7 M Agri Extensions

ANIMAL HEALTH
LEVEL I
BASED ON MARCH 2022, VERSION 4
OCCUPATIONAL STANDARD
Module Title: - Applying Agricultural Extension

Service
LG Code: AGR ANH1 M07 LO (1-5) LG (24-28)
TTLM Code: AGR ANH1 M07 0922v1
September 2022
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Table of Contents
Introduction to the Module .......................................................................................................... 1

LO #1- Understanding the Concept and Evolution of Agricultural Extension ....................... 2
Instruction sheet .................................................................................................................... 2
Information Sheet 1 ............................................................................................................... 3
Self-Check 1 ................................................................................................................. 39
LO #2-Apply Extension Methods and Approaches ................................................................. 41
Instruction sheet .................................................................................................................. 41
Information Sheet-2 ............................................................................................................. 42
Self-Check 2 ................................................................................................................. 71
LO #3- Apply Agricultural Extension Communication and Facilitation for technology
promotion..................................................................................................................................... 72
Instruction sheet .................................................................................................................. 72
Information Sheet-3 ............................................................................................................. 74
Self-Check 3 ............................................................................................................... 130
LO #4-Conduct Training .......................................................................................................... 131
Instruction sheet ................................................................................................................ 131
Information Sheet-4 ........................................................................................................... 132
Self-Check 4 ............................................................................................................... 163
LO #5-Record and Document Data ......................................................................................... 164
Instruction sheet ................................................................................................................ 164
Information Sheet-5 ........................................................................................................... 165
Self-Check 5 ............................................................................................................... 171
Reference Materials ................................................................................................... 172
I
Introduction to the Module
This unit covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to perform Agricultural Extension
activities. This module covers Understanding the concept and evolution of agricultural extension,
applying extension methods and approaches, applying agricultural extension communication and
facilitation for technology production, conducting training, and recording and documenting data.
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LG #24 LO #1- Understanding the Concept and
Evolution of Agricultural Extension
Instruction sheet
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics:
 The concept of Agricultural extension
 The evolution and progress of agricultural extension
 The role of extension in agricultural development
 The importance of Agricultural extension
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Understood the concept of Agricultural extension
 Express the evolution and progress of agricultural extension
 Understand the role of extension in agricultural development
 Determine the importance of Agricultural extension,
 Understand extension planning to determine extension activities
Learning Instructions:
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below.
3. Read the information written in the information Sheets
4. Accomplish the Self-checks
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Information Sheet 1
1.1 The concept of Agricultural extension
1.1.1 Historical roots and evolving conceptions of extension
The meaning of the term ‘extension’ has evolved over time, and has different connotations in
different countries. In this section we touch on such different conceptions.
1.1.1.1 Origins, early meanings and international terminology
Throughout history, and across the world, there have existed patterns of agricultural knowledge
exchange, with some people (e.g. religious leaders, traders, elders, etc.) often playing special
‘advisory’ roles in this respect. According to Jones and Garforth (1997), more or less
institutionalised forms of agricultural extension existed already in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Greece and Phoenicia. The term ‘extension’ itself is more recent; it originates from academia,
and its common use was first recorded in Britain in the 1840s, in the context of ‘university
extension’ or ‘extension of the university’. By the 1880s the work was being referred to as the
‘extension movement’. In this movement the university extended its work beyond the campus. In
a similar vein, the term ‘extension education’ has been used in the USA since the early 1900s to
indicate that the target group for university teaching should not be restricted to students on
campus but should be extended to people living anywhere in the state. Here extension is seen as
a form of adult education in which the teachers are staff members of the university.
Most English-speaking countries now use the American term ‘extension’. In other languages
different words exist to describe similar phenomena. The Dutch use the word voorlichting,
which means ‘lighting the pathway ahead to help people find their way’. Indonesia follows the
Dutch example and speaks of lighting the way ahead with a torch (penyuluhan), whereas in
Malaysia, where a very similar language is spoken, the English and American word for extension
translates as perkembangan. The British and the Germans talk of advisory work or Beratung,
which has connotations of an expert giving advice but leaving the final responsibility for
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selecting the way forward with the client. The Germans also use the word Aufklärung
(enlightenment) in health education to highlight the importance of learning the values underlying
good health, and to emphasise the need for arriving at more clarity on where to go. They also
speak of Erziehung (education), as in the USA where it is stressed that the goal of extension is
to teach people to solve problems themselves. The Austrians speak of Förderung (furthering)
meaning something like ‘stimulating one to go in a desirable direction’, which again is rather
similar to the Korean term for ‘rural guidance’. Finally, the French speak of vulgarisation,
which stresses the need to simplify the message for the common man, while the Spanish
sometimes use the word capacitacion, which indicates the intention to improve people’s skills,
although normally it is used to mean ‘training’.
1.1.1.2 Evolving definitions
Enlightenment definitions of extension

Initial meanings of the term ‘extension’ – as well as international equivalents of the term – have
been influenced significantly by ‘enlightenment thinking’. Although different nuances exist, the
basic thrust is that ‘the common folk’ are to a degree ‘living in the dark’, and that there is a need
for well-educated people to ‘shed some light’ on their situation by means of educational
activities. This reflects that the early conceptions of extension were somewhat paternalistic in
nature; that is, the relationship between the extensionist and their clients was essentially looked
at as being similar to the teacher/student or parent/child relationship, placing the extension agent
in an ‘expert’ and ‘sending’ position and their audience in a ‘receiving’ and ‘listening’ role. In
line with this tradition, many definitions of agricultural extension emphasise its educational
dimensions:
‘Extension is a service or system which assists farm people, through educational procedures, in
improving farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and income,
bettering their levels of living, and lifting social and educational standards.’ (Maunder, 1973:3)
‘Extension is an ongoing process of getting useful information to people (the communicative

dimension) and then assisting those people to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and

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attitudes to utilize effectively this information and technology (the educational dimension).’
(Swanson & Claar, 1984:1)
It must be noted that each definition is a product of its time. When ‘enlightenment’ conceptions
of extension were formulated there was still a firm belief in the potential and blessings of science
as an engine for modernization and development, and there was a genuine concern that
everybody should be able to pick the fruits of science. The belief then was that by adopting
science-based innovations, and by grounding their practices and decisions in rational scientific
insight and procedures, farmers and agriculture would benefit almost automatically. In view of
the experiences of the last decades, however, science has nowadays become much more
contested and the belief in science as a neutral and objective engine to progress has eroded
significantly (Knorr-Cetina, 1981a; Callon et al., 1986; Van der Ploeg, 1987; Beck, 1992; see
also Chapter 6). Although science has contributed significantly to agricultural change and
production increases in high potential areas, its impact in other regions has remained much more
limited. Moreover, science-based agriculture in high potential areas was accompanied by a
number of serious problems related to, among other topics, the environment and health (see
Chapter 1). Furthermore, even in high potential areas scientists regularly produced innovations
and recommendations that were of limited use to many farmers. It was realised that successful
innovation required as much input from farmers themselves as from scientists.
In line with ‘enlightenment’ thinking, there was great concern in the 1950 to 1970 period with
the ‘adoption and diffusion’ of science-based innovations. Extension scientists developed an
interest in so-called adoption decisions. In the context of diffusion, it was also recognised that
farmers could gain a lot from each other’s knowledge and experience (regarding new
technologies, among other topics) when solving agricultural problems (Van den Ban, 1963).
Inspired by such interests and insights, the emphasis in definitions of extension shifted slightly
from ‘education’ to supporting decision making and/or problem solving:
‘Agricultural extension: Assistance to farmers to help them to identify and analyse their
production problems and to become aware of the opportunities for improvement.’ (Adams,
1982:xi)

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‘Extension is a deliberate and systematic attempt – by means of the transfer of knowledge and
insight – to help and/or develop someone in such a way that the person is able take decisions in a
specific situation with a maximum level of independence, consciousness, and conformity with
his own interest and wellbeing.’ (Van Gent & Katus, 1980:9, translated by the authors)
‘Extension involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people form
sound opinions and make good decisions.’ (Van den Ban, 1974; Van den Ban & Hawkins,
1996:9)
The last definition is the one which was used in the predecessor of this book (Van den Ban &
Hawkins, 1988, 1996). Like most definitions presented so far, it still carries the idea that
extension is mainly about ‘help’ in the interest of the farmer.
Intervention definitions of extension

