Chapter 1: Introduction

• Measurement of length
o Various instruments available for measuring length: tape measure, meter rule, ruler, vernier
caliper, micrometer
o Examples of using these instruments for different objects
o Reading and calculating measurements on an analog micrometer
• Zero error
o Definition and examples of zero error in measuring devices
o Positive and negative zero errors explained with examples
• Parallax error
o Causes of parallax errors during measurements
o Correct positioning of the eye to avoid parallax errors
• Measurement techniques
o Measuring thickness of paper using ruler and micrometer
o Measuring volume using a measuring cylinder
o Determining the time period of a pendulum
• Physical quantities
o Definition of physical quantities as numerical magnitude and unit
o Differentiating between scalar and vector quantities with examples
• Resultant vector
o Explanation of scalar and vector quantities
o Methods to find the resultant vector: triangle method and parallelogram method
o Calculation of resultant velocity using Pythagorean theorem and tangent ratio
o Finding resultant velocity graphically using the triangle method

Chapter 2: Speed Of Object

• Resultant Velocity Calculation

o Draw a velocity of 80 kilometers per hour for 8 centimeters.
o Resultant velocity formed by connecting 60 km/h and 80 km/h velocities.
o Magnitude of resultant velocity is 100 kilometers per hour.
o Measure the angle between 60 km/h and resultant velocity: 53 degrees.
• Distance vs. Displacement
o Distance is total path length traveled by an object.
o Displacement is directed distance from start to end points.
o Distance is scalar, while displacement is a vector quantity.
• Speed vs. Velocity
o Speed is distance traveled per unit time, a scalar quantity.
o Velocity is speed in a given direction, a vector quantity.
o Instantaneous speed is speed at a moment, while average speed is total distance moved per
unit time.
• Acceleration
o Acceleration is change in velocity per unit time, a vector quantity.
o Acceleration equation: a = (v - u) / t.
o Deceleration when final velocity is less than initial velocity, acceleration is negative.
o Acceleration when final velocity is more than initial velocity, acceleration is positive.
• Additional Knowledge
o In IGCSE CIE Physics, velocity is defined as speed in a given direction.
o Velocity is the change in displacement per unit time.
o Distance time graph shows speed and acceleration of an object.
o Different gradients on the graph indicate rest, constant speed, acceleration, or deceleration.
• Distance Time Graph
o Gradient of the graph represents the speed of the object.
o Horizontal line graph with 0 gradient indicates rest.
o Straight line graph with constant gradient indicates constant speed.
 o Curved graph with increasing gradient indicates acceleration.
o Curved graph with decreasing gradient indicates deceleration.
• Example of Distance Time Graph
o Between points A to B: Speed is increasing, object is accelerating.
o Between points B to C: Constant speed, acceleration is 0.
o Between points C to D: Speed is decreasing, object is decelerating.
o Between points D to E: Speed is 0, object is at rest.
o Average speed between A to E: 2.4 meters per second.

Chapter 3: Force On Object

• Speed-Time Graph
o Gradient of the graph represents acceleration of the object.
o Area under the graph represents distance moved.
o Different types of graphs indicate different motions:
▪ Horizontal line at x-axis: object at rest.
▪ Horizontal line with positive gradient: constant speed.
▪ Straight line with positive constant gradient: increasing speed with constant
acceleration.
▪ Straight line with negative constant gradient: decreasing speed with constant
deceleration.
▪ Curved graph with increasing gradient: increasing speed with increasing acceleration.
▪ Curved graph with decreasing gradient: increasing speed with decreasing
acceleration.
o Example of speed-time graph analysis provided.
• Calculations
o Acceleration calculation: rise divided by run.
o Constant acceleration and deceleration calculations demonstrated.
o Average speed calculation: total distance moved divided by total time.
o Area calculations for different sections of the graph shown.
o Total distance moved and average speed calculated.

Free Fall

• Concept of Free Fall

o Motion due to constant acceleration of 9.8 meters per second squared.
o Experience gravitational force of Earth with negligible resistance.
o Initial speed is 0, acceleration is 9.8 meters per second squared.
o Speed and distance calculations for each second provided.
• Speed-Time Graph of Free Fall
o Speed increases by 9.8 meters per second every second.
o Graph plotted with speed at different time intervals.

Distance and Speed

• Speed increases with constant acceleration of 9.8 meters per second squared
o Gradient of the speed-time graph is constant
• Distance moved can be found from the area under the graph
o Distance moved between intervals calculated using the formula: sum of velocities multiplied by
time and divided by 2
• Distance moved of a ball increases by 9.8 meters every second
• Distance-time graph of free fall shows increasing distance at an increasing rate

Mass and Weight

 • Mass is the quantity of matter in an object, a scalar quantity in kilograms
• Weight is the gravitational force on an object, a vector quantity in Newtons
• Weight varies with location due to gravitational field strength
• Gravitational field strength on Earth is 9.8 Newton per kilogram
• Weight can be calculated as weight = mass * gravitational field strength
• Mass remains constant regardless of location, weight varies
• Example: astronaut's weight on Earth and Moon

Density

• Density is mass per unit volume, specific to each material

• Density equation: density = mass / volume
• Density units: kilogram per cubic meter or grams per cubic centimeters
• Example calculation to determine material based on density
• Objects float or sink based on their density compared to the liquid's density
• Example: aluminum block sinks, ice block floats but is submerged

Chapter 4: Normal Reaction Force

• Density of Regular Objects

o Mass of regular object can be measured using a scale balance or a spring balance.
▪ Scale balance gives mass, while spring balance gives weight (which can be converted
to mass by dividing by 9.8).
o Volume of regular object can be found by measuring its dimensions and using appropriate
formulas.
▪ For example, volume of a cube is calculated using v equals side cubed.
▪ Volume of a cylinder is calculated using v equals pi r squared h.
o Density of each object can be calculated using the formula density equals mass divided by
volume.
• Density of Irregular Objects
o Mass of an irregular object like a stone can be measured using a scale balance or a spring
balance.
o Volume of the stone can be determined by using a measuring cylinder and water displacement
method.
▪ Volume is calculated as the final volume minus the initial volume.
o Density of the stone can be calculated using the formula density equals mass divided by
volume.
• Determining Volume of Floating Objects
o To determine the volume of a floating object like a cork, a water displacement method can be
used.
▪ Volume is calculated as the final volume minus the initial volume.
• Effects of Forces on Objects
o Force is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction, measured in Newtons (N).
o Different types of forces include weight, tension, normal reaction force, friction, air resistance,
liquid resistance, and upthrust force.
o Normal reaction force is the perpendicular force acting on an object in contact with a surface.
o Buoyancy force is the upward force acting on an object submerged in a fluid.
o A car at rest experiences weight acting downward and normal reaction forces acting upward
at its wheels.

Main Ideas

Forces Acting on Moving Car

• Weight acts downward

 • Normal reaction forces act upward at wheels
• Thrust force from engine acts forward
• Air resistance acts backward

Forces Acting on Box on Incline

• Weight acts downward

• Normal reaction force acts upward perpendicular to slope
• Friction acts upward parallel to slope

Forces Acting on Box Being Pulled Up Incline

• Weight acts downward

• Normal reaction force acts upward perpendicular to slope
• Friction acts downward parallel to slope
• Tension acts up along the slope

Forces Acting on Floating Box

• Weight acts downward

• Upthrust acts upward

Forces Acting on Metal Sphere in Water

• Weight acts downward

• Upthrust acts upward
• Viscosity (water resistance) acts upward

Resultant Force

• Total force acting on an object

• Can be found using triangle or parallelogram method
• Magnitude and direction can be calculated using trigonometry

Example 1: Resultant Force Calculation

• Resultant force is 10 Newtons to the right

Example 2: Finding Resultant Force

• Triangle method: Resultant force is 12.8 Newtons at 39 degrees

• Parallelogram method: Resultant force is 12.8 Newtons at 39 degrees

Example 3: Finding Resultant Force

• Triangle method: Resultant force is 9.2 Newtons at 50 degrees

• Parallelogram method: Resultant force is 9.2 Newtons at 50 degrees
• Magnitude and direction calculated using cosine and sine rules

