Chapter 5

IPv4 Addresses

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
OBJECTIVES:
 To introduce the concept of an address space in general and the
address space of IPv4 in particular.
 To discuss the classful architecture and the blocks of addresses
available in each class.
 To discuss the idea of hierarchical addressing and how it has
been implemented in classful addressing.
 To explain subnetting and supernetting for classful architecture.
 To discuss classless addressing, that has been devised to solve the
problems in classful addressing.
 To discuss some special blocks and some special addresses in
each block.
 To discuss NAT technology and show how it can be used to
alleviate of address depletion.

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Chapter 5.1 Introduction
Outline
5.2 Classful Addressing

5.3 Classless Addressing

5.4 Special Addresses

5.5 NAT

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 5-1 INTRODUCTION

The identifier used in the IP layer of the TCP/IP

protocol suite to identify each device connected
to the Internet is called the Internet address or IP
address. An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that
uniquely and universally defines the connection
of a host or a router to the Internet; an IP
address is the address of the interface.

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 Topics Discussed in the Section
Notation
Range of Addresses
Operations

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 Note

An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.

Note

The IPv4 addresses are unique

and universal.

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 Note

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

Note

Numbers in base 2, 16, and 256 are

discussed in Appendix B.

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 Figure 5.1 Dotted-decimal notation

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Example 5.1
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation
to dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 193.131.27.255
c. 231.219.139.111
d. 249.155.251.15

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Example 5.2
Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal
notation to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78
b. 221.34.7.82
c. 241.8.56.12
d. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent:
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010
c. 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100
d. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

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Example 5.3
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses:
a. 111.56.045.78
b. 221.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.301.14
d. 11100010.23.14.67

Solution
a. There should be no leading zeroes (045).
b. We may not have more than 4 bytes in an IPv4 address.
c. Each byte should be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation.

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Example 5.4
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation
to hexadecimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

Solution
We replace each group of 4 bits with its hexadecimal
equivalent. Note that 0X (or 0x) is added at the beginning or
the subscript 16 at the end.
a. 0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF16
b. 0XC1831BFF or C1831BFF16

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Example 5.5
Find the number of addresses in a range if the first address
is 146.102.29.0 and the last address is 146.102.32.255.

Solution
We can subtract the first address from the last address in
base 256 (see Appendix B). The result is 0.0.3.255 in this
base. To find the number of addresses in the range (in
decimal), we convert this number to base 10 and add 1 to
the result..

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Example 5.6
The first address in a range of addresses is 14.11.45.96. If
the number of addresses in the range is 32, what is the last
address?

Solution
We convert the number of addresses minus 1 to base 256,
which is 0.0.0.31. We then add it to the first address to get
the last address. Addition is in base 256.

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 Figure 5.2 Bitwise NOT operation

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Example 5.7

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 Figure 5.3 Bitwise AND operation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17

Example 5.8

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 Figure 5.4 Bitwise OR operation

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Example 5.9

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 5-2 CLASSFUL ADDRESSING

IP addresses, when started a few decades ago,

used the concept of classes. This architecture is
called classful addressing. In the mid-1990s, a
new architecture, called classless addressing,
was introduced that supersedes the original
architecture. In this section, we introduce
classful addressing because it paves the way for
understanding classless addressing and justifies
the rationale for moving to the new architecture.
Classless addressing is discussed in the next
section.
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 Topics Discussed in the Section
Classes
Classes and Blocks
Two-Level Addressing
 Three-Level Addressing: Subnetting
 Supernetting

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 Figure 5.5 Occupation of address space

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 Figure 5.6 Finding the class of address

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 Figure 5.7 Finding the class of an address using continuous checking

1 1 1 1
Start
0 0 0 0

Class: A Class: B Class: C Class: D Class: E

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Example 5.10
Find the class of each address:
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 10100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
See the procedure in Figure 5.7.
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first bit is 1; the second bit is 0. This is a class B
address.
d. The first 4 bits are 1s. This is a class E address.

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Example 5.11
Find the class of each address:
a. 227.12.14.87
b. 193.14.56.22
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111
Solution
a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D.
b. The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.

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 Figure 5.8 Netid and hostid

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 Figure 5.9 Blocks in Class A

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 Note

Millions of class A addresses

are wasted.

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 Figure 5.10 Blocks in Class B

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 Note

Many class B addresses are wasted.