The definitions mentioned so far are in essence normative definitions, in that they indicate what
the authors feel extension should be and/or should do. In other words, they ‘prescribe’ what the
authors would like extension to look like ideally, e.g. as a practice that is experienced as ‘help’
and ‘assistance’ and leads to ‘good decisions’ and ‘development’. Alternatively, one could also
try to define extension more descriptively in terms of what people who call themselves
extensionists actually do, which frequently might not correspond with normative definitions (see
also Röling & Kuiper, 1994). When taking a closer look at what extensionists do in practice, one
might, for example, discover in some cases that their work has little to do with ‘help’ but rather
with imposing technologies and/or enhancing state control over farmers(e.g. Ferguson, 1990).
Along these lines, it was recognised during the 1980s that extension could not just be regarded as
‘help’ and ‘being in the interest of the recipient’. It was realised that extension is in many ways
also an intervention that is undertaken and/or paid for by a party who wants to influence people
in a particular manner, in line with certain policy objectives. Thus, it was realised that there was
often a tension between the interest of the extension organisation (and/or its funding agency) and
the interest of recipients such as farmers. Government extension services could, for example, aim
at increasing the production of export crops, while farmers would be more interested in other
issues or crops. In this more descriptive conception of extension, there needed at least to be a
partial overlap or link (see Röling, 1988) between the interests of clients and extension
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organisations, otherwise people would obviously not be willing to change (unless they were
forced/persuaded to by other means than just extension messages). In line with such views new
definitions of extension emerged:
‘Extension is helping behaviour consisting of – or preceding – the transfer of information,

usually with the explicit intention of changing mentality and behaviour in a direction that has
been formulated in a wider policy context’ (Van Woerkum, 1982:39, translated by the authors)
‘Extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce

change in a voluntary behaviour with a presumed public or collective utility’ (Röling, 1988:49)
The phrase added by Röling on ‘presumed public or collective utility’ is important, because it
was used to distinguish extension from other forms of communication intervention such as:
 Commercial advertising, where the goal is to sell products in the interest of a limited
group (salesmen, shareholders).
 Political propaganda, where the goal is to influence people’s ideological beliefs and/or
perceptions of reality in order for some to gain or maintain power.
 Public relations, where the goal is to manage one’s own reputation or public image.
At the same time, this phrase exemplifies that these definitions still contain normative elements.
After all, it is more or less implicit in Röling’s definition that extensionists should not be
involved in, for example, trade, advertising or political propaganda, and if they are this cannot be
regarded as ‘extension’. As Röling and Kuiper (1994) point out, it is impossible to avoid
normative elements in a definition of extension if one’s purpose is not only to study extension as
a societal phenomenon, but also to inform extension practitioners on how they can do better.
From a purely descriptive point of view, the definition of extension would be something like:
‘Extension is everything that people who think of themselves as extensionists do as part of their
professional practice.’ (Leeuwis, C., 2004, 3rd ed.)

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1.2 The Evolution and Progress of Agricultural extension
1.2.1 Historical evolution of agricultural extension
Although agricultural extension has roots as far back as 1800 BC, formal extension in most
countries did not start until the late 1800s AD. The first modern extension service was started in
Ireland during the potato famine in 1845 (Swanson et al. 1997). In the United States and Canada,
formal extension started during the late 1800s. France began a national service in 1879 using
itinerant agriculturists; Japan and many of the British colonies also started extension services
during this time.
As mentioned earlier, the word extension derives from an educational development in England
during the second half of the nineteenth century. Around 1850s, discussions began in the two
ancient Universities of Oxford and Cambridge about how they could serve the educational needs
of the rapidly growing populations in the industrial, urban area, near their homes. It was not until
1867 that a first practical attempt was made in what was designated as ‘university extension’ but
the activity developed quickly to become a well-established movement before the end of the
century. The dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers however has a long
chequered history prior to the emergence of modern forms of agricultural extension in the
nineteenth century.
In the early years of this century, extension services in their formative stage were relatively small
in scale and limited in the scope of their work and contact with farmers, and their organization
was often somewhat haphazard even though based on legislation. They were organized
predominantly either by central or local governments, or by agricultural colleges, usually in close
association with experiment stations, or by farmers’ organizations, or combinations of these
parent bodies. As the century has progressed, the organizations have matured in that changes
have often occurred to their parent affiliations, government funding has become broader,
especially in ‘the north’ and the extension workers have become better trained and more
professional.

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Fifty years ago, agricultural extension organizations in developing countries mirrored the
administrative traditions of the former colonial powers (Axinn and Throat 1972). Like other
agricultural support services, they were geared to production and marketing of export
commodities. Accordingly, crop-oriented extension programs were common. However, as noted
by Antholt (1994), the scope of extension programs expanded in the fifties as the newly
independent states of Asia and Africa sought to increase food production and to spread the
benefits of improved farming techniques more widely. Extension organizations therefore began
to aim at broad national and farming system coverage. The economic strategies of these
pioneering years relied on heavy state intervention, import substitution and rapid
industrialization. Extension programs often relied on the proposition that farming productivity
was held back not so much by technological and economic constraints but by farmer apathy,
inadequate social arrangements and lack of local leadership. Often, extension agents came to be
viewed as the foot soldiers of ‘nation building’ campaigns aiming at multiple economic and
social objectives.
The structure of the original extension services varied. Many were state-funded and used
itinerant extension agents. Demonstrations were an important aspect of extension. In the United
States, extension was linked with the ‘land-grant’ universities, or schools mandated by Congress
in 1862 to extend university knowledge to non-students. Extension clientele of the original
services were mostly larger landholders, many of whom were growing commodities and export
crops. This was especially true in colonial areas in the tropics.
Initial extension structures were top–down, with information coming from the University or
Ministry of Agriculture, and filtering to the farmers through extension agents. Farmers were
involved only to receive information; they did not pay for services nor give much input as to
their needs.
A good example of this was the early United States extension model. The US system is
structured as a ‘cooperative’ system in terms of funding and control between federal, state, and
county (Seevers et al. 1997). The US system is one of the older models of extension that has
proved very successful in certain areas. This model is also known as ‘transfer of technology’
because technology is developed on research stations and universities and then transferred
through extension agents to farmers.
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Another model, developed essentially by the British and other colonial powers to fully develop
their cash crops is the commodity-based extension service. This tends to be quite top–down in
terms of structure. The commodity group conducts research, which is shared with extension
agents who pass the information on to farmers. The commodity group funds the extension
service. Commodity extension uses vertical linkages, which allow for effective management.
Developing country extension models are usually top–down structures as well, often located
within the ministry of agriculture. It is not usually formally associated with universities (Boone
1989) and therefore has poor linkages with research.
A number of necessary conditions were identified for agricultural extension to evolve (Swanson
et al. 1997). These include:
 Information has been assembled, systematized and made available on good, progressive,
or new agricultural practices suited to a particular environment, and is based on either or
both the accumulation of experience or findings from research.
 This information is used among other things, to educate professional agriculturalists who
may further enlarge or refine this body of knowledge or become active promoters and
disseminators of it.
 An appropriate administrative or organizational structure exists within which the
dissemination activities may be established and conducted.
 There is a legislative or some other official mandate or influential proponents, which
prescribes or enables that agricultural extension work is desirable and must occur.
 There are invariably a variety of antecedents, which have attempted protoforms (basic
frames, used until a more suitable form can be found) of agricultural information and
advice dissemination.
 The incidence of critical situations, such as famine, crop failure, soil exhaustion, or
altered economic conditions or relationship may create an immediate cause for initiating
the organization of extension work in the form of mass campaigns.

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1.2.1.1 Pre-independence
In this era, emphasis was placed on commodity programs—expatriate ‘rural agents’ to organize
communities and serve as contact points for government authorities, input and credit suppliers
and buying agents. Their broadly defined roles often extended into human health, census taking
and tax collection.
1.2.1.2 Immediate post-independence
Characteristics of the period between the late 1950s and 1960s:
 institutionalization of many national extension services

 agricultural extension became attached to the Ministry of Agriculture
 confidence in western technology led to the adoption of ‘diffusion model’ or ‘Technology
Transfer model’ of extension delivery—a hierarchical process of technology transfer
backed by advances in mass media focus was also on interpersonal communication and
community development
 the agricultural service was multifunctional, with weak connections to agricultural
research
 extension agents were entrusted with a variety of functions ranging from credit delivery,
inputs distribution, and sundry coordination duties such as: clerical, statistical, or even
political chores.
1.2.1.3 Extension in the 1970s
During the 1970s, the extension systems in developing countries changed as the realization came
about that there was a need to reach more farmers and to better train extension agents. The main
developments included integrated rural development approaches, and the emergence of Training
and Visit (T&V) extension systems. The ‘diffusion model’ of extension gave way to the ‘get the
technology right’ model, where farm-level constraints explained non-adoption of technology,
with a prescription to ease the constraints through integrated packages of services (Axinn 1988).