Supporting Details

Forces Acting on Moving Car

 • Weight due to gravity pulls the car downward
• Normal reaction forces counteract the weight, acting upward at the wheels
• Thrust force from the engine propels the car forward
• Air resistance opposes the car's motion, acting backward

Forces Acting on Box on Incline

• Weight of the box pulls it downward

• Normal reaction force from the incline acts upward, perpendicular to the slope
• Friction from the rough incline acts upward, parallel to the slope

Forces Acting on Box Being Pulled Up Incline

• Weight of the box still acts downward

• Normal reaction force remains upward, perpendicular to the slope
• Friction now acts downward, parallel to the slope, due to motion
• Tension from the string pulls the box up along the slope

Forces Acting on Floating Box

• Weight of the box pulls it downward

• Upthrust from the water pushes the box upward, keeping it afloat

Forces Acting on Metal Sphere in Water

• Weight of the sphere pulls it downward

• Upthrust from the water pushes the sphere upward
• Viscosity, or water resistance, opposes the sphere's motion, acting upward

Resultant Force

• Represents the total effect of all forces on an object

• Can be calculated using different methods like the triangle or parallelogram method
• Magnitude and direction of the resultant force can be determined using trigonometry

Example 1: Resultant Force Calculation

• Resultant force is calculated as 20 + 5 - 15 = 10 Newtons to the right

Example 2: Finding Resultant Force

• Triangle method involves drawing and measuring forces to calculate resultant force magnitude and
direction
• Parallelogram method uses parallelogram construction to determine resultant force
• Magnitude and direction of the resultant force are calculated using trigonometry

Example 3: Finding Resultant Force

• Similar process as Example 2 but with different force values and angles
• Magnitude and direction of the resultant force are calculated using cosine and sine rules

Chapter 5: Force And Resultant

Newton's First Law of Motion

• An object remains at rest or moves at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a
resultant force.
• Examples include a car at rest with downward weight and upward normal reaction forces balancing
each other.
• A car moving at a constant speed due to thrust force equaling air resistance.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

• Resultant force changes an object's velocity, leading to acceleration.

• Acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force and inversely proportional to the object's
mass.
• Mathematically expressed as f = ma.

Newton's Third Law of Motion

• States that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Examples include a book on a table exerting a downward force, countered by an upward force from the
table.

Terminal Velocity

• Maximum constant speed of an object in a fluid with no resultant force.

• Drag force increases with speed and surface area, affecting terminal velocity.
• Skydiver's terminal velocity reached when drag force equals weight, leading to constant speed.

Speed Time Graph

• Shows acceleration changes for a skydiver, reaching terminal velocity when acceleration is 0.
• Opening a parachute increases drag force, causing deceleration until reaching a new terminal velocity.
• Graph for free fall shows constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s², while air resistance leads to a terminal
velocity in another graph.

Chapter 6: Moment Of Force

Terminal Velocity

• Resultant force equals weight when only weight acts downward on the ball.
• Acceleration decreases as time passes due to decreasing gradient.
• Air resistance increases as speed increases, causing resultant force to decrease.
• Acceleration reaches 0 at terminal velocity.

Circle Motion

• Resultant force perpendicular to motion direction causes direction change in circular path.
• Centripetal force keeps ball in circular path by acting towards the center.
• Centripetal acceleration is towards the center of the circle.
• Ball escapes from circular path along tangent line if tension in string cannot support resultant force.

Horizontal Circular Motion

• Tension in string provides centripetal force.

 • Resultant force and tension increase with speed, mass, or radius changes.
• Sideways friction provides centripetal force for a car on a circular road.

Hooke's Law

• Extension of spring is directly proportional to force/load.

• Equation: f = kx (f: force, k: spring constant, x: extension).
• Experiment setup to investigate relationship between force and extension of spring.
• Graph shows extension is directly proportional to load until limit of proportionality and elastic limit are
reached.

Center of Gravity and Stability

• Definition: Center of gravity is where an object's entire mass or weight is considered to act.
o Examples: Human, apple, magnet have specific centers of gravity.
• Balancing: Objects balance around their center of gravity.
o Experiment: Balancing a pencil on a finger, walking on a rope.
• Stability: Objects are stable with a low center of gravity and wide base area.
o Example: Racing car vs. family car stability comparison.
• Toppling: Object topples if the vertical line from its center of gravity falls outside its base area.
o Example: Bus on an incline road scenario.

Turning Effect of Forces

• Definition: Turning effect is the measure of moment forces.

• Examples: Spanner, hammer, scissors, seesaw, levers, door opening, wheelbarrow, car steering.
• Moment of Forces: Defined as the product of force and perpendicular distance from the pivot.
o Equation: m = f * d (m: moment of force, f: force, d: perpendicular distance)

Principle of Moments and Equilibrium

• Principle: Total clockwise moment equals total anticlockwise moment in equilibrium.

• Conditions: No resultant force or moment acting on the object.
• Example: Calculating upward forces exerted by trestles on a plank in equilibrium.
• Solution: Applying the principle of moments to find the forces x and y exerted by the trestles.

Chapter 7: Using Total Upward Force

• Finding x and y using total upward and downward forces on a plank

o x = 425 newtons
o y = 325 newtons

Example 2: Balancing a Plank

• Calculating moments of forces about a point to determine balance

o Clockwise moment of 4 N force: 16 Nm
o Anticlockwise moment of 6 N force: 12 Nm
o Additional downward force of 2 N needed for balance

Example 3: Tension Force Calculation

• Calculating tension force exerted by hamstring due to horizontal force

o Tension force T = 525 newtons
Momentum

• Definition and unit of momentum

o Momentum = mass * velocity (p = m * v)
• Impulse and Newton's second law of motion
o Impulse = change in momentum = mv - mu
o Resultant force is the rate of change in momentum
• Conservation of momentum
o Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
o Conservation of momentum equation: m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Example 1: Collision of Two Masses

• Applying conservation of momentum to find speed and direction after collision

o m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Impulse and Momentum

• Example 1:
o Given values: m1=5, u1=5, m2=10, u2=-3, v2=1
o Calculated speed v=3 m/s in the left direction
o Impulse of mass 10kg: 40 Ns in the right direction
o Impulse of mass 5kg: -40 Ns in the left direction
o Impulse magnitudes are equal but in opposite directions
• Example 2:
o Given values: m1=500, u1=0, m2=800, u2=20
o Calculated speed after collision v=12.3 m/s
o Impulse of car 800kg: -6150 Ns in the left direction
o Impulse of car 500kg: 6150 Ns in the right direction
o Impulse magnitudes are equal but in opposite directions

Safety Measures in Collisions

• Safety features like airbags, seat belts, and crumple zones increase collision time
• Deceleration of the car decreases, reducing the force exerted on passengers
• Change in momentum remains the same, leading to reduced injury risk

Pressure

• Definition:
o Pressure = Force/Area (P = F/A)
o Measured in Pascal (Pa) or N/m²
• Solid Object Pressure:
o Pressure calculated using weight and contact surface area
o Pressure varies with changes in contact area and force
• Applications in Everyday Life:
o High pressure with small contact area (e.g., soccer shoe spikes)
o High pressure for cutting objects (e.g., knives, saws)
o Low pressure with large contact area (e.g., wooden plank on soft ground)
• Pressure in Liquids:
o Acts in all directions on objects
o Higher pressure at greater depths leads to increased force compared to shallower depths
Chapter 8: Conclusion

• Pressure in a Liquid
o Pressure decreases as object rises through liquid
o Equation: p = ρgh
▪ p: pressure in pascals
▪ ρ: density in kg/m³
▪ g: acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
▪ h: depth in meters
o Pressure depends on density and depth
o Pressure is same in containers with same liquid and depth
o Liquid flows further from point C due to higher pressure from greater depth
• Pressure in Gas
o Gas pressure from collisions of gas molecules on object surface
o Collisions cause changes in momentum and exert forces
o Pressure defined as force per unit area
• Pressure in Air
o Pressure decreases as object rises due to fewer air molecules at higher altitudes
o Demonstrated by can crushing at different altitudes
o Atmospheric pressure measured using barometer
• Drinking Through a Straw
o Expanding tongue reduces air pressure in straw
o Atmospheric pressure pushes liquid up straw for drinking
• Barometer
o Measures atmospheric pressure
o Mercury barometer: h represents excess pressure
o Atmospheric pressure calculated using p = ρgh
o Pressure at sea level typically 1.0 x 10^5 pascals
o Pressure changes with altitude affecting mercury length
o Using different liquids in barometer affects height measurement

Conclusion

• Understanding pressure in liquids, gases, and air

• Importance of density and depth in determining pressure
• Practical applications like barometers for measuring atmospheric pressure
• Effects of altitude on pressure and barometer readings
• Demonstrations like can crushing and drinking through a straw
Understanding Waves

Transverse Waves

• Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.