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 Figure 5.11 Blocks in Class C

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 Note

Not so many organizations are so small

to have a class C block.

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 Figure 5.12 The single block in Class D

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 Note

Class D addresses are made of one

block, used for multicasting.

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 Figure 5.13 The single block in Class E

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 Note

The only block of class E addresses was

reserved for future purposes.

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 Note

The range of addresses allocated to an

organization in classful addressing
was a block of addresses in
Class A, B, or C.

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 Figure 5.14 Two-level addressing in classful addressing

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Example 5.12

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 Figure 5.15 Information extraction in classful addressing

netid 000 ... 0

First address

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Example 5.13
An address in a block is given as 73.22.17.25. Find the
number of addresses in the block, the first address, and the
last address.

Solution
Figure 5.16 shows a possible configuration of the network
that uses this block.
1. The number of addresses in this block is N = 232−n =
16,777,216.
2. To find the first address, we keep the leftmost 8 bits and
set the rightmost 24 bits all to 0s. The first address is
73.0.0.0/8, in which 8 is the value of n.
3. To find the last address, we keep the leftmost 8 bits and
set the rightmost 24 bits all to 1s. The last address is
73.255.255.255.
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 Figure 5.16 Solution to Example 5.13

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Example 5.14
An address in a block is given as 180.8.17.9. Find the
number of addresses in the block, the first address, and the
last address.

Solution
Figure 5.17 shows a possible configuration of the network
that uses this block.
1. The number of addresses in this block is N = 232−n =
65,536.
2. To find the first address, we keep the leftmost 16 bits and
set the rightmost 16 bits all to 0s. The first address is
180.8.0.0/16, in which 16 is the value of n.
3. To find the last address, we keep the leftmost 16 bits and
set the rightmost 16 bits all to 1s. The last address is
180.8.255.255.
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 Figure 5.17 Solution to Example 5.14

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Example 5.15
An address in a block is given as 200.11.8.45. Find the
number of addresses in the block, the first address, and the
last address.

Solution
Figure 5.17 shows a possible configuration of the network
that uses this block.
1. The number of addresses in this block is N = 232−n = 256.
2. To find the first address, we keep the leftmost 24 bits and
set the rightmost 8 bits all to 0s. The first address is
200.11.8.0/16, in which 24 is the value of n.
3. To find the last address, we keep the leftmost 24 bits and
set the rightmost 8 bits all to 1s. The last address is
200.11.8.255/16.

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 Figure 5.18 Solution to Example 5.15

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 Note

The network address is the identifier of a

network.

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 Figure 5.20 Network addresses

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 Figure 5.21 Network mask

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 Figure 5.22 Finding a network address using the default mask

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Example 5.16
A router receives a packet with the destination address
201.24.67.32. Show how the router finds the network
address of the packet.

Solution
Since the class of the address is C, we assume that the
router applies the default mask for class C, 255.255.255.0 to
find the network address.

255
67

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Example 5.17
Three-level addressing can be found in the telephone
system if we think about the local part of a telephone
number as an exchange and a subscriber connection:

in which 626 is the area code, 358 is the exchange, and

1301 is the subscriber connection.

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Example 5.18
Figure 5.23 shows a network using class B addresses
before subnetting. We have just one network with almost
216 hosts. The whole network is connected, through one
single connection, to one of the routers in the Internet.
Note that we have shown /16 to show the length of the netid
(class B).

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 Figure 5.23 Example 5.18

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Example 5.19
Figure 5.24 shows the same network in Figure 5.23 after
subnetting. The whole network is still connected to the
Internet through the same router. However, the network has
used a private router to divide the network into four
subnetworks. The rest of the Internet still sees only one
network; internally the network is made of four
subnetworks. Each subnetwork can now have almost 214
hosts. The network can belong to a university campus with
four different schools (buildings). After subnetting, each
school has its own subnetworks, but still the whole
campus is one network for the rest of the Internet. Note that
/16 and /18 show the length of the netid and subnetids.

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 Figure 5.24 Example 5.19

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 Figure 5.25 Network mask and subnetwork mask

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Example 5.20
In Example 5.19, we divided a class B network into four
subnetworks. The value of n = 16 and the value of
n1 = n2 = n3 = n4 = 16 + log24 = 18.
This means that the subnet mask has eighteen 1s
and fourteen 0s. In other words, the subnet mask is
255.255.192.0 which is different from the network mask for
class B (255.255.0.0).