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This ushered in the World Bank-sponsored Training and Visit System (T&V). This system used
contact farmers in order to multiply extension’s effect. Being highly structured, this system was
top–down and characterized by rigidity and high costs. Funding often came through loans from
the World Bank. Working mainly with contact farmers stifled diversity, because many were
large scale male farmers who had little in common with small-scale resource-poor farmers.
The T&V system was designed to address some of the weaknesses in the previous extension
approaches, such as weak linkages with research and limited training of field extension workers.
As its name suggests, the basic premise of T&V was training (instilling professionalism in
extension agents) and regular visits to farmers by the agents. The T&V model is described in
detail in Chapter 3 of this source book.
Whatever the arguments, there are indications that T&V had many shortfalls. Some feel that
T&V focused so much on training that the system lost sight of the goals of meeting farmers’
needs and improving their livelihoods. It was essentially a supply-driven and top–down system,
promoting agricultural messages that had been designed and developed by research scientists,
with limited input by the ultimate users of the technologies (the farmers). The delivery method
was perhaps efficient, but the messages often irrelevant, according to farmers surveyed. At the
end of the Kenyan T&V system in 1998, the extension service was characterized by weak
management, a lack of strategy for the service, and general ineffectiveness (Gautam 2000).
Training and Visit, like the general extension approach, was characterized by limited feedback
from farmers. The packages were somewhat mechanistic, and not flexible enough to meet the
needs of the large variety of farming systems. T&V relied on contact farmers, and tended to
neglect the larger rural population (Moris 1991). In the Kenyan experience, there were no real
mechanisms for choosing contact farmers who truly represented many of the farming systems in
the areas. The hierarchical structure set up by the Bank prevented innovation, partnering and
efficiency. Despite a supposedly improved system, farmers before and after the Kenyan T&V
system said that they were not receiving advice from extension, or else not the advice that they
needed (Gautam 2000).

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This period saw the emergence of the farming systems approach to research and extension (FSR-
E).
Extension during this period was characterized by:
 increased emphasis on participatory approaches

 preoccupation with increasing productivity of women and preserving ecosystems along
with attempted cost recovery and privatization schemes (World Bank 1990)
 continued emphasis on training and visit extension system and growth of FSR-E
 focus on institutionalization of FSR-E.
The public sector extension was criticized for not being relevant, adequately effective, efficient
and, at times, for not pursuing programs that foster equity.
Support for extension declined in the 1980s and donors were unwilling to fund large-scale
public-sector recurrent expenditures, which led to further under financing, staffing shortages, and
contraction of extension services (Amanor and Farrington 1991). Given the fiscal restraint, there
was extreme pressure to demonstrate the pay-off to investment in extension and explore
alternatives to public financing by involving the private sector, local authorities and producer
groups.
Extension in this decade bore these characteristics:
 new approaches were piloted in an environment of fiscal stringency

 direct farm level links were stressed between researchers and farmers
 institutionalization of systems approach to research and extension continued
 emergence and wider acceptance of participatory research methods
 more sustainable approaches to extension funding involving greater flexibility and
multiple partners (Gustafson 1991)—pluralism in service provision

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 fall of T&V systems and the emergence of the new approaches such as Farmer Field
Schools (FFS)
 new role for extension staff—a more facilitating and catalytic role
 greater focus on changing the mindset of change agents.
1.2.1.6 Current scenario: Diversity and institutional pluralism
Much literature (Schwartz and Kampen1 1992; World Bank 1995; Contado 1997) suggested the
need for a pluralistic extension system because public extension services need to be accountable
to both the clients of the services and the wider population. Contado (1997) identified a number
of advantages that a national pluralistic policy of extension will bring about:
 It encourages wider participation in providing resource support and control of the

extension program of the country. As a consequence, more resources are allocated for
extension or at least a clearer accounting of resources devoted to extension is achieved.
 It creates complementarity and synergy in the use of resources for extension by different
donors, which are recognized as part of the pluralistic extension policy.
 Research and extension linkage is made functional in the field.
 It creates a cohesive critical mass of extension people who could address large numbers
of farmers as well as the increasing variety and complexity of subject matters needed by
farmers.
 It lessens the resource burden upon the central government, or on a single agency, or on
the private sector or on farmers themselves.
National reforms and other initiatives that in essence aim at an optimum mix of institutional
pluralism have followed different paths for achieving their objectives. Grassroots associations,
the NGO sector, farmers’ associations are major stakeholders in this process.
Potential providers of agricultural extension services (Table 2.1) fall into three main groups: the
public sector, the private nonprofit sector and the private for-profit sector. Distinctions between
various providers are important because of the range of services each typically offers, and the
incentives they have for delivering these services. The private (profit) sector includes all agents

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whose objective is to generate profits directly or indirectly for their owners, members or
shareholders. The private nonprofit sector differs from the profit sector in one important respect:
rather than distributing the residual earnings (if any) to individuals who exercise control, it
reinvests profits to finance future activities (Umali-Deininger 1997).
The private-for-profit sector comprises three main sets of actors. Commercial suppliers of
agricultural inputs provide ‘free’ information and advice linked directly to the use of their
technology. They are increasingly concerned to ensure that accurate information is passed on by
input dealers at point of sale and so may be involved in training and providing technical support
to their dealer networks. At the other end of the production process, companies which purchase,
process and market agricultural produce provide information and services in order to assure
quality and reliability of supply. Much less common in developing countries is the autonomous
emergence of for-profit organizations (firms, partnerships) or individuals specializing in
providing consultancy and advisory services. However, some reforms, especially in Latin
America, have helped to facilitate this in the context of a shift of both delivery and funding from
the public sector.
Table 1.1. Providers of agricultural extension services

Public sector Private sector (non-profit) Private sector (profit)
 Local and international
 Ministries and Departments  Commercial farmer, or
NGOs
of Agriculture  Bilateral and multilateral farmer group operated
aid projects
 Agricultural Research enterprises (including
 Universities
Centres  Community boards, cooperatives) where farmers
associations and are both users and providers
foundations (including
farmers’ groups) of agricultural information
 Other noncommercial
 Commercial production and
associations
marketing firms (such as
input manufacturers and
distributors)
 Agro-marketing and
processing firms

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 Trade associations
 Private consulting and
media companies
(publishing and
telecommunication firms)
Source: Adapted from Umali-Deininger (1996).
The key issue of creating a pluralistic service, and one suggested by various authors (Schwartz
and Kampden 1992; Ameur 1994; Dinar 1996; Holden et al. 1996; Umali-Deininger 1997; Zijp
1998) is a need to find an appropriate ‘mix’ of public and private funding and delivery
mechanisms for extension, which will achieve differing agricultural goals and serve diverse
target populations.
Three major lessons for extension are:
 It is important to make new things visible: An important role of extension is to make

visible the state of the environment and the extent to which present farming practices are
untenable. In addition, extension can demonstrate the feasibility of sustainable practices.
Even more important is to give farmers the tools for observation and to train them to
monitor the situation on their own farms.
 The use of farmers’ knowledge: The location-specific nature of sustainable agriculture
implies that extension must make use of farmers’ knowledge and work together with
farmers. Often, indigenous practices, which have been ignored under the impact of
chemical farming, can be fruitfully revived. Indigenous technology development
practices and farmer experimentation can be an important ‘entry point’ for introducing
sustainable farming practices (Brouwers and Roling 1999).
 An emphasis on facilitating learning: Instead of ‘transferring’ technology, extension
workers must help farming ‘walk the learning paths’. Extension workers should seek to
understand the learning process, provide expert advice where required, convene and
create learning groups, and help farmers overcome major hurdles in adapting their farms.
(Anandajayasekeram P, et. al.2008)

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1.2.2 History of Agricultural Extension in Ethiopia
Though agriculture has a long history in Ethiopia, it attracted the recognition of the country only
in 1908 when the then ‘yeirsha Mesriabet’ was officially established through a proclamation. The
ministry, when established, had the following objectives:
(a). Advisory service on and monitoring of both crop and livestock production
(b). Animal health service
(c). Forestry development and conservation
(d). Collecting agricultural statistics
These objectives were set with the consent that anyone violating the proclamation would be
punished while those who really stick to it would be rewarded. Before the establishment of this
ministry through proclamation, however, there were sort of ‘extension type’ activities going on
in the country (1890-99) mainly in the areas of:
- Eucalyptus development
- Irrigation
- Improved agricultural production practices
Different agreements were also signed between the Ethiopian government and foreign experts
representing their country with an aim to improve the agricultural sector of the country.
In 1931 the “Yeirhsa Mesriabet” was restructured through a proclamation, and its name changed
to Ministry Of Agriculture (MOA). The objectives set when this ministry was established were
also improved.
In 1943 and thereof, however, there were somehow organized and concerted efforts made, as a
result of which a number of demonstration sites were established throughout the country some of
which include:
- Sholla Poultry Demonstration Center,

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- Andasa (Gojam) and Adami Tullu (Shewa) ranches, and
- Intoto, Kundi, Kofele, Bale, Jijiga and Amed Guya sheep ranches for mutton production.
These demonstration sites were serving as improvement centers and demonstration centers that
aid farmers to get an understanding of improved production practices.
During 1948, emphasis was given to animal health, as a result of which an agreement was signed
between FAO and the Ethiopian government to start vaccination program. Besides, for the first
time in the history of Ethiopian agriculture, professionals were sent abroad for training,
particularly on animal health.
Even though there existed the conceptualization and some efforts of improving the agricultural
sector, there were many problems, which heavily constrained the extension activities. These
include:
- lack of properly organized research centers,

- lack of adequately trained manpower,
- failure to assess farmers’ problems and situations, as well as
- lack of responsible body to effectively carry out the extension service.
Generally, before 1953 the agricultural extension service was not properly organized as a result
of which its objectives were not clearly defined, and it was not clear which farmers it is
targeting, what extension method(s) was/were employed, how it was organized, and its contents
were not properly defined. Nevertheless, evidences showed that there was sort of “extension
type” activity going on in the country until 1953.
1.2.2.1 Agricultural Extension Service Under Alemaya College of Agriculture