• Classified into transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
o Transverse Waves:
▪ Direction of vibration is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
▪ Examples: water waves, seismic secondary waves, electromagnetic waves.
▪ Demonstrated by shaking a spring up and down.
▪ Equilibrium position, crest, and trough are key concepts.

Longitudinal Waves

• Direction of vibration is parallel to the direction of propagation.

• Examples: sound waves, seismic primary waves.
• Demonstrated by shaking a spring forward and backward.
• Compression and rarefaction are important terms.

Describing Waves

• Amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period, and speed are key parameters.

• Relationships between these parameters: speed = wavelength x frequency.
• Wave fronts represent peaks, compressions, or rarefactions of the wave.
• Ripple tank demonstrations show wave fronts and their characteristics.

Reflection of Waves

• Waves hitting an obstacle are reflected.

• Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.
• Incident ray, reflective ray, and normal lie on the same plane.
• Circular wave fronts can be reflected at flat obstacles.

Refraction of Waves

• Waves change speed and wavelength when traveling from one medium to another.
• Demonstrated in a ripple tank with shallow and deep water.
• Refraction causes bending of wave fronts towards the normal line.

Diffraction of Waves

• Diffraction is the spreading out of waves around obstacles or through gaps.

• Speed, wavelength, and frequency remain constant after diffraction.
• Amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength compared to the size of the obstacle or gap.

Wave Diffraction

• Less diffraction occurs when the wavelength is much smaller than the size of the gap or obstacle.
• Demonstration of wave diffraction using a ripple tank.
o Straight wave fronts pass through the gap when the size of the gap is similar to the
wavelength.
o Waves spread out more, causing the straight wave fronts to become curved.
• When the wavelength decreases while the size of the gap remains constant:
o Waves spread out less, causing the refractive wave fronts to be less curved.
 • Drawing diffraction scenarios:
o Draw obstacles and their gaps.
o Draw straight wave fronts for small wavelength.
o Draw curved wave fronts for larger wavelength.

General Properties of Light Waves

• Light waves are transverse and electromagnetic, transferring energy through vacuum.
• Speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 10^8 m/s, similar to air.
• Light travels in straight lines and exhibits reflection, refraction, and diffraction.

Reflection of Light

• Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.

• Incident ray, reflective ray, and normal lie on the same plane.
• Steps for drawing reflection on a plane mirror.
• Virtual image characteristics:
o Same size as object, laterally inverted.
o Image is upright and virtual.

Refraction of Light

• Light refracts when passing through transparent materials like glass.

• Angle of incidence and refraction denoted by I and r.
• Light slows down in denser mediums, refractive index relates to density.
• Snell's law describes relationship between angles of incidence and refraction.

Examples and Calculations

• Example scenarios with angles and refractive indices.

• Calculations using Snell's law for angle of refraction.
• Experiment to investigate reflection of light and calculate speed of light in glass.

Experiment with Light and Glass Block

• Use ruler to draw incident and emerging rays

o Connect entry and exit points to show light path
• Draw normal line at point of incidence
• Measure angle of incidence and angle of refraction
• Calculate refractive index of glass using Snell's law
• Calculate speed of light in glass using formula v = c/n
• Repeat experiment for 5 angles, find average refractive index and speed
• Plot graph of sin I against sin r to find refractive index

Total Internal Reflection

• Light slows down but doesn't change direction at 0 degrees incidence

• Reflection and refraction at point A
• Refraction bends away from normal in less dense medium
• Increase in angle of incidence leads to increase in angle of refraction
• Critical angle is angle where refraction is 90 degrees
• Total internal reflection occurs beyond critical angle

Applications of Total Internal Reflection

 • Periscope uses glass prisms for total internal reflection
• Optical fibers use total internal reflection for communication
• Used in TV, internet, phones for high-speed data transfer
• Medical applications like endoscopy for examining inside body

Lens Diagram and Image Formation

• Principal axis, focus, focal length in lens diagram

• Converging lens brings parallel rays to focus
• Diverging lens spreads out parallel rays
• Real image formed when light rays meet, virtual when they don't
• Image formation for different object positions relative to lens
• Real, virtual, enlarged, inverted images described
• Use of single lens as magnifying glass explained

Diverging Lenses

• Formation of Images
o Images formed by diverging lenses are always virtual.
o When object is placed beyond focal length, rays travel straight or away from axis.
o Image is smaller, virtual, and upright.
• Correction of Vision
o Correcting shortsightedness using diverging lens.
o Correcting long sightedness using converging lens.

Dispersion of Light

• Definition and Demonstration

o Dispersion is spreading white light into spectrum colors.
o Prism separates white light into colors based on wavelength.
o Violet bends most, red least due to different speeds in glass.
• Visible Spectrum
o Visible light range perceivable by humans.
o Different colors have varying wavelengths, frequencies, and energies.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Properties and Order

o All waves are transverse and travel at same speed in vacuum.
o Arranged by wavelength or frequency from radio waves to gamma rays.
o Higher frequency means higher energy and ionization potential.
• Uses and Applications
o Radio waves for communication, RFID, and astronomy.
o Microwaves for communication, radar, and heating.
o Infrared for cooking, remote controls, and thermal imaging.
o Visible light for vision, communication, and optical fibers.
o Ultraviolet for fluorescence, tanning, sterilization.
o X rays for medical imaging and security scanning.
o Gamma rays for sterilization and cancer treatment.

Harmful Effects of Electromagnetic Waves

• Ionization and Risks

o Higher frequency waves are more ionizing and harmful.
 o Risks include heat damage, burns, eye damage, and cancer.
o UV and gamma rays can cause severe damage to cells and tissues.

X Rays and Gamma Rays

• X rays and gamma rays are highly ionizing radiations that can penetrate the body and cause internal
damage.
o They are known to kill cells, cause mutations in genes, and increase the risk of cancer.

Electromagnetic Waves and Communications

• Harmful effects of electromagnetic waves depend on the amount of radiation absorbed and the type of
tissue exposed.
o Retina of the eye is more sensitive to light, making it prone to damage from visible light.
• To protect oneself, limit exposure to electronic devices, avoid strong radiation sources, and use
protective clothing when necessary.
• Geostationary satellites orbit above the Earth's equator at a height of 36000 kilometers, used for global
radio and telecommunication broadcasting.
• Polar orbiting satellites orbit around the Earth's poles at a lower height of around 200 kilometers, used
for weather monitoring, military applications, and Earth imaging.

Systems of Communications

• Various communication systems use different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.

o Bluetooth uses radio waves, mobile phones and wireless internet use microwaves, and optical
fibers use visible light for high-speed data transmission.
• Digital signals have advantages over analog signals, including better noise reduction, larger
transmission range, higher data rates, and error-checking capabilities.

Sound Waves

• Sound waves are longitudinal waves where particles vibrate in the same direction as the wave's travel.
• Sound requires a medium to propagate and travels faster in solids than in liquids and gases.
• The speed of sound can be determined through experiments involving the time taken for sound to travel
a known distance.
• Sound diffracts around corners and through doorways due to its wavelength relative to the size of
openings.

Pitch, Loudness, and Ultrasound

• Pitch of a sound wave is related to its frequency, with low pitch corresponding to low frequency and
high pitch to high frequency.
• Loudness of a sound wave is related to its amplitude, with larger amplitudes producing higher volumes.
• Ultrasound refers to sound waves with frequencies above 20,000 hertz, beyond the range of human
hearing.
• Ultrasound finds applications in SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) for depth measurement and
object detection underwater.