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Example 5.21
In Example 5.19, we show that a network is divided into
four subnets. Since one of the addresses in subnet 2 is
141.14.120.77, we can find the subnet address as:

The values of the first, second, and fourth bytes are

calculated using the first short cut for AND operation. The
value of the third byte is calculated using the second short
cut for the AND operation.

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 Figure 5.26 Comparison of subnet, default, and supernet mask

nsuper = n – log 2 c

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5-3 CLASSLESS ADDRESSING

Subnetting and supernetting in classful

addressing did not really solve the address
depletion problem. With the growth of the Internet,
it was clear that a larger address space was
needed as a long-term solution. Although the long-
range solution has already been devised and is
called IPv6, a short-term solution was also devised
to use the same address space but to change the
distribution of addresses to provide a fair share to
each organization. The short-term solution still
uses IPv4 addresses, but it is called classless
addressing.
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 Topics Discussed in the Section
Variable –Length Blocks
Two-Level Addressing
 Block Allocation
 Subnetting

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 Figure 5.27 Variable-length blocks in classless addressing

We have block with 20, 21, 22, … , 232 addresses

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 Note

In classless addressing, the prefix

defines the network and the suffix
defines the host.

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 Figure 5.28 Prefix and suffix

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 Note

The prefix length in classless

addressing can be 1 to 32.

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Example 5.22
What is the prefix length and suffix length if the whole
Internet is considered as one single block with
4,294,967,296 addresses?

Solution
In this case, the prefix length is 0 and the suffix length is
32. All 32 bits vary to define 232 = 4,294,967,296 hosts in this
single block.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 70

Example 5.23
What is the prefix length and suffix length if the Internet is
divided into 4,294,967,296 blocks and each block has one
single address?

Solution
In this case, the prefix length for each block is 32 and the
suffix length is 0. All 32 bits are needed to define 232 =
4,294,967,296 blocks. The only address in each block is
defined by the block itself.

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Example 5.24
The number of addresses in a block is inversely related to
the value of the prefix length, n. A small n means a larger
block; a large n means a small block.
232-n

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 Figure 5.29 Slash notation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 73

 Note

In classless addressing, we need to

know one of the addresses in the block
and the prefix length to define the block.

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Example 5.25
In classless addressing, an address cannot per se define
the block the address belongs to. For example, the address
230.8.24.56 can belong to many blocks some of them are
shown below with the value of the prefix associated with
that block:

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Example 5.26
The following addresses are defined using slash notations.

a. In the address 12.23.24.78/8, the network mask is

255.0.0.0. The mask has eight 1s and twenty-four 0s. The
prefix length is 8; the suffix length is 24.

b. In the address 130.11.232.156/16, the network mask is

255.255.0.0. The mask has sixteen 1s and sixteen 0s.The
prefix length is 16; the suffix length is 16.

c. In the address 167.199.170.82/27, the network mask is

255.255.255.224. The mask has twenty-seven 1s and five
0s. The prefix length is 27; the suffix length is 5.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 76

Example 5.27
One of the addresses in a block is 167.199.170.82/27. Find
the number of addresses in the network, the first address,
and the last address.

Solution
The value of n is 27. The network mask has twenty-seven
1s and five 0s. It is 255.255.255.224.
a. The number of addresses in the network is 232 − n = 32.
b. We use the AND operation to find the first address
(network address). The first address is 167.199.170.64/27.

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Example 5.27 Continued
c. To find the last address, we first find the complement of
the network mask and then OR it with the given address:
The last address is 167.199.170.95/27.

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Example 5.28
One of the addresses in a block is 17.63.110.114/24. Find
the number of addresses, the first address, and the last
address in the block.

Solution
The network mask is 255.255.255.0.
a. The number of addresses in the network is 232 − 24 = 256.
b. To find the first address, we use the short cut methods
discussed early in the chapter. The first address is
17.63.110.0/24.

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Example 5.28 Continued
c. To find the last address, we use the complement of the
network mask and the first short cut method we
discussed before. The last address is 17.63.110.255/24.

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Example 5.29
One of the addresses in a block is 110.23.120.14/20. Find
the number of addresses, the first address, and the last
address in the block.