(ACA)(1953- 1963)
Agricultural extension and research in a well established form have started operation in Ethiopia
in 1953 when the then Alemaya College of Agriculture (now AUA) was established through a
technical support agreement signed between the Ethiopian government and the US government.
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The college was established under the administrative control of the Oklahoma State University
with triple mandates of Research, Extension and Training. It was, therefore, nationally mandated
to administer the agricultural extension service.
1.2.2.2 The Conventional Agricultural Extension Service (1963-67)
In 1963 when the administration of the ACA was transferred to the then HSIU, the agricultural
extension service was transferred to the MOA, and the college only retained its research and
training programs. The extension service rendered during that time is referred to as conventional.
1.2.2.3 Agricultural Extension Service under the Comprehensive Package Projects

(CPPs) (CADU, ARDU and WADU)
The first, Comprehensive Package Project was that of Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit
(CADU) which was established in 1967, with Swedish Government and multilateral (World
Bank) assistance. This project operated in the Chilalo province until the end of its second phase,
in 1975. Thereafter, it was upgraded to cover the whole Arsi Administrative Region.
The second Comprehensive package project was initiated in the Wollaita province in 1970 under
the Wollaita Agricultural Development Unit (WADU). The first phase of this project extended
until 1974.
Similarly the Ada District Development Project (ADDP) was established in 1972.
There were also other Comprehensive Package Projects initiated in other administrative regions,
which included the Tach Adiabo and Hedekti Agricultural Development Unit (TAHDU) in the
Northwest of Tigray Administrative region and Southern Region Agricultural Development
Project (SORADEP) in the vicinity of the town of Awassa, and the Humera Agricultural
Development Project (HADP) around the Setit Humera areas. However, the latter’s were not
actually implemented.

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In general, the contribution of CADU and WADU to economic growth in the respective target
areas had been significant. They have helped to improve the productivity of dairy cows through
cross breeding and animal nutrition. They had also developed better farm implements and helped
farmers to adopt these implements through an extended credit and extension system.
As early as the 1970's it was apparent that it would not be feasible to implement the
comprehensive package projects through the whole country, since it was found to be very
expensive in terms of finance and manpower and could not be duplicated in other areas of the
country. Thus, the initial plan to reach 90 percent of the farming population within fifteen to
twenty years through large-scale intensive package projects becomes an attainable. Hence, the
Minimum Package Programme (MPP) was initiated in Ethiopia with a claim to address the
problems of the comprehensive package projects and to reach the largest segment of the farming
population in the shortest possible time with relatively low cost.
1.2.2.4 Minimum package projects
The Minimum Package Projects (MPPs) were designed to cover large areas so that as many
farmers as possible could be reached for extension, input supply, credit provision and marketing
services. Like the comprehensive projects, the aim of the MPPs were to increase the
productivity of the smallholders through the provision of farm inputs on credit, extension
services and other supporting services in order to raise the production of agricultural
commodities and improve the life of these farmers. But, the MPPs were based upon the concept
of concentrating only on few innovations or a minimum package of innovations that were
developed and tested in the comprehensive package projects. The major components of the
proven innovations were fertilizer and improved varieties of cereals accompanied with improved
cultural practices. Minimum package areas were selected from all over the country on the basis
of the availability of tested innovations for the area, favorable demand prospects for the product
that can be grown in the area, importance of small scale farming in the area, availability of an all
weather road passing through the area and on the basis of past experience with respect to
farmers’ response to innovations and their attitude towards change.

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The MPPs were launched in two different phases. The first phase called MPP I and the second
phase was MPP II
1.2.2.5 T & V Pilot extension Project

The Training and Visit extension system was initiated as a pilot project in 1983 with the
assistance of the World Bank. The approach emphasized regular Visits to contact farmers by the
Development Agent (DA), monthly training or DAs by subject matter specialists (SMSs) and
contact of SMSs with researchers every 3 months for seasonal training. The aim of the project
was to test the appropriateness and suitability of the extension approach for Ethiopia. The project
was tested in three areas: Ada-Lume, Arsi Negele-Shashemene and Tiyo-Hitosa, and was
planned to terminate in 1991 (Adugna et al. 1991). However, a modified approach in which
about 1300 farmers are assigned per DA was applied in the Peasant Agricultural Development
Programme (PADEP) which was a follow-up to the MPP II.
1.2.2.6 Peasant Agricultural Development and Extension Project (PADEP)
The Peasant Agricultural Development Program (PADEP) was designed on the basis of the
experience gained from MPP I and II with the aim of increasing food production and improving
farmers' productivity of the major grain producing areas. The time between the termination of
MPP II (1985) and the start of PADEP in 1988 was emphasized in the food self-sufficiency
program, financed by the Ethiopian Government. The implementation of PADEP had been
delayed because of the government resistance to conditions laid down by donor agencies. The
PADEP acknowledged regional differences and stratified the country into 8 relatively
homogeneous agro-ecological zones. 235 districts (181 cereal and 54 coffee producing districts)
were selected as surplus producing districts. The program adopted the modified T & V extension
system (about 1300 farmers are assigned per DA in different from the conventional T& V which
used 1 DA for 800 farmers).
1.2.2.7 Participatory Demonstration and Training System (PADETES)

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With the change in government in 1991 also the modified T&V extension approaches continued
to use until Participatory Demonstration and Training System (PADETES) replaced it as the
national agricultural extension system in 1995. PADETES adopted the merits of past extension
approaches particularly that of T & V and the SG 2000 experience. The principle of the
PADETES approach is to ensure the participation of the farmer in the delivery of extension in
the country. This approach was based on on-farm demonstration plots approach known as
Extension management Plot (EMTP). EMTPs are managed by participating farmers. The DAs
serve as facilitating role in the management of the plots as well as train both participating and
neighboring farmers to adopt the improved recommended packages. PADETES primarily
focuses on the supply of improved technologies particularly (improved seeds, fertilizers,
pesticides) and technical advise to raise agricultural productivity and income of the farming
population. However, although this approach serves a number of farming community to increase
the agricultural productivity, particularly some cereal crops (like maize, wheat, etc.), it fails to
raise their income on sustainable manner mostly due to drop of out put prices. Cognizant of this
fact, currently, there are additional approaches introduced like family based extension packages
and area based specialization approaches. These approaches are focused to help farmers to
produce what the market wants. But whether this approach will replace the PADETES and
adopted all over the country as a sole methodology or as a part of PADETES remains to be seen.

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1.3 The Role of Extension in Agricultural Development
The Role of Extension in the Promotion of Agricultural Development.
There are many different views about what constitutes development. Some think it is an increase
in the average per capita income on the consumption that people will then be better off. More
attention however is now given to improving the quality of life, using indicators such as health,
education and housing as although average incomes have risen in many countries the difference
between rich and poor have widened and a large pardon the population is even woos off. But
what is agricultural development?
Def. Agricultural development is a shift from traditional production practices to improved

production practices while maintaining productivity & environmental protection.
Ministries of agriculture use agricultural extension as one of their instruments to promote

agricultural development, agricultural development often being seen as an increase in
agricultural production and/or the productivity of land, labour and capital in agriculture. Of
course significant increases have been achieved in this way in recent decades, often with a
decreased labour input in the case of industrialized countries.
There are doubts whether this kind of agricultural development is always desirable as our
judgment about this desirability depends partly on our insight into its consequences and partly on
our values. Hence it is important whose values influence decision regarding the direction to be
taken in development.
The agricultural development of the last two decades has decreased food process, thus increasing
the purchasing power of the urban poor. Small farmers have adopted modern varieties of crops,
fertilizer and herbicides to the same extent as large farmers in the same area, usually increasing
their income.
The introduction of modern agricultural technology is one step in the process of modernizing the
whole society. The consequences of this process are however hard to predict and then people
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responsible for agricultural extension find them hard it influence. It is therefore in this seemingly
complicated situation that agricultural extension plays a significant role in fostering agricultural
development.
Agricultural extension will however seldom bring about agricultural development. In an

interesting book published long time ago (1966) Mosher pointed out that agricultural
development requires a mix of elements of which the following are the major ones.
 Market for farm products

 A constantly changing agricultural technology
 Local availability of supplies and equipment’s
 Production incentives
 Transportation facilities
 Agricultural extension
This therefore clearly demonstrates the fact that the role of extension in fostering agricultural
development is determined by the availability and efficient operation of the elements of the mix
and their effective linkage. It is only if agricultural extension operates in combination with all
these elements that it will bring about effective agricultural development.