Main Ideas

Calculating Depth of Water

• Equation to calculate depth of water: Speed = 2 * depth / echo time

• Used in medical scanning of soft tissue
 • Helps construct images of fetus in the womb and 2D images of organs
• Effective for structures not surrounded by bone

Checking for Cracks in Metal Objects

• Cracks in metal objects cause waves to reflect differently

• Cracks show up as pulses on an oscilloscope trace
• Each pulse represents a wave crossing a boundary
• Constant wave speed allows calculation of distance from source

Note

The video discusses the calculation of water depth using a specific equation, its application in medical scanning
for soft tissue and imaging of internal structures. It also explains how cracks in metal objects can be detected
through wave reflections

When a wave passes through a narrow gap, diffraction occurs. If the gap is narrow, the diffraction effect is
more pronounced, causing the wave to spread out more. Wider gaps result in less noticeable diffraction. The
narrower the gap, the more significant the diffraction effect, leading to greater bending of waves around
obstacles and edges. Wavelength affects the diffraction pattern, with longer wavelengths diffracting more
than shorter ones.

THERMAL PHYSICS:
The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat energy required to change a unit mass
of a substance from liquid to gas at constant temperature and pressure. It is different from
specific latent heat of vaporization, which is the heat energy required to change a unit mass
of a substance from liquid to gas at its boiling point. This concept is important in
understanding phase changes in matter, like water turning into steam.

Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

• States of Matter
o Matter can exist as solids, liquids, or gases.
o Particles in matter can be atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons.
• Solids
o Strong intermolecular forces, close together in a regular pattern.
o Definite shape and volume, particles vibrate in fixed positions.
• Liquids
o Weaker intermolecular forces than solids, close but not in a regular pattern.
o No definite shape, definite volume, particles can slide past each other.
• Gases
o Very weak intermolecular forces, widely separated particles.
o No definite shape or volume, particles move randomly at high speeds.
• Internal Energy of Matter
o Sum of random kinetic and potential energies of molecules.
o Kinetic energy increases with temperature, potential energy increases with separation between
molecules.
Changes in States of Matter

• Processes
o Melting (solid to liquid), boiling/evaporating (liquid to gas), condensation (gas to liquid),
freezing (liquid to solid), deposition (gas to solid), sublimation (solid to gas).
• Energy Changes
o Melting and boiling absorb thermal energy, increasing potential energy.
o Freezing and condensing release thermal energy, decreasing potential energy.

Cooling and Heating Processes

• Cooling
o Decrease in temperature, removal of thermal energy, decrease in kinetic energy.
o Internal energy decreases as kinetic energy decreases.
• Heating
o Increase in temperature, addition of thermal energy, increase in kinetic energy.
o Internal energy increases as kinetic energy increases.
• Absolute Temperature
o Kelvin scale, absolute 0 at 0 Kelvin (-273 Celsius).
o Conversion: T(Kelvin) = θ(Celsius) + 273.

Brownian Motion and Gas Pressure

• Brownian Motion
o Random motion of small particles in liquid or gas.
o Direct evidence of kinetic theory of matter, observed by Robert Brown.
• Pressure of Gases
o Produced by collisions of gas molecules on a surface.
o Gas laws: Pressure and volume relationship, Boyle's law.
o Pressure increases when gas is compressed, decreases when expanded at constant
temperature and mass.

Gas Laws and Pressure

• Pressure is inversely proportional to the volume of a gas

o Volume increase leads to gas molecules being further apart, reducing collisions with the
container walls
• Pressure law (Gay Lussac's law) states pressure of gas decreases when temperature decreases
o Lower temperature decreases molecule speed, reducing collisions and pressure
• Pressure increases with temperature increase
o Higher temperature increases molecule speed, leading to more collisions and higher pressure

Thermal Expansion

• Heating causes particles to gain kinetic energy, leading to expansion

• Solids have strong intermolecular forces, making them less expandable
• Liquids can expand more easily than solids due to weaker forces
• Gases have weak forces, allowing for easy expansion and compression
• Everyday applications of thermal expansion include bimetallic strips, railway lines, thermometers,
electrical cables, car tires, and jar lids

Specific Heat Capacity

• Internal energy of an object increases with temperature rise

 • Specific heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 degree Celsius
• Experiment to measure specific heat capacity of a solid involves heating a metal block and calculating
thermal energy added
• Experiment to measure specific heat capacity of a liquid involves weighing the liquid and calculating
thermal energy added

Changes of State of Water

• Melting and boiling involve particles gaining energy to change from solid to liquid and liquid to gas
• Condensation and solidification involve particles losing energy to change from gas to liquid and liquid to
solid
• Boiling is a rapid vaporization that occurs at a specific temperature, while evaporation is a slower
process that can occur at any temperature

Graph of Water Temperature Change

• Shows the transition of water from solid (ice) to liquid at 0 degrees Celsius

Main Ideas from the Transcript

States of Matter and Phase Changes

• Melting and Boiling: Temperature remains constant during phase changes as energy is absorbed to
break intermolecular forces.
o Melting: Ice absorbs energy to become liquid.
o Boiling: Water absorbs energy to become vapor.
• Specific Heat Capacity: Water requires more energy to change temperature compared to ice and vapor.
• Condensation and Solidification: Temperature remains constant during these phase changes as energy
is released to create intermolecular forces.

Boiling, Evaporation, and Factors Affecting Evaporation

• Boiling vs. Evaporation: Boiling occurs at the boiling point throughout the liquid, while evaporation
occurs at the liquid surface.
• Factors Affecting Evaporation Rate: Temperature, surface area of liquid, and wind speed influence the
rate of evaporation.

Thermal Conduction and Conductors

• Thermal Conduction: Transfer of heat energy through conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Conduction in Solids: Atoms gain kinetic energy and transfer heat through vibrations.
• Good vs. Bad Conductors: Metals are good conductors due to free moving electrons, while insulators
are poor conductors.
• Experiment to Distinguish Conductors: Compare thermal conductivity of metals using a setup with rods
and drawing pins.

Convection in Fluids

• Convection: Heat transfer through fluid movement due to density changes.

• Convection in Water: Demonstrated by heating water with potassium permanganate crystals.
• Convection in Air: Shown by setting up a candle and observing the movement of smoke to visualize
convection currents.

Thermal Energy Transfer and Radiation

 • Hot air rises and cool air sinks
o Hot air rises because it is less dense than the surrounding cool air.
o Cool air sinks because it is denser than the hot air.
• Thermal energy transfer by infrared radiation
o Infrared radiation does not require a medium for transfer.
o Objects heat up if they absorb energy faster than they emit it.
• Effect of surface color and texture on radiation
o Matte black surfaces are good emitters and absorbers of thermal radiation.
o Shiny white or silver surfaces are poor absorbers but good reflectors.

Experiments on Emitters and Absorbers of Infrared Radiation

• Distinguishing good emitters

o Matte surfaces emit more thermal radiation than shiny surfaces.
o Experiment with metal cube painted with different surfaces.
• Distinguishing good absorbers
o Matte black surfaces absorb more heat radiation than white surfaces.
o Experiment with two metal surfaces painted differently.
• Investigating emitters of thermal radiation
o Matte black surfaces emit more thermal radiation than white surfaces.
o Experiment with two cans filled with cold water.

Greenhouse Effect and Earth's Temperature

• Greenhouse effect
o Earth's atmosphere traps emitted thermal radiation, warming the planet.
o Gases like water vapor, methane, and carbon dioxide prevent heat from escaping.
• Factors affecting Earth's temperature
o Balance between incoming radiation and emitted radiation.
o Absorption and reflection of radiation by Earth's surface and atmosphere.

Convection and Heating Processes

• Heating a room by convection

o Warm air rises, displacing cooler air which sinks.
o Air conditioner cools air, causing cooler air to sink and warm air to rise.
• Sea and land breezes
o Sea breezes blow from sea to land due to temperature differences.
o Land breezes blow from land to sea during the night.