Solution
The network mask is 255.255.240.0.
a. The number of addresses in the network is 232 − 20 = 4096.
b. To find the first address, we apply the first short cut to
bytes 1, 2, and 4 and the second short cut to byte 3. The
first address is 110.23.112.0/20.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 81

Example 5.29 Continued
c. To find the last address, we apply the first short cut to
bytes 1, 2, and 4 and the second short cut to byte 3. The
OR operation is applied to the complement of the mask.
The last address is 110.23.127.255/20.

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Example 5.30
An ISP has requested a block of 1000 addresses. The
following block is granted.

a. Since 1000 is not a power of 2, 1024 addresses are

granted (1024 = 210).
b. The prefix length for the block is calculated as n = 32 −
log21024 = 22.
c. The beginning address is chosen as 18.14.12.0 (which is
divisible by 1024).

The granted block is 18.14.12.0/22. The first address is

18.14.12.0/22 and the last address is 18.14.15.255/22.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 83

Number of Addresses in a Block
There is only one condition on the number of
addresses in a block; it must be a power of 2 (2,
4, 8, . . .). A household may be given a block of 2
addresses. A small business may be given 16
addresses. A large organization may be given
1024 addresses.
Beginning Address of Block
The beginning address must be evenly divisible
by the number of addresses. For example, if a
block contains 4 addresses, the beginning
address must be divisible by 4. If the block has
less than 256 addresses, we need to check only
the rightmost byte. If it has less than 65,536
addresses, we need to check only the two
rightmost bytes, and so on.
Example
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a
block that contains 16 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.44
17.17.33.80
123.45.24.52
Example
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a
block that contains 16 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.44
17.17.33.80
123.45.24.52
Solution
The address 205.16.37.32 is eligible because 32 is
divisible by 16. The address 17.17.33.80 is eligible
because 80 is divisible by 16.
Example
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a
block that contains 256 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.0
17.17.32.0
123.45.24.52
Example
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a
block that contains 256 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.0
17.17.32.0
123.45.24.52
Solution
In this case, the right-most byte must be 0. IP
addresses use base 256 arithmetic. When the right-
most byte is 0, the total address is divisible by 256.
Only two addresses 190.16.42.0 and 17.17.32.0 are
eligible .
Example
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a
block that contains 1024 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.0
17.17.32.0
123.45.24.52
Example
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a
block that contains 1024 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.0
17.17.32.0
123.45.24.52

Solution
To be divisible by 1024, the rightmost byte of an
address should be 0 and the second rightmost byte
must be divisible by 4. Only the address 17.17.32.0
meets this condition.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 92
Example 5.31
Assume an organization has given a class A block as
73.0.0.0 in the past. If the block is not revoked by the
authority, the classless architecture assumes that the
organization has a block 73.0.0.0/8 in classless addressing.

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 Note

The restrictions applied in allocating

addresses for a subnetwork are
parallel to the ones used to allocate
addresses for a network.

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Example 5.32
An organization is granted the block 130.34.12.64/26. The
organization needs four subnetworks, each with an equal
number of hosts. Design the subnetworks and find the
information about each network.
Solution
The number of addresses for the whole network can be
found as N = 232 − 26 = 64. The first address in the network is
130.34.12.64/26 and the last address is 130.34.12.127/26. We
now design the subnetworks:
1. We grant 16 addresses for each subnetwork to meet the
first requirement (64/16 is a power of 2).
2. The subnetwork mask for each subnetwork is:

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Example 5.32 Continued
3. We grant 16 addresses to each subnet starting from the
first available address. Figure 5.30 shows the subblock
for
each subnet. Note that the starting address in each
subnetwork is divisible by the number of addresses in
that subnetwork.

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 Figure 5.30 Solution to Example 5.32

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Example 5.33
An organization is granted a block of addresses with the
beginning address 14.24.74.0/24. The organization needs to
have 3 subblocks of addresses to use in its three subnets
as shown below:
❑ One subblock of 120 addresses.
❑ One subblock of 60 addresses.
❑ One subblock of 10 addresses.
Solution
There are 232 − 24 = 256 addresses in this block. The first
address is 14.24.74.0/24; the last address is
14.24.74.255/24.
a. The number of addresses in the first subblock is not a
power of 2. We allocate 128 addresses. The subnet
mask is 25. The first address is 14.24.74.0/25; the last
address is 14.24.74.127/25.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 98
Example 5.33 Continued
b. The number of addresses in the second subblock is not
a power of 2 either. We allocate 64 addresses. The
subnet mask is 26. The first address in this block is
14.24.74.128/26; the last address is 14.24.74.191/26.
c. The number of addresses in the third subblock is not a
power of 2 either. We allocate 16 addresses. The subnet
mask is 28. The first address in this block is
14.24.74.192/28; the last address is 14.24.74.207/28.
d. If we add all addresses in the previous subblocks, the
result is 208 addresses, which means 48 addresses are
left in reserve. The first address in this range is
14.24.74.208. The last address is 14.24.74.255.
e. Figure 5.31 shows the configuration of blocks. We have
shown the first address in each block.

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 Figure 5.31 Solution to Example 5.33

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 100

Example 5.34
Assume a company has three offices: Central, East, and
West. The Central office is connected to the East and West
offices via private, WAN lines. The company is granted a
block of 64 addresses with the beginning address
70.12.100.128/26. The management has decided to allocate
32 addresses for the Central office and divides the rest of
addresses between the two other offices.
1. The number of addresses are assigned as follows:

2. We can find the prefix length for each subnetwork:

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Example 5.34 Continued
3. Figure 5.32 shows the configuration designed by the
management. The Central office uses addresses
70.12.100.128/27 to 70.12.100.159/27. The company has
used three of these addresses for the routers and has
reserved the last address in the subblock. The East office
uses the addresses 70.12.100.160/28 to 70.12.100.175/28.
One of these addresses is used for the router and the
company has reserved the last address in the subblock.
The West office uses the addresses 70.12.100.176/28 to
70.12.100.191/28. One of these addresses is used for the
router and the company has reserved the last address in
the subblock. The company uses no address for the point-
to-point connections in WANs.

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 Figure 5.32 Example 5.34

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Example 5.35
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with
190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
❑ The first group has 64 customers; each needs
approximately 256 addresses.
❑ The second group has 128 customers; each needs
approximately 128 addresses.
❑ The third group has 128 customers; each needs
approximately 64 addresses.
We design the subblocks and find out how many addresses
are still available after these allocations.

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Example 5.35 Continued
Solution
Let us solve the problem in two steps. In the first step, we
allocate a subblock of addresses to each group. The total
number of addresses allocated to each group and the
prefix length for each subblock can found as

Figure 5.33 shows the design for the first hierarchical level.
Figure 5.34 shows the second level of the hierarchy. Note
that we have used the first address for each customer as
the subnet address and have reserved the last address as a
special address.
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 Figure 5.33 Solution to Example 5.35: first step

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 106

 Figure 5.34 Solution to Example 5.35: second step

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 5-4 SPECIAL ADDRESSES

In classful addressing some addresses were

reserved for special purposes. The classless
addressing scheme inherits some of these
special addresses from classful addressing.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 108

 Topics Discussed in the Section
 Special Blocks
 Special Addresses in each Block

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 109

 Figure 5.35 Example of using the all-zero address

Source: 0.0.0.0
Destination: 255.255.255.255

Packet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 110

 Figure 5.36 Example of limited broadcast address

Network
221.45.71.64/24 221.45.71.126/24

Packet Destination IP address:

255.255.255.255

221.45.71.20/24 221.45.71.178/24

Router blocks 
the packet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 111

 Figure 5.37 Example of loopback address

Process 1 Process 2 Application layer

Transport layer

Packet Network layer

Destination address:127.x.y.z

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 112

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 113
 Figure 5.38 Example of a directed broadcast address

Network: 221.45.71.0/24
221.45.71.64/24 221.45.71.126/24

221.45.71.20/24 221.45.71.178/24
Prefix Suffix
Packet Specific All 1s

Destination IP address:
221.45.71.255

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 114

 5-5 NAT

The distribution of addresses through ISPs has

created a new problem. If the business grows or
the household needs a larger range, the ISP may
not be able to grant the demand because the
addresses before and after the range may have
already been allocated to other networks. In
most situations, however, only a portion of
computers in a small network need access to the
Internet simultaneously. A technology that can
help in this cases is network address translation
(NAT).
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 115
 Topics Discussed in the Section
 Address Translation
 Translation Table

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 116

 Figure 5.39 NAT

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 117

 Figure 5.40 Address resolution

172.18.3.1 Source: 172.18.3.1 Source: 200.24.5.8

172.18.3.2
Internet

172.18.3.20
Destination: 172.18.3.1 Destination: 200.24.5.8
Site using private addresses

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 118

 Figure 5.41 Translation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 119

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 120