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1.4 The Importance of Agricultural Extension
Increasing food production, stimulating economic growth, increasing the welfare of farm
families and rural people, reducing poverty and social inequalities, sustainable use of natural
resources, and participatory development, are all governmental goals to which agricultural and
extension policies and activities can make a significant contribution. So extension and its role
and function must be seen in relation to a country’s overall socio-economic situation, the
situation of different population groups, and the government policies adopted by a country for
(rural) development and agriculture. (Hoffman, V., et al. 2009)
Agricultural extension in its broadest sense is considered an important instrument to support

farmers’ efforts in agricultural development in changing environment. According to World Bank
figures, worldwide agricultural extension in 1997 employed at least 800,000 extension workers
and hundreds of thousands more farmer technicians or farmer leaders, amounting to about1,200
million people. It is estimated that 6 billion US$ are spent every year on agricultural extension
activities. These figures may have decreased in the past fifteen years, but still give an impression
of the enormity of this institution.
At all times – and even more so these days – there have always been different understandings
about the objectives of extension and extension services, the roles and tasks of extension staff,
and specially how these services can be organized and financed.
Extension is classified as an accelerator for rural and agricultural development. Following

MOSHER’S classification from 1996, which talks about accelerators and essentials for
agricultural development, we can enlarge the list and formulate elements favoring rural
development (Table below). The essentials must be in place. if any are missing or inadequate,
the whole development process will become stuck or will be hampered. Accelerators are
additional factors that aid and enhance the development process to anticipate and avoid problems
or to minimize the negative effects of development on certain categories of actors in rural
development.

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Food and nutrition security specifically in the so-called LDCs (least developed countries) is often
a problem for the rural poor, particularly since a large proportion of them depend on agriculture
for their livelihood. Food security in towns and the fate of natural resources depends on their
work. So by helping to improve farming and farm yields, agricultural extension can be a very
powerful tool for personal development and the organization of community life.
There are many effective methods and instruments to influence behaviour and behaviour change.
Governments can provide subsidies, administer taxes and levies, they can prohibit and sanction
activities, and private companies can be encouraged to contract their services. These methods
should be used when behaviour change is necessary, be it in the public or private interest, and
they should not be replaced by extension work. Misuse should not damage the relationship of
trust between advisers and clients, because we need extension to influence behaviour in a
voluntary way, by motivating and enabling humans to acquire new insight and a better
understanding of their own situation and the options for improving it. Insight cannot be
administered, transferred, or bought: it must be gained through one’s own efforts – by learning –
and this process is facilitated and supported by extension work. Insight drives and directs
behaviour and behaviour change.
Table 1.2 Elements favoring rural development: essentials and accelerators

The essential for rural development The accelerators for rural development
promotion promotion
 Sound rural development policy  Extension services
 Basic education  Education and training
 ‘Democracy’ and peace  Self-help promotion
 Health services  Community development work specifically
 Legal certainty and reliability of for agricultural development
institutions - production incentives (subsidies)
 Credit availability - conserving, improving and expanding
 Basic infrastructure specifically for agricultural land
agricultural development - farmers’ organizations (associations,
- rural markets for farm products groups, cooperatives)

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(which includes demand for farm
products at local, regional and
international level, a marketing
system and the reliability of fair
prices)
- new technologies to increase
production
local availability of supplies and
equipment
Based on MOSHER, A., 1996
In agricultural extension, we deal with subsistence farmers, market-oriented farmers,

professional groups (herders, seed production associations, vegetable producers), social groups
(women’s groups, micro credit groups), traders, and all kinds of actors in the value chain of land
use products, as well as employees of governmental and non-governmental organizations. …

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1.5. Extension Planning
1.5.1 Planning Extension Programme
1.5.1.1 Introduction
What is Planning?
(1) Planning is a phase between policy formation and concrete implementation of the policy. It is
the preparatory activity for the implementation of policy decisions.
(2) It is a process of giving direction in all phases of carrying out the policy, from policy
formation to policy implementation. In this sense rational planning, democratic planning, etc.
are usually used.
Many decisions have to be taken in order to ensure effective extension work. These decisions
must be in tune with each other. This implies that extension requires systematic planning. Hence,
planning an extension program involves decision-making about the work of an extension
organization.
Our analysis of the program planning process is based on Bos’ decision-making model, which
makes a distinction between the choices which have to be made and the knowledge which has to
be gathered to make these choice. (Refer to Bos’ decision-making model; (A. W. van den Ban
and H. S. Hawkins, 1999)
Extension agents have to decide, either by themselves or jointly with others, about:
 the goals they are aiming at;

 the target group they wish to help with opinion formation and/or decision-making;
 the content of the extension message;
 the extension method or combination of methods to be used, and how they will be
used; and

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 the organization of all activities, including who should do what, when and how.
On the pathway towards knowledge, extension agents need information about:
 the goals;
 their target group;
 the behavioral alternatives for the target group, and the results expected from these
alternatives;
 the media/methods they use or could use; and
 additional resources available to them.
There are two major difficulties when planning extension program like this:
a. The five decisions mentioned above will influence each other.

e.g. If different goals are selected, then usually each one of the other decisions will also
change.
b. An extension program tries to change farmers’ behavior either faster or in a more desirable
direction. However, whether or not these objectives are achieved depends predominantly on the
farmers rather than the extension agents themselves.
This chapter attempts to show how to overcome the above two difficulties. We begin the chapter
by discussing pathways towards gaining knowledge; then we consider how we choose from one
of the five decisions given earlier. Finally, we propose in which way these decisions can be
taken, paying special attention to the role of farmers.
Before we commence our discussion, we should point out that many extension services do not
work with systematically planned extension programs. Much of their time is spent
reacting/responding to farmers’ questions/needs (reactive extension work).

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Despite the importance of reactive extension work, the main aim of an extension program is to
initiate change. The program indicates how agricultural extension can contribute to agricultural
development. The extension service has to start activities to initiate these changes because many
farmers do not ask for help when it is needed most.
Good decisions require us to travel frequently from the pathway towards knowledge to the
pathway towards choice and back. In order to avoid confusion, we will discuss these pathways
separately in relation to decision-making about an extension program.
1.5.1.2 The Pathway towards Knowledge
A. Goal
Definition: Goal refers to the end towards which actions, e.g. extension programs, are
moving.
An extension program is usually one of the policy instruments within a larger development
program. Thus, we need to understand the whole program and, especially, the way other different
policy instruments are combined with the extension program. We have to know the sub-goals of
the development program which can be activated through education and communication. As a
rule, these sub-goals will become the goals of the extension program. For example, the
development program may also use agricultural research, irrigation, supply of inputs and credit,
pest control and marketing procedures to increase maize production. In this case, we would have
to ask exactly what the role of extension is with regard to these policy instruments. Some
expectations regarding this role may be unrealistic, but this must be made clear in order to be
able to plan a successful development program.
B. Target Group
Target group analysis is one of the important methods for deciding which problems an extension
program should be aimed at. We also speak of ‘needs assessment’ which relates on the one hand,
to the needs felt by the target group and, on the other, to the needs for change recognized by the
extension agents or their organization. Target group analysis is also important for selecting the

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most effective communication methods and content. This analysis should provide information,
especially on the following points:
(a) What is the current behavior of the target group in the area in which the extension
organization operates?
e.g. An extension organization wishing to promote marketing cooperatives
should have to know how farmers currently market their produce, what
problems they have with marketing, their experiences with cooperatives and
how they feel about them.
(b) What do target group members consider to be their problems?
(c) What knowledge, skills, and attitudes do the target group members have towards what they
consider to be their problems and towards the problems for which extension agents consider
extension help is desirable?
(d) Which members of the target group make which decisions, and who influences these
decisions?
(e) Which communication channels do target group members use now and which ones can they
use in the future? What is known about this from the evaluations of previous extension programs,
if any? What language or dialect is used by the target group?
(f) How do members of the target group relate to the extension agent? Do they trust his/her
expertise and objectivity?
(g) What resources do different categories of the target group have access to? Are there
possibilities for obtaining more resource? If there are, which ones?
(h) What is the target group’s situation and how does this influence target group behavior?

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(i) What differences are there in the target group towards variables that can be used to segment
the group into different but more homogeneous subgroups which can be given the same message
through the same communication channels?
(j) What are the descriptive variables, such as education, age, gender, socio-economic status,
sources and importance of non-form income and locality?
C. Alternative Behavior
We also require information about alternative behaviors and their expected consequences from
which the target group can select possible solutions to their problems.
D. Media/Methods
Extension agents need some insight into the expected effects of a method/medium or channel if
they are to make effective choices. They should have to use general information about media
effects that is available. Moreover, they should have to make use of specific information about
the target group, as mentioned in point 5 of Section B.
E. Resources
The resources available will influence the type and quality of extension that can be given. Here,
factors such as the number, quality and interests of the extension agents, organization and
persons with whom they can cooperate and the means available for transport may be included.
There may be opportunities to increase available resources by giving refresher courses or in-
service training to extension agents, or by acquiring extra funds for special campaigns.
1.5.1.3 The Pathway towards Choice
A. Selecting Program Goals

The following points must be considered when choosing extension program goals:
 Our perception of the present situation

 Our vision of the desired situation

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 Our perception of why the present situation deviates from the desired situation
 What possibilities we see for bringing about changes through extension with
available resources and manpower
Note that:
-The question about what we wish to achieve with extension finally rests on value judgments.
-There may be considerable difference of opinion between those involved about which value
judgment must be used. However, if the differences are expressed, there is a greater probability
that a well considered decision will be taken.
-In addition to value judgments, insight into the causes of a certain undesirable process or
situation play a role in determining the desired situation.
-Choice of objectives for an extension organization will be influenced by the opportunities its
management can see for achieving the desired situation, as well as the vision management has of
the present and the desired situation.
-We must ask why the desired situation has not been achieved. We have to ask, for example,
whether there is insufficient knowledge or skills. If yes, which knowledge and skills are lacking,
and among which groups of farmers?
-We must direct our efforts at variables which can be changed by extension and for which we
have the manpower and resources available to bring about change.
Hierarchy of Goals
Many extension program goals are expressed vaguely, for instance, helping farmers to help
themselves, which is not vary helpful. Changes in knowledge, still, attitude and behavior sought
by the extension agents/organization must be specified exactly if they are to deduce which
educational experiences must be included to achieve these goals. We must differentiate between

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different levels of goals in order to specify program goals concretely. This means the extension
agents will have to develop a hierarchy of goals.
Generally, there are two levels of goals. These are:
a) Ultimate goal:
- referees to the final goal to be achieved by the extension agent/organization/farmers
- is often determined when setting up the extension organization
b) Intermediate goals:
- show how we think we will achieve the ultimate goal.
- refer to goals that should be achieved in order to achieve the ultimate goal.
B. Selecting the Target Group

A good extension program is directed at a precisely defined target group. It is only if the target
group is precisely defined that clear and appropriate decisions can be made about choice of
goals, of content, of methods and resources as well as the manpower needed to achieve these
goals.
We must ask ourselves whether we should direct our attentions and efforts to those who have
asked for extension help or to those who know little of the results of scientific research and/or do
not take this into account in their behavior.
The target group is normally larger than the group of farmers the extension agent contacts
personally or via the mass media. We also hope to contact others indirectly through those who
have direct contact with the extension agent. We may attempt to do this purposely by choosing
an intermediate target group such as opinion leaders.
It is usually desirable to segment the target group into several different groups which can be
approached in different ways. With this target group segmentation, we may form sub-groups
which have to make more or less the same decisions, which need the same type of help to make
their decisions, or which can be reached through the same channels. We have to segment the
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target group according to their available resources and their access to inputs, credit, etc. because
these resources have a major influence on the recommendations they can follow.
Policy makers can also be an important target group because they have to be well informed about
the overall situation, the problems and farmers’ reactions in order to develop effective policies.
Asking the following questions, when selecting the target group, is of paramount importance:
a) Is it clear on which group the extension agents will or will not concentrate their attention?
b) Have the reasons why they should concentrate on this group been well thought out?
Do we know enough about the target group’s specific extension needs and the way we can
reach the group?
c) Can we achieve our goal if we succeed in reaching this group?
d) Have we segmented the target group?
Is each segment more or less homogeneous with regard to extension needs and/or with regard
to the way the segment can be reached?
e) Is it possible to reach the target group with the means and manpower available?
C. Selecting Extension Content

The contents of the extension message depend very much on the goal of the target group, and
also on the extension strategy. It is important that the message, which might also be called
recommendations, can be implemented by farmers using resources they have already, and with
inputs available locally. For those farmers having resources, who can only bear very small risks,
we can start with recommendations which require no extra expenditure, but which will increase
yields or reduce costs.
Usually, a message is assumed to be ready for use in extension before it is in a suitable form to
be utilized by farmers. For example, many research results may appear to be relevant, but first,
they must be integrated creatively into a practical usable solution. Innovative farmers and
extension agents jointly play roles in creating such solutions. A solution must first be tested on a
limited scale so that any difficulty can be sorted out before it is used on a large scale.

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In choosing the message contents, questions from the target group as well as the need they feel
for information are of great importance. Furthermore, the contents should relate closely to the
knowledge and attitudes of the target group in order for this information to be used for decision-
making and formation of opinions.
We can judge whether the contents of an extension program have been well chosen by asking the
following questions:
 Do the contents match the chosen goals?

 Are the contents described precisely?
 Are they based on the latest scientific insights and on the experiences of successful
farmers?
 Are the contents adapted to the time available?
 Are the farmers overloaded with new information?
 Do the contents link up well with what farmers already know, are able, are willing to do
and actually do?
D. Selecting Extension Methods

As discussed earlier, it is usually most effective to use a combination of extension methods. The
preferred methods depend on:
-the goal;
-the size and the educational level of the target group;
-the level of trust between the target group and the extension agents;
-the extension agents’ skills; and
-the manpower and resource available.
The effectiveness of the program is influenced not only by the choice of methods, but also by the
way in which these methods are used. The following questions may be asked to judge whether or
not the method(s) is/are well chosen:

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a) Is the chosen method adapted to the question of whether we wish to achieve a change in
knowledge, skill, attitude or behavior?
b) Are the educational activities clearly specified so that we know what the farmer will
see/observe, hear, discuss and carry out?
c) Are the different methods integrated in such a way that they reinforce each other?
d) Does the planned scale make it possible to carry out all these activities well?
e) When choosing learning activities, have the needs, skills and means of the target group been
considered adequately?
E. Organization of Activities
A well run extension program requires definite commitments about who will contribute what and
when. Therefore, an extension program should be well organized in terms of all activities and be
put on paper so that all agreements are recorded. This can be looked at from two aspects:
a) Organization of activities within the extension program, and

b) Organization of cooperation between contributors to the extension program and/or a
wider change program of which the extension program is a part.
It must also be clear that the extension program should not be too rigid. Extension agents should
be flexible in their reactions to changes in the situation, and especially to the reactions and
emerging needs of the target group. Agreements about who should do what and when should be
made only is so for as the situation is clear. One may go further by reaching agreement on
procedures which will be followed to make new decisions to adjust to the changing situation.
The following questions are very helpful in order to judge whether an extension program is well
organized or not:
a. Is there an action plan in which the time scale and responsibilities are clearly indicated?
b. Do all concerned know what their tasks are and when they must carry them out?
c. Are all activities well integrated with each other?
d. Do all concerned have sufficient time to prepare themselves for their tasks?
e. Can the program be carried out in the time agreed? Is it flexible enough to allow
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changes if necessary?
f. Are all the necessary written and visual aids available or will they be ready in time? Who is
responsible for preparing these aids?
g. Does the program need temporary experts, administrative or technical assistance? If yes, who
will take care of these arrangements?
h. Have other organizations or societies organized other activities for the same target group? If
yes, is there coordination between these activities and the extension program?
i. Have the formal and informal leaders of the target group been sufficiently involved with
planning and execution of the program?
1.5.1.4. The Planning Process
We have seen that decisions about goals, target group, messages, methods and organization
influence each other. But it is impossible to pay attention to all the decisions at the same time. To
overcome this problem, the ideas from Bos’ decision-making model may give the best lead. The
extension agent who follows this method first has to make a series of general decisions about
these points and then returns to them several times to decide each point precisely. Thus, it is
desirable to begin with the point that has the greatest influence on the other decisions. Usually,
this will be the goal or the target group.
The extension agent can follow the spiral to a greater or lesser degree depending on time
available and the importance of the extension program. (for more detail on this point see Van den
Ban p. 197)
The decision about who contributes what to the process of planning an extension programme
should be unanimous. It is particularly important for the specialists and generalists to integrate
their contributions, and to clarify the role farmers or their representatives play in this process.

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Written Test
Self-Check 1
Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided below.
I. Chose the best answer from the given alternatives and put your answer on the space provided
___ 1. According to Van den Ban agricultural extension defines:

A. Assistance to farmers to help them identify their production problems
B. A service which assists farm people to improve farming methods
C. The conscious use of communication of information to help people form sound opinion
D. The ongoing process of getting useful information to people
___ 2. Which of the following statements is correct?

A. Agricultural Extension in most countries did not start until the late 20th century,
B. The word extension derives from an educational development in England
C. Agricultural extension in developing countries mirrored the administrative traditions of
their respective governments
___ 3, Based upon the different views about what constitutes it, development is:
A. An increase in income B. Improvement of quality of life
B. The betterment of people in their life D. All of the above E. None of the above
___ 4. Which of the following differs from the rest concerning requirements for
Agricultural development?
A. Market for farm products B. Production incentives
C. Agricultural Extension D. Foreign aid
___ 5. Which of the following is not included in the goals of governments to which
agricultural and extension policies and activities can make a significant contribution.
A. Increasing food production B. Stimulating economic growth
C. Reducing social equalities D. Sustainable use of natural resources

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II. Essay type: Define the following terms in short
6. Agricultural Development: ______________________________________________
7. Planning: ____________________________________________________________
Note: Satisfactory rating - 10 points Unsatisfactory - below 10 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

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LG #25 LO #2-Apply Extension Methods and
Approaches
Instruction sheet
 Extension methods
 Extension approaches
 The importance of extension methods and approaches
 Applying appropriate extension methods and approaches
 Understand extension methods to provide Extension services based on organizational
standard, extension systems, extension strategy and extension guide lines
 Understand extension approaches for implementation of extension services
 Understood the importance of extension methods and approaches for Agricultural
extension service delivery
 Applied appropriate extension methods and approaches to transfer agricultural
technologies, based on organizational standard, extension systems, extension strategy
and extension guide lines,

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Information Sheet-2
2.1 Extension approaches
2.1.1 Introduction
Extension has traditionally been defined as the delivery of information and technologies to
farmers. This leads to the technology transfer model of extension, seen by many as the main
purpose of agricultural extension (Moris 1991). This is based on the idea that ‘modern’
knowledge and information is transferred through extension agents to recipient farmers. Swanson
et al. (1997) defined agricultural ‘extension’, as extending relevant agricultural information to
people. The World Bank defines extension as ‘the process of helping farmers to become aware of
and adopt improved technology from any source to enhance their production efficiency, income
and welfare’ (Purcell and Anderson 1997cited in Anandajayasekeram P., et al. 2008)
It might be useful here to make a distinction between approaches, and methods of agricultural
extension
Approach
The approach is the essence of an agricultural extension system. The approach is the style of
action within a system and embodies the philosophy of the system. It is like a doctrine for the
system, which informs, stimulates and guides such aspects of the system as its structure, its
leadership, its program, its resources and its linkages.
Each approach can be characterized by seven dimensions:

(a). The dominant identified problem to which the approach is to be applied as a strategic
solution;
(b). The purposes it is designed to achieve;
(c). The way in which the control of program planning is carried on, and the relation of those
who control program planning to those who are the program’s main target audience;
(d). The nature of the field personnel including such aspects as their density in relation to
clientele, levels of training, reward system, origin, gender and transfers;

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(e). The resources required and various cost factors;
(f). The typical implementation techniques used;
(g). How it measures its success.
Methods
Methods refer to the techniques used by an extension system as it functions. For example
demonstration, visit by an extension agent to a farmer etc.
Having tried to make a distinction between the two terminologies, the following sections outline
some of the predominant Approaches, employed in agricultural extension worldwide, and in the
next section we will see the details of Extension Method
2.1.2 Extension approaches
This section describes different extension approaches that are in use. What is to be noted,
however, is that in actual practice, any agricultural extension system, at a particular time, will
emphasize one approach over another, but it will usually have some characteristics of other
types. Thus, the approach is the starting place for a particular style of action, not the ending
place. It is the essential ideology which differentiates that particular approach from others. Also
each approach has certain advantages and disadvantages. Since all approaches described here are
merely different approaches to the same agricultural extension phenomenon, there are common
characteristics that all of them share. For example:
 all function through non-formal education

 all have content related to agriculture
 all use communication techniques and aids
 all seek to improve the capabilities of rural people.
Extension comes in many sizes and shapes. Axinn (1988) identified eight different approaches to
extension work. Although the following classification, made primarily for agriculture, is not
complete and the distinctions between the types are not absolute, it gives an idea of the

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possibilities and opportunities that exist for the extension planner and for the policy and
decision-maker at the national level (Rivera et al. 2001). The approaches are briefly summarized
below.
2.1.2.1 The general agricultural extension approach
This approach assumes that technology and knowledge that are appropriate for local people exist
but are not being used by them. The purpose is to help farmers increase their production. The
approach is usually fairly centralized and government-controlled. Planning is done on a national
basis by the central government ‘which knows better than farmers’. This is a typical case of top–
down planning. Field personnel tend to be large in number and high in cost, with the central
government bearing most of the cost. The rate of adoption of important recommendations and
increases in national production are the measures of success. A survey of agricultural extension
programs indicated that agricultural extension generally was part of the Ministry of Agriculture,
with field extension officers at the bottom of the hierarchy and a minister at the top. This
approach lacks two-way flow of information. It fails to adjust messages for each different
locality. Only farmers who seek advice benefit and these tend to be large-scale wealthier farmers.
This approach does provide farmers with information on a number of production alternatives
from one single source.
2.1.2.2 The commodity specialized approach
The key characteristic of this approach groups all the functions for increased production—
extension, research, input supply, marketing and prices—under one administration. Extension is
fairly centralized and is oriented towards one commodity or crop and the agent has many
functions. Planning is controlled by a commodity organization for the purpose of increasing
production of a particular commodity. Highly trained scientific personnel equipped with
expensive vehicles and field scientific apparatus are employed. Techniques recommended must
produce financial benefits for farmers, and be demonstrable on farmers’ own fields. New inputs
must be accessible, a credit scheme established, and the ratio between farm-gate inputs and
commodity prices considered. Technology tends to be appropriate and distributed in a timely

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manner because it focuses on a narrow range of technical concerns. Interests of farmers,
however, may have less priority than those of commodity production organizations.
2.1.2.3 The training and visit approach
Training and Visit (T&V) is one of the best known of the recent approaches, which was adapted
by all of the East African countries to support the development of state extension services during
the early 1990s. The training and Visit (T&V) system was operating in more than 40 developing
countries. It is a system, which emphasizes simplicity in both objectives and operations. It
provides continuous feedback from farmers to extension agents and to research staff; it allows
for continuous adjustment to the farmers’ needs. It has spread rapidly around the world because
it is seen as an effective means of increasing farm production and a flexible tool at all levels of
any agricultural ministry’s operation.
The purpose of the training and visit approach (often called T&V) is to induce farmers to
increase production of specified crops. This fairly centralized approach is based on a rigorously
planned schedule of visits to farmers and training of agents and subject matter specialists. Close
links are maintained between research and extension. Agents are only involved in technology
transfer. Planning is controlled centrally and field personnel tend to be numerous and dependent
on central resources. Success is measured in terms of production increases of the particular crops
covered by the program. The T&V approach is again a top–down approach. The emphasis is on
disseminating unsophisticated, low-cost improved practices, and teaching farmers to make best
use of available resources. There is pressure on the government to reorganize it into a more
integrated service, and to send extension officers into the field to meet with farmers. It provides
closer technical supervision and logistic support, but at a high cost. Actual two-way
communication is lacking and there is little flexibility.
This builds on a combination of the individual and group approaches. In this system, the
extension staff are trained every fortnight on relevant extension issues for that time of the year
and the staff then extend these messages to contact farmers who receive special attention. Field
days and other visits are arranged on the farms of contact farmers so that their neighbours can
also benefit from the knowledge they have gained. Under T&V, the extension system changed its
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way of reaching out to farmers by using agents who focused mainly on technology diffusion
(Picciotto and Anderson 1997). T&V extension agents would meet with a small group of
‘contact’ farmers who were expected to disseminate information to the members of their
respective communities and convey farmer’s opinions back to the agents, thus creating a
feedback mechanism absent in the prior system (Birkhaeuser et al. 1991). T&V did, however,
have its critics. With continued budgetary crises of less developed countries, some argued that it
was too expensive and impossible to implement over extensive regions. Highly dispersed
farmers could never establish frequent contact with extension agents. And their needs varied
widely and could not be addressed with a single, inflexible technology package (Picciotto and
Anderson 1997; Feder et al. 2001).
With T&V, the frontline worker becomes the vital link in a chain, which ensures two-way
communication between research institutions and farmers. The T&V system focused on regular
visits and making the extension agent responsible for diffusion in target farmers and region. The
system also upgraded the technical capacity of the extension service through the creation of the
regional specialist positions to give inputs to the field agents in direct contact with the farmers.
Unfortunately, the T&V system took the emphasis off the adequacy of the technology and put it
on organizational questions and increased the costs of operation by focusing on increasing field
visits and upgrading the technical capacity.
2.1.2.4 The farming systems development approach
This approach assumes that technology which fits the needs of farmers, particularly small-scale
farmers, is not available and needs to be generated locally. A key characteristic of this type of
extension is its systems or holistic approach at the local level. Planning evolves slowly and may
be different for each agroclimatic farm ecosystem. This approach is implemented through a
partnership of research and extension personnel using a systems approach. Close ties with
research are required and technology for local needs is developed locally through an iterative
process involving local people. Analyses and field trials are carried out on farmers’ fields and in
homes. The measure of success is the extent to which farm people adopt technologies developed
by the program and continue to use them over time. Control of the program is shared jointly by
local farm families, extension officers, and researchers. Advantages of this system include strong
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linkages between extension and research personnel, and the commitment of farmers to using
technologies they helped to develop. Costs can be high, and results can be slow in coming.
Farming systems/participatory methods

Researchers in developing nations first recognized the need to apply new thinking to the
‘problem’ of slow or non-adoption (Dunn et al. 1996). Small-scale farmers living in risk-prone,
complex environments are often unable to take advantage of many of the technologies developed
on research stations for large-scale farms. Researchers working around the world noticed the
unique problems of the smallscale farmer livelihood system, and developed strategies to solve
these that are now known as the farming systems approach (Collinson 2000; Escobar 2000;
Harwood 2000; Norman 2000; Hildebrand 2001).
Starting in 1982, development practitioners began emphasizing the notion that research activities
should begin and end with farmers. Rhoades and Booth (1982) coined the term ‘farmer-back-to
farmer’. Chambers developed this into the ‘farmer-first’ philosophy. Along with these were other
slogans: ‘Putting People First’ and ‘Farmer Participatory Research’ models (Farrington and
Martin 1988, as cited in Dunn et al. 1996), on-farm research with farming systems (OFR/FSR)
perspective of CIMMYT, and on-farm client-oriented research (OFCOR) of ISNAR. The linear
model does not show the many innovations that come from sources other than formal research.
Bunch (1985) and many others (described in Haverkort et al. 1991) have shown that farmers are
experimenters.
In response to concern for small-scale farmers, farming systems research and extension evolved
simultaneously on three continents (Latin America, Africa and Asia) during 1965–80
(Hildebrand 2001). This system was marked by greater emphasis on smallholder farmers and
their livelihood systems, as researchers realized that such people were not being reached
effectively with the traditional extension approaches. They thus began to use what is known as
the farming systems approach to research and extension. In eastern Africa, this was initiated
through the work of Michael Collinson with CIMMYT (Collinson 2000). Farming systems is a
holistic approach that looks at the entire farm as a system with various subsystems. It provides
for greater dialogue with and input from farmers, and for enhanced linkages between research,
extension and farmers. This model was marked by participation at the farm level (through farmer
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input on research and on-farm trials) and by interdisciplinary linkages and a systems approach to
extension.
The farming systems approach was characterized by:
 a holistic approach viewing the farm as a whole

 involvement of farmers and their priorities
 research reflecting the various subsystems’ interactions and linkages and
 reliance on informal surveys or ‘Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)’.
Farmer participatory extension then evolved because of emphasis on the needs of resource-poor
farmers, gender equity and the value of indigenous knowledge systems. Diversity is heavily
encouraged in this type of system, and linkages are numerous and diverse.
Current dissemination thinking takes a much more participatory, farmer-centred approach than
the diffusion of innovations theory. Farmers are involved in every aspect of technology, from
generation to testing to dissemination. However, it has not always been this way.
The farming systems approach also emphasizes strong on-farm research components where
farmers, extension agents and researchers work together as a team.
In participatory approach, participation is concerned with the organized efforts to increase

control over resources and regulative institutions in given social situations on the part of groups
and movements of those hitherto excluded from such control (Pearse and Stifel 1979).
Participation is a process through which stakeholders influence and share control over
development initiatives and the decisions and resources that affect them (World Bank 1994). It
can also be seen as a process of empowerment of the deprived and the excluded in terms of
political and economic power among different social groups and classes.
In this respect, community participation is an active process by which beneficiary or client

groups influence the direction and execution of a development project with a view of enhancing

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their well being in terms of income, personal growth, self-reliance, or other values they cherish
(Paul 1987). Moreover, participatory development stands for partnership, which is built up on the
basis of dialogue among the various actors, during which the agenda is jointly set, and local
views and indigenous knowledge are deliberately sought and respected. Thus people become
actors instead of being beneficiaries (OECD 1994).
2.1.2.5 The participatory agricultural extension approach
This approach assumes that farmers are skilled in food production from their land, but their
levels of living could be improved by additional knowledge. Active participation by farmers
themselves is necessary and produces a reinforcing effect in group learning and group action.
Much of the work is through group meetings, demonstrations, individual and group travel, and
local sharing of appropriate technologies. This approach often focuses on the expressed needs of
farmers’ groups and its goal is increased production and improved quality of rural life.
Implementation is often decentralized and flexible. Success is measured through numbers of
farmers actively participating, and the continuity of the program. There is much to be gained by
combining indigenous knowledge with science. Expressed needs of farmers are targeted. The
system requires that extension workers, who are also animators and catalysts, stimulate farmers
to organize for group efforts. Local people evaluate their own programs and play a role in
establishing research agendas.
The participatory agricultural extension approach costs less, fits needs well, and is more
efficient. However, it is more work for extension agents to organize and motivate farmers. It
requires agents to live and to socialize with farmers. Where a government job is seen as a
reward, the ‘hardship’ implied by this approach dooms it to failure. The agent is present only
‘part time’ and has no personal stake in the outcome.
Participatory Extension Approach (PEA)

Agricultural extension services link research workers, policy makers, and other providers of
support services with the farmers. They play a dual role of providing innovative knowledge as
well as feedback. With the realization of the need for empowerment, local ownership and the
pluralistic approach to service provision, the role of the traditional public sector extension
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services is gradually changing. The extension staff, rather than being mere agents for concepts or
technologies imposed from outside, need to become facilitators/catalysts, helping communities
achieve the goals they have defined. This section describes an approach called Participatory
Extension Approach (PEA) that emerged from the community development activities in
Zimbabwe (AGRITEX 1998).
Although termed an approach, PEA is included with other emerging FSA-related methods
because it is sufficiently specific with respect to extension to be integrated within the FS
approach.
Characteristics of the participatory extension approach

PEA, as developed and understood in Zimbabwe, is an extension approach and concept which
involves the transformation in the way extension agents interact with the farmers. Community-
based extension and joint learning is central to PEA. The PEA process emphasizes the
participatory facilitation role of extension staff. Main characteristics of PEA are as follows:
 It integrates community mobilization for planning and action with rural development,
agricultural extension and research;
 It is based on an equal partnership between farmers, researchers and extension agents
who can all learn from each other and contribute their knowledge and skills;
 It aims to strengthen rural people’s problem-solving, planning and management abilities;
 It promotes farmers’ capacity to adopt and develop new and appropriate technologies/
innovations;
 It encourages farmers to learn through experimentation, building on their own knowledge
and practices and blending them with new ideas, in other words, ‘action reflection’ or
‘action learning’; and
 It recognizes that communities are not homogeneous but consist of various social groups
with conflicts and differences in interests, power and capabilities. Each group then makes
its collective decisions, and also provides opportunities to negotiate between groups
The role of extension is to facilitate this process. Under the emerging model, good extension
work means talking with farmers, working with farmers, learning from farmers and suggesting

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new approaches to farmers. A number of lessons have been developed based on past experiences.
The key findings are:
 Outsiders are rarely able to determine the ‘best practices’ for rural people. Farmers are
the only people who can make effective decisions about how to manage their farms
within the many environmental and social constraints they face. There is also a multitude
of social and cultural factors affecting how a farmer will choose to farm;
 Building of farmers’ management and problem solving capacity requires joint learning by
doing in the field;
 The spreading of innovations depends on the interaction between rural people and their
social organizations;
 The role of the extension worker changes from a teacher to a facilitator. Facilitation
means providing the methodology for the process; facilitating communication and
information flow; and providing the technical backup options. The extension worker in
fact coordinates and organizes the knowledge acquisition from several sources. Another
role of the extension worker is to train the community’s own facilitators. In addition, the
extension worker documents farmer knowledge and experience and produce simple
guidelines for the farmers;
 The research agenda is fuelled by farmers’ needs, except in the case of basic research.
The main difference between the Transfer of Technology model for extension and the
participatory extension method are summarized in Chambers (1993). Unfortunately
Chambers (1993) assumed a linear technology development and transfer model.
However, if one considers the FSA to technology development and transfer and
participatory extension methods, the differences are not that significant. The PEA process
emphasizes the participatory facilitation role of extension staff.
2.1.2.6 The project approach
This approach concentrates efforts on a particular location, for a specific time period, often with
outside resources. Part of its purpose is often to demonstrate techniques and methods that could
be extended and sustained after the project period. It uses large infusions of outside resources for
a few years to demonstrate the potential of new technologies. Control is at the central
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government level and there are often considerable financial and technical inputs from an
international development agency. Short-term change is the measure of success. In the
aquaculture project in Nepal, for example, a loan from the Asian Development Bank was used by
the Ministry of Agriculture to support extension work by fisheries officers in many different
locations throughout the country. They were able to introduce pond fisheries through an effort
which combined the project approach with the specialized commodity approach. One problem
with this approach, however, is that a flow of ideas outside the project rarely occurs (Axinn
1988).
Integrated approaches aim at influencing the entire rural development process. Extension is only
one though often crucial element in this strategy which targets the entire population in a given
area but emphasizes work with disadvantaged groups. Integrated approaches are generally
implemented in the form of large-scale and foreign-funded projects aiming at alleviating mass
poverty in rural areas on the basis of ‘a simultaneous improvement in the utilization of natural
resources and of human potential’ (Rauch 1993, 6). Measures to promote production are coupled
with a strong emphasis on self-help. The underlying concept is typically multi-sectoral.
Evaluations of more than a decade of integrated rural development (IRD) projects have revealed
serious shortcomings in reaching the goal of mass poverty alleviation (IBRD 1987; BMZ 1990).
Sizeable numbers of the poor were not reached by project activities, nor were positive effects
consolidated on a sustainable basis. Project deficiencies were in part management related and
very often due to a serious underestimation of the great complexity of multi-sectoral programs
with ambitious goals. The disregard of the target group principle and of due consideration for
framework conditions (economic and institutional) played an even more important role, as did
the lack of compatible technical solutions.
Recent efforts to improve regional rural development (RRD) projects and enhance chances for a
broad and sustainable impact (Rauch 1993) are relevant for all general extension approaches.
The key concept is the availability of locally adapted solutions established on a common basis.
This requires not only participatory technology identification, test and dissemination, but also an
active role by the change agency in mediating between different institutions involved and their
interests. A particular emphