadvantage of industrialization?
A) Technological innovation
B) Improved standard of living
C) Environmental degradation
D) Cultural exchange Answer: C) Environmental degradation
MCQS
• What is one advantage of industrialization?
A) Increased income inequality
B) Environmental preservation
C) Creation of job opportunities
D) Decline in urban development Answer: C) Creation of job opportunities
• What characteristic of industrialization involves the shift from small-scale production to large-scale, mechanized production
methods?
A) Urbanization
B) Division of labor
C) Mass production
D) Cultural exchange Answer: C) Mass production
• Which characteristic of globalization involves increased connectivity and interdependence among countries?
A) Cultural exchange
B) Urbanization
C) Interconnectedness
D) Secularization Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes Answer: C) Interconnectedness
MCQS
• What is a cause of globalization?
A) Technological stagnation
B) Trade protectionism
C) Increased cultural isolation
D) Advances in communication technology Answer: D) Advances in communication technology
• What advantage does globalization offer?
A) Environmental degradation
B) Income inequality
C) Increased trade opportunities
D) Cultural homogenization Answer: C) Increased trade opportunities
• Which of the following is a disadvantage of globalization?
A) Cultural exchange
B) Technological integration
C) Dependency among countries
D) Economic growth Answer: C) Dependency among countries
MCQS
• What characteristic of globalization involves the spread of ideas, values, and cultural practices among different societies?
A) Technological integration
B) Urbanization
C) Cultural exchange
D) Standardization Answer: C) Cultural exchange
• What is a characteristic of modernization?
A) Adoption of traditional production methods
B) Emphasis on religious practices
C) Technological advancement
D) Ruralization Answer: C) Technological advancement
• What is a cause of modernization?
A) Preservation of traditional values
B) Technological stagnation
C) Urbanization
D) Global isolation Answer: C) Urbanization
MCQS
• What advantage does modernization provide?
A) Social dislocation
B) Cultural imperialism
C) Improved quality of life
D) Marginalization Answer: C) Improved quality of life
• What is a disadvantage of modernization?
A) Increased cultural diversity
B) Environmental preservation
C) Social alienation
D) Reduction in education access Answer: C) Social alienation
• What characteristic of modernization involves the decline of traditional religious beliefs and practices?
A) Urbanization
B) Technological advancement
C) Secularization
D) Cultural exchange Answer: C) Secularization

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CONTENTS

• Society, Community, Association

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Interdependence Dynamic Social Control Culture

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Evolutionary Social Contract Divine Creation

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

3. Divine Creation Theory:

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Common Co-operative Regulation of

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Caste Estates Social Class

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Brahmins Kshatriyas Vaishyas Shudras

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

(3) Occupational/Economic/Functional Theory: The occupational or functional theory, proposed by G.S.

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Horizontal Intragenerational Intergenerational

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes

Tawqeer ul Islam @EACT Classes