Fire Burning and Heat Transfer

• Fire burning wood

o Heat transfer through conduction, radiation, and convection.
o Warm air rises above the fire, causing convection currents.
• Vacuum flask
o Insulating stopper reduces heat loss by conduction and convection.
o Silvered surfaces reflect infrared radiation, reducing heat loss.
• Kitchen pan
o Heat transfer through conduction and convection when cooking.

Main Ideas

Heating of Kitchen Pan

 • Material of the pan: Made of metal like brass, aluminum, or others.
o Supporting detail: Metal pan absorbs thermal energy from the fire through radiation.
o Supporting detail: Thermal energy is then conducted through the metal pan.
o Supporting detail: Thermal energy is transferred from the pan to water through conduction.

Heating of Water in the Pan

• Convection in water: Hot water rises due to being less dense, while cooler water sinks.
o Supporting detail: Movement of water aids in transferring thermal energy through convection.

Insulation in Kitchen Utensils

• Handle of the pan: Made of plastic as an insulator to prevent thermal energy transfer to the hand by
conduction.

Radiator in a Car

• Function of a radiator: Acts as a heat exchanger to cool the engine.

o Supporting detail: Coolant liquid absorbs heat from the engine through conduction.
o Supporting detail: Heated fluid rises by convection and travels to the radiator.
o Supporting detail: Hot liquid is cooled in the radiator by conduction with air entering from the
grille.
o Supporting detail: Cooled fluid returns to the engine to repeat the process.

Cooling System in a Car

• Air cooling process: Air stream entering the engine compartment cools the hot liquid in the radiator by
conduction.
o Supporting detail: Heated air is blown away by a fan, and colder air replaces it.

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Electric Charge
o Objects have positive or negative electric charge.
o Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
o Electric charge is measured in coulombs.
o Atoms consist of protons (positive charge), neutrons (no charge), and electrons (negative
charge).
o Neutral atom has equal protons and electrons.
o Positive ion has more protons than electrons.
o Negative ion has more electrons than protons.
• Electric Fields
o Electric field is the region around a charge where another charge experiences a force.
o Field lines point away from positive charges and towards negative charges.
o Field strength increases when lines are close and decreases when far apart.
o Field lines cannot cross.
o Different electric field patterns shown.
• Conductors and Insulators
o Conductors allow charge flow easily (e.g., metals).
o Insulators do not allow charge flow easily (e.g., rubber, plastic).
o Charging methods: rubbing insulators, induction for conductors.
• Electrostatic Charges
o Friction causes transfer of charges between objects.
o Oppositely charged objects attract.
o Lightning explained in terms of charges transferring.
 • Electric Current
o Electric current is the flow of charge per second.
o Current (I) = Charge (q) / Time (t).

Chapter 2: Convectional Current Flow

• Definition of Current
o Current (I) in amperes is the amount of charge (Q) in coulombs flowing in a circuit over time
(T).
o Current direction aligns with the movement of positive charges and opposes the movement of
negative charges in a conductor.
• Electric Current in Conductors
o Only free-moving electrons in metal conductors can flow to create an electric current.
o When oppositely charged conductors are connected by a metal conductor like copper, charge
flows between them, creating an electric current.
• Calculating Charge and Current
o Example 1: Calculate the charge delivered when 250 milliamperes flow for 40 seconds (Q = 10
coulombs).
o Example 2: Determine the current between a cloud and the ground when 0.60 coulombs
transfer in 5.0 x 10^-5 seconds (I = 12,000 amperes).
• Measuring Current
o Use an ammeter (digital or analog) in series to measure current in a circuit.
o Good ammeters have low resistance to allow efficient charge flow.
o Current flows from negative to positive terminals in a copper wire.
• Direct and Alternating Current
o Direct Current (DC) flows in one direction, like from a battery.
o Alternating Current (AC) changes direction periodically, common in mains electricity.
o Understanding graphs showing current variations with time for DC and AC.
• Electromotive Force and Potential Difference
o EMF is the work done by a source moving a unit charge around a circuit.
o Potential Difference (PD) is work done per unit charge passing through a component.
o Equations: EMF (e) = work (w) / charge (q), PD (v) = w / q.
• Measuring EMF and PD
o Use a voltmeter (digital or analog) in parallel to measure EMF and PD.
o Good voltmeters have high resistance to block current flow.
o Connect voltmeters in parallel to a cell or light bulb.
• Resistance
o Resistance (R) is the ratio of potential difference (V) to current (I) in a circuit.
o Resistance is measured in ohms and resists current flow.
o Higher resistance leads to lower current flow for a given potential difference.
o Resistors control current flow and can be fixed or variable (like rheostats).
• Experiment on Resistance
o Use a voltmeter and an ammeter to determine resistance in a circuit.

Chapter 3: Current Voltage Graphs

• Setting up the apparatus

o Adjust current with a variable resistor
o Read current at ammeter and voltage at voltmeter
• Calculating resistance
o Use the equation R = V / I
o Find average resistance or plot V against I for gradient
• Factors affecting resistance
o Temperature
▪ Increase in temperature leads to increased resistance
o Types of materials
 ▪ Different materials have different resistance
o Length of conductor wire
▪ Longer wire means greater resistance
o Cross-sectional area of wire
▪ Thicker wire has smaller resistance
• Ohm's Law
o V = IR for metallic conductors
• Experiment for resistor
o Plotting current against voltage
o Gradient of 1/resistance
• Experiment for filament lamp
o Heating up increases resistance
• Experiment for diode
o Current flows in one direction only

Electrical Power and Energy

• Definition of power
o Power = work done per unit time
• Power formulas
o P = VI, P = I^2R, P = V^2/R
• Electrical energy
o Energy = power x time
• Energy usage
o Appliances transfer electrical energy
o Measured in kilowatt hours

Chapter 4: Directed Current Power Supply

• Energy Usage Calculation

o Kilowatt hour defined as E = P * T
o 1 kilowatt hour = 1,000 watts * 3,600 seconds = 3.6 * 10^6 joules
o Used for calculating energy cost in homes, businesses, and factories
• Power Supply Components
o Cells, batteries supply electrical energy
o Symbols for dry cell, battery, power supplies
o Switches used to control circuit on/off
o Resistors, potential dividers control current
o Symbols for fixed resistor, variable resistor, potential divider
o Lamps, thermistors, light dependent resistors for specific functions
o Symbols for light bulb, thermistor, light dependent resistor
o Ammeter measures current, voltmeter measures voltage
o Symbols for ammeter, voltmeter
o Diode allows current in one direction
o Symbols for diode, light emitting diode
o Fuse prevents excessive current, symbol for fuse
• Devices and Components
o Heater converts electrical energy to heat
o Motor converts electrical energy to kinetic energy
o Generator converts kinetic energy to electrical energy
o Relay coil controls large current with small current
o Transformer converts voltage from high to low or vice versa

Chapter 5: Equals To Emf

Series Circuit

• Current in a series circuit is the same at every point.

o Sum of potential differences across components equals the battery's electromotive force.
• Total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of individual resistances.
o Mathematically proven: Rt = R1 + R2 + R3.
• Adding more light bulbs in series decreases potential difference across each bulb and increases total
resistance.
• Example 1 calculations:
o Total resistance (Rt) = 18 ohms.
o Current from battery (Iet) = 0.67 amperes.
o Potential differences across resistors X, Y, Z: 4V, 2.7V, 5.3V.

Parallel Circuit

• In a parallel circuit, current is shared by each component.

o Potential difference across components is the same and equals the battery's EMF.
• Total resistance in a parallel circuit is calculated differently.
o Mathematically proven: 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3.
• Adding more light bulbs in parallel decreases total resistance.
• Example 2 calculations:
o Total resistance (Rt) = 2.4 ohms.
o Battery current (It) = 5 amperes.
o Current through resistor X = 2 amperes, resistor Y = 3 amperes.
• Higher resistance leads to lower current, and lower resistance leads to higher current.

Advantages of Parallel Circuit

• Each component has the same potential difference.

• If one component fails, others can still function.
• Brightness of each component remains the same.

By understanding the concepts of series and parallel circuits, one can calculate total resistance, current from the
battery, and potential differences across components accurately.

Lower Total Resistance

• Battery current calculation: I_t = 8 amperes

o emf = 12, rt = 1.5
• Current through resistor x: i1 = 2 amperes
o vx = 12, rx = 6
• Current through resistor y: i2 = 3 amperes
o vy = 12, ry = 4
• Current through resistor z: i3 = 3 amperes
o vz = 12, rz = 4
• Total resistance decreases with more resistors
• Battery current increases as total resistance decreases

Connecting Cells in Series

• Four cells in series: total emf = 6 volts, total resistance = 4 ohms

• Reversing 1 cell cancels its EMF
• Advantages: higher total emf
• Disadvantages: higher total resistance, shorter battery life
Connecting Cells in Parallel

• Four cells in parallel: total emf = 1.5 volts, total resistance = 1/4 ohms
• Advantages: lower total resistance, longer battery life
• Disadvantages: lower total EMF

Potential Dividers

• Sharing potential difference in series circuit

• Current remains the same in series
• Ratio of resistances determines potential difference
• Potentiometer or rheostat usage explained

Electrical Hazards from Mains Electricity

• Hazards of mains electricity: high voltages and currents

• Common hazards: damaged insulation, overheating of cables, damp conditions, excess current
• Mains electricity details: alternating current, frequency of 50 hertz, potential difference of 230 volts

Chapter 7: Conclusion

• Frequency of 50 Hertz
o Current changes direction 50 times per second in mains electricity.
o Alternating current does not have positive and negative sides.
• Live Wire and Neutral Wire
o Live wire is brown insulated and carries the current.
o Voltage of live wire alternates, causing current to flow back and forth.
o Neutral wire is blue insulated and completes the circuit at 0 voltage.
• Safety Measures
o Switch is connected in the live wire for safety.
o Fuse in the live wire melts if current is too high, preventing overheating.
o Earth wire connects appliance's metal body to earth for safety.
• Double Insulation
o Some appliances have plastic cases instead of earth wires for insulation.
• 3 Pin Plugs
o Used in the UK to connect appliances to mains.
o Pins for live wire, neutral wire, and earth wire.
• Fuse Valves
o Plugs have 3A, 5A, or 13A fuses based on appliance's power requirements.
o Fuse value should be greater than normal current but close to it for safety.
• Examples of Fuse Calculation
o Kettle with 2,300 watts and 230 volts needs a 13A fuse.
o TV with 115 watts and 230 volts needs a 3A fuse.
• Safety Reminder and Call to Action
o Proper fuse selection is crucial for preventing overheating and fires

Introduction

• Candidates need to understand the syllabus details about magnets.

• Magnets have 2 poles: north and south.
• Magnetic forces are strongest at the poles.
• Different behaviors of magnets based on pole interactions.
Magnetic Materials

• Magnetic materials are attracted to magnets and can be magnetized.

• Types of magnetic materials: hard (e.g., steel) and soft (e.g., iron).
• Non-magnetic materials do not contain iron, nickel, or cobalt.
• Testing a material's magnetism using a known magnet.

Magnetizing Magnetic Materials

• Magnetization methods: induced magnetism, stroking with a magnet, using direct current.
• Induced magnetism by proximity to a strong magnet.
• Stroking a steel bar with a magnet to create poles.
• Magnetizing a material using direct current in a coil.

Demagnetizing Magnets

• Demagnetization methods: heating, hitting, alternating current.

• Heating a magnet to demagnetize it.
• Hitting a magnet with a hammer to demagnetize it.
• Using alternating current in a coil to demagnetize a magnet.

Chapter 2: Magnetic Field Lines

• Magnetic Field Lines

o Magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field.
o Magnetic field lines represent direction and strength of the field.
o They run from north pole to south pole without crossing.
o Field strength is strong where lines are close and weak where they are far apart.
o Earth's core contains magnetic materials, making it act as a magnet.
• Magnetic Field Lines Experiment
o Iron fillings can be used to visualize magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
o Compasses align with Earth's magnetic field lines, pointing towards the north pole.
• Electromagnetic Induction
o Process
▪ EMF or current is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field.
o Conductor Movement
▪ Moving wire through a magnetic field induces current.
▪ Current direction changes based on wire movement and magnetic field direction.
o Fleming Right Hand Rule
▪ Thumb: Force or wire movement direction.
▪ Index finger: Magnetic field direction.
▪ Middle finger: Current direction.
o Factors Affecting Induced Current
▪ Reversing wire movement or magnetic field changes current direction.
▪ Maximum current induced when wire moves perpendicular to the field.

Chapter 3: Magnetic Field Direction

• Increasing Induced Current

o Three fingers must be perpendicular to each other.
o Induced current can be increased by:
▪ Increasing magnetic field strength.
▪ Moving the conductor wire faster through the magnetic field.
▪ Increasing the length of the conductor wire by adding more loops.
o Electromagnetic induction in a solenoid:
 ▪ Behavior of galvanometer needle when a magnet moves into or away from the
solenoid.
▪ Relationship between magnet movement, induced current, and magnetic field
strength.
• Lenz's Law and Induced Current Direction
o Lenz's Law states that induced EMF opposes the change in magnetic field.
o Right hand grip rule determines the direction of induced current.
o Ways to reverse the direction of induced current in the solenoid.
o Behavior of induced current when a magnet enters and exits a solenoid.
• AC Generator
o Converts kinetic energy into electrical energy.
o Principle of electromagnetic induction.
o Functionality of a simple AC generator.
o Fleming right hand rule for determining the direction of induced current.
o Components of a simple AC generator: slip rings, commutator, carbon brushes.
o Production of alternating current and voltage in an AC generator.
o Factors affecting induced current and EMF in an AC generator.

Chapter 4: Magnetic Field Strength

• AC Generator Operation
o Maximum EMF occurs when the coil is horizontal.
o Induced current direction changes based on coil's movement and magnetic field orientation.
o EMF is 0 when the coil is vertical, and reverses due to the commutator.
o Faster rotation leads to increased EMF and frequency.
• Magnetic Field around Conducting Wire
o Current flow through wire produces a magnetic field.
o Field strength increases with current, closer field lines with more current.
o Right-hand grip rule determines field direction.
• Magnetic Field around Solenoid
o Coiled wire increases magnetic field strength.
o Right-hand grip rule for field direction.
o Solenoid acts like a bar magnet with strong, uniform field inside.
o Adding turns or reversing current affects field strength.
• Electromagnets
o Solenoid with iron core creates a stronger magnet.
o Iron core can be magnetized/demagnetized to switch electromagnet on/off.
o Increasing current, coils, or adding iron core boosts electromagnet strength.
o Used in electric relays for various applications.
• Electric Relay
o Operated by an electromagnet to control a more powerful circuit.
o Small current in circuit 1 induces a magnetic field to open circuit 2.
o Resistance changes affect current flow and relay operation.
• Electric Bell
o Relies on an electromagnet to create a magnetic field when the button is pressed.

Magnetic Field Direction

• Springy Metal and Bell System

o Springy metal attracted by magnetic field
o Movement of springy metal breaks circuit
o Circuit reestablished, process repeats
• Force on Current Carrying Conductor
o Current in wire creates magnetic field
o Interaction with magnet's field produces force
o Fleming left hand rule determines force direction
 • Increasing Magnetic Force
o Increase current, magnetic field strength, or wire length
o Reversing current or magnetic field changes force direction

Loudspeakers and Headphones

• Working Principle
o Coil of wire around pole of permanent magnet
o Alternating current creates alternating magnetic field
o Interaction with permanent magnet causes coil to oscillate
• Sound Production
o Oscillating coil moves paper cone
o Air oscillation creates sound waves

Moving Charged Particles in Magnetic Field

• Negatively Charged Particle

o Interacts with magnetic field downward
o Moves in circular path due to magnetic force
• Positively Charged Particle
o Interacts with magnetic field upward
o Moves in circular path due to magnetic force

DC Motor

• Without Split Ring Commutator

o Coil rotates in uniform magnetic field
o Forces on coil cause rotation
o Momentum keeps coil turning until magnetic force changes
• With Split Ring Commutator
o Commutator reverses current flow for continuous rotation
o Carbon brushes make contact with split ring

By understanding these concepts, candidates can grasp the principles outlined in the syllabus for magnetic fields
and their applications.

Chapter 6: Alternating Magnetic Field

• Split Ring Commutator in DC Motor

o Reverses current direction in coil every half turn
o Ensures continuous rotation in the same direction
• Increasing Rotation Speed
o Increase current, use stronger magnet, or add more turns in the coil
• Mutual Induction
o Switching on electromagnet induces EMF in second solenoid
o Alternating power supply creates alternating current and magnetic field
• Transformers
o Components: AC input, primary coil, iron core, secondary coil
o Works on mutual induction principle
o Step up transformer increases voltage, step down transformer decreases voltage
• National Grid and Transformers
o Transformers reduce energy loss in long wires
o Step up transformers increase voltage for transmission, step down transformers decrease
voltage for consumption
Chapter 7: Conclusion

• Transformers and AC
o Transformers only work with AC, not DC
• Power Loss Calculation
o Power loss in cable decreases at high voltage transmission
o Example calculations show reduced power loss at high voltage
• Importance of High Voltage Transmission
o High voltage transmission reduces energy loss in cables

Fleming's Left Hand Rule is used to determine the direction of force, current, and magnetic field in an electric
motor. It states that if the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand are extended at right angles
to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger in the
direction of the current, then the thumb points in the direction of the force acting on the conductor. This rule
is essential in understanding the interactions between magnetic fields, currents, and forces in electric motors.
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) changes its resistance based on the amount of light falling on it, affecting
the current flow in a circuit. A thermistor changes its resistance with temperature, impacting the current
flow in response to temperature changes. A relay is an electrically operated switch that uses an
electromagnet to mechanically operate the switch, controlling the flow of current in a circuit. A
semiconductor diode allows current to flow in one direction only, useful in rectifying AC to DC in a circuit. A
variable potential divider is used to vary the output voltage in a circuit, while a potential divider divides the
voltage in a circuit based on the resistances in the circuit.

Chapter 1: Introduction

• John Dalton's Atomic Model

o Matter is composed of small individual atoms.
o Atoms are indivisible and indestructible, forming a solid sphere.
o Atoms of the same element share identical properties.
o Atoms of different elements exhibit distinct properties.
o Atoms of different elements can combine to form compounds.
• Thomson's Plum Pudding Model
o Thomson discovered the electron in 1897.
o Proposed an atom with a neutral charge.
o Described atoms as a positive sphere with embedded electrons, akin to raisins
in a pudding.
• Rutherford's Nuclear Model
o Atoms are mostly empty space with a dense, positively charged nucleus.
o Electrons orbit around the nucleus.
o Rutherford's experiment with alpha particles revealed the nucleus's structure.
o Majority of alpha particles passed through the gold foil, some deflected, and a
few bounced back.
• Atoms and Ions
o Atoms are typically electrically neutral.
o Loss of electrons leads to a positive ion, while gaining electrons results in a
negative ion.

Chapter 2: Nucleus's Structure

• Rutherford's Nuclear Model
 o Proposed a dense, positively charged nucleus at the atom's center.
o Did not specify the nucleus's composition.
• Uncovering Protons
o Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles.
o Observed the ejection of positively charged particles, identified as protons.
• Unveiling Neutrons
o James Chadwick discovered uncharged particles similar in mass to protons
within the nucleus, named neutrons.
o Completed the understanding of the nucleus's basic building blocks.
• Structure of the Nucleus
o Central nucleus comprises protons (positively charged) and neutrons
(uncharged nucleons).

Chapter 2: Number Or Mass

• Charge and Mass of Subatomic Particles
o Protons have a relative charge of +1, neutrons have no charge (0).
o Electrons have a negative charge of -1 and are much lighter than protons and
neutrons.
o Protons and neutrons have similar masses, while electrons are about 1800
times lighter than protons.
• Electrically Neutral Atoms
o Atoms are electrically neutral when the number of protons equals the number
of electrons.
o The number of protons in an atom determines the element it represents.
• Nuclei Notation
o Nuclei notation includes the chemical symbol (X), mass number (A), and atomic
number (Z).
o Example: Lithium with atomic number 3 (3 protons) and mass number 7 (3
protons + 4 neutrons).

Isotopes
• Definition and Examples
o Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
o Examples include isotopes of hydrogen (protium, deuterium, tritium) and
carbon (carbon-12, carbon-13, carbon-14).
• Stability and Radioactivity
o Isotopes with an imbalance of protons and neutrons are more unstable and
likely to decay.
o Unstable isotopes, like carbon-14, are radioactive and contribute to
background radiation.

Nuclear Reactions
• Nuclear Fission
 o Nuclear fission involves splitting a large nucleus into smaller ones, releasing
energy.
o Uranium and plutonium isotopes undergo fission in nuclear power stations and
bombs.
• Nuclear Fusion
o Nuclear fusion combines light nuclei to form heavier ones, releasing energy.
o Requires high temperatures and pressures to sustain the reaction.

Chapter 3: Radioactive Alpha Particle

• Nuclear Fusion and Energy Production
o Nuclear fusion is challenging to reproduce on Earth.
o Stars, including the sun, shine due to nuclear fusion.
o Fusion of deuterium and tritium forms Helium 4 and releases a neutron.
o Mass-energy equivalence (E=mc^2) explains the conversion of mass to energy.
o Helium nuclei can further fuse, leading to a chain reaction.
• Background Radiation
o Types of radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
o Background radiation is always present from natural and artificial sources.
o Natural sources like rocks, soil, and cosmic rays contribute to background
radiation.
o Artificial sources include medical procedures and waste from power stations.
• Ionizing Radiation and Effects
o Unstable nuclei emit ionizing radiation.
o Ionizing radiation can damage cells by forming ions.
o Sources of ionizing radiation include ultraviolet and X-rays.
• Detection of Radiation
o Geiger Muller tube connected to a counter measures nuclear radiation.
o Count rate is the number of decays detected per unit time.
o Background radiation is subtracted from total readings for accurate
measurements.
• Types of Nuclear Emission
o Alpha particle: helium nucleus with 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
o Beta particle: high-speed electron emitted from the nucleus.
o Gamma ray: electromagnetic wave emitted from the nucleus.
o Relative charges and masses of alpha, beta, and gamma particles are
explained.
o Average speeds of alpha and beta particles are discussed.

Chapter 4: Alpha And Beta

• Alpha Radiation
o Average speed of gamma is equal to the speed of light.
o Ionising effect of alpha is strong due to its heavy mass, low speed, and high
charge.
 o Penetrating effect is very short range, stopped by a sheet of paper, skin, or a
few centimeters of air.
• Beta Radiation
o Ionising effect of beta is weaker than alpha due to lower mass, higher speed,
and lower charge.
o Penetrating effect has a greater range than alpha, stopped by a few
millimeters of aluminum or a few meters of air.
• Gamma Radiation
o Ionizing effect is very weaker than alpha and beta due to no mass and charge,
and high speed.
o Penetrating effect is very long range, can travel through air for several
kilometers.
• Effects of Nuclear Radiation in Electric Field
o Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate due to their positive
charge.
o Beta particles are deflected towards the positive plate due to their negative
charge.
o Gamma rays are not deflected as they have no charge.
• Effects of Nuclear Radiation in Magnetic Field
o Alpha particles are deflected in a circular path upwards from the page due to
their positive charge.
o Beta particles are deflected in a circular path downwards from the page due to
their negative charge.
o Gamma rays are not deflected as they have no charge.
• Experiment to Determine Nuclear Radiation
o First method: Measure background radiation count rate using a Geiger Muller
tube, average being 20 counts per minute.
o Second method: Measure count rate of radioactive source without an
absorber, average count rate being 560 counts per minute.
o Third method: Measure count rate of radioactive source with paper, to
differentiate between alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
o Fourth method: Measure count rate of the radioactive source with thick
aluminum to stop both alpha and beta particles.

Chapter 5: Beta Or Alpha

• Determining Radiation Type
o Average count rate compared to background radiation indicates radiation
type.
▪ Equal to background: source has no gamma rays.
▪ More than background but less than 560 counts per minute: mix of
gamma, beta, or alpha.
▪ Equal to 560 counts per minute: all radiation is gamma rays.
o Understanding syllabus details is crucial for candidates.

Radioactive Decay
 • Stable Nuclei
o Nuclei with balanced protons and neutrons are stable.
o Imbalance leads to decay into smaller nuclei for stability.
o Radioactive isotopes due to excess protons or neutrons.
• Random Process
o Decay is random, with each nucleus having equal probability.
o Spontaneous process unaffected by external factors like temperature.

Alpha Decay
• Process
o Heavy nucleus emits alpha particle (2 protons, 2 neutrons).
o Results in decrease of 2 protons and 4 nucleons.
o Conservation of nucleons and protons in reactions.

Beta Decay
• Process
o Nucleus changes neutron to proton, emits electron.
o Leads to increase in protons and transformation into new nucleus.
o Conservation of nucleons and protons in reactions.

Gamma Decay
• Process
o Unstable nucleus emits gamma rays to reduce energy.
o No change in protons, neutrons, or nucleons.
o Nucleus remains the same element with lower energy.

Half-Life of Radioactive Isotope

• Definition
o Time for nuclei in a sample to decay to half its original value.
o Activity proportional to undecayed nuclei, measured in becquerel.
• Activity and Half-Life
o GM tube detects radiation emitted by sample.
o Activity halves every 8 days for iodine 131.
o Graph shows activity variation over time, considering background radiation.

Uses of Radiation
• Smoke Detectors
o Alpha particles utilized in smoke detectors for detection.

Chapter 6: Conclusion
 • Alpha Radiation in Smoke Detectors
o Alpha radiation ionizes air particles, creating charged electrons and ions.
o Smoke blocks alpha radiation, reducing ionization and current flow, triggering
the alarm.
o Beta and gamma radiation would not trigger the alarm as they pass through
smoke.
• Measuring Material Thickness
o Beta radiation is used to monitor material thickness as it is partially absorbed.
o Thicker materials absorb more particles, allowing adjustments to maintain
constant thickness.
o Alpha particles would be fully absorbed, while gamma would mostly pass
through.
• Diagnosis Using Gamma Radiation
o Radioactive isotopes act as tracers to identify diseased organs like kidneys or
liver.
o Tracers emit radiation, detected by a gamma camera for cancer diagnosis and
tumor location.
o Different compounds are chosen based on the diagnostic task, with a short
half-life for safety.
• Treatment of Cancer with Gamma Radiation
o Radiotherapy uses gamma rays to kill cancer cells while minimizing harm to
healthy tissue.
o Beams of gamma rays target cancerous tumors due to their ability to
penetrate the body.
• Sterilization Applications of Gamma Radiation
o Gamma radiation sterilizes medical equipment by killing bacteria and viruses.
o Food can be irradiated to extend shelf life and reduce the risk of infections.
• Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Things
o High doses of ionizing radiation can lead to cell death, tissue damage,
mutations, and cancer.
o Radiation can damage healthy tissues if not properly targeted, causing
mutations that may lead to cancer.
o Acute radiation exposure can result in symptoms like skin burns and weakened
immune systems.
• Safety Precautions for Handling Radiation
o Store radioactive sources in lead-lined boxes and keep them at a distance from
people.
o Handle radioactive materials with gloves and tongs, minimizing exposure time.
o Wear protective clothing, limit exposure time, and bury radioactive waste with
protection

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Earth's rotation and orbit around the Sun

o Earth rotates on its axis from west to east, causing day and night cycle
o The axis is tilted at 23.4 degrees, leading to seasons
 o The Earth orbits the Sun in 365 days, creating seasons
• Moon and Earth relationship
o Moon is Earth's natural satellite, orbits Earth every 27.3 days
o Moon's phases are due to its position relative to the Sun and Earth

Chapter 2: Orbit The Sun

• Phases of the Moon
o New Moon: Moon between Earth and Sun, unlit
o Full Moon: Earth between Moon and Sun, fully illuminated
• Orbital speed calculation
o Average orbital speed = 2πr/t
o Example calculation for a satellite orbiting Earth
• The solar system
o Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy
o Consists of the Sun and everything bound to it
o 8 planets in the solar system, divided into rocky and gaseous planets
o Planets travel around the Sun in the same direction and plane

Chapter 3: Gravitational Field Strength

• Celestial Bodies: Moons, artificial satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids are
examples of objects in space.
o Moons orbit planets in near circular paths.
o Artificial satellites are manmade and can orbit any object.
o Asteroids are small rocky objects orbiting the Sun.
o Comets have highly eccentric elliptical orbits extending into the Kuiper Belt.
o Meteoroids are rocky fragments of various celestial bodies.
• Gravitational Force:
o Newton's law states that the force between two masses is proportional to their
product and inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
o Gravitational forces follow Newton's third law of motion.
• Gravitational Field Strength:
o It is the force exerted per unit mass at a point, measured in Newtons per
kilogram.
o Directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance.
o Stronger gravitational field with greater mass, like Jupiter compared to Earth.
• Orbits:
o Objects in space move in straight lines unless acted upon by a force.
o Gravitational forces cause planets and moons to orbit around larger bodies.
o Orbits are generally elliptical with the central body at a focus.

Chapter 4: Earth And Sun

• Comets:
 o Highly elliptical orbits with varying speeds due to gravitational pull changes.
o Kinetic and potential energy conversions as comets move closer or farther from
the Sun.
o Comet's tail always points away from the Sun.
• Accretion Model:
o Explains the formation of the Solar System from interstellar clouds.
o Gravity pulls clouds together, forming a spinning disk where planets develop.
o Different planets formed based on distance from the Sun and materials
present.
• Our Sun:
o Medium-sized star primarily composed of hydrogen and helium.
o Radiates energy across the electromagnetic spectrum.
o Stars vary in size, color, and temperature due to nuclear fusion reactions.
• Nuclear Fusion:
o Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form helium in the star's core, releasing energy.
o Energy from fusion balances gravity, preventing the star from collapsing.
• Galaxies and Stars:
o Galaxies consist of billions of stars, with the Milky Way being our galaxy.
o Stars are at vast distances, measured in astronomical units and light years.

Chapter 5: Wavelength Of Light

• Light travels at a speed of approximately 300,000 kilometers per second
o 1 light year is equal to 9.5 x 10^12 kilometers
• Star formation process involves the collapse of interstellar clouds into protostars
o Protostars undergo nuclear fusion to become stable main sequence stars
o Less massive stars become red giants, while more massive stars become red
supergiants
• The universe contains billions of galaxies, with the Milky Way being one of them
o Different types of galaxies include spiral, elliptical, and irregular
• Doppler effect causes changes in wavelength and frequency of waves
o Redshift occurs when light source moves away, shifting light towards the red
end of the spectrum

Chapter 6: Conclusion
• Hubble's Law states that the speed of galaxies moving away from Earth is directly
proportional to their distance
o Hubble's constant, approximately 2.29 x 10^-18 per second, determines this
relationship
• The age of the universe is estimated to be around 14 billion years
o The expansion of the universe is supported by the redshift observed in distant
objects
• Cosmic microwave background radiation supports the Big Bang theory
o It was produced shortly after the universe's formation and has expanded into
the microwave region
Conclusion
• Understanding the wavelength of light, star formation, galaxies, Doppler effect,
Hubble's Law, and the age of the universe is crucial in cosmology
• The cosmic microwave background radiation provides evidence for the Big Bang
theory

The cosmic microwave background radiation is a remnant of the early universe, produced shortly after the Big
Bang. It fills all of space and provides evidence for the Big Bang theory. Hubble's Law, formulated by Edwin
Hubble, states that galaxies are moving away from us, indicating the universe is expanding. By measuring the
redshift of light from distant galaxies, astronomers can estimate their recession velocity, supporting the idea of
an expanding universe. The age of the universe is estimated to be around 13.8 billion years, calculated based on
the speed of light and the expansion rate of the universe. These concepts together help us understand the history
and evolution of the universe.

Redshift is when light from stars and galaxies moving away from us gets stretched, making it look more red. By
measuring this redshift, scientists can figure out how fast these objects are moving away from us. This helps
show that the universe is expanding, supporting the Big Bang theory. The further away something is, the more
redshift it has, indicating it's moving faster away from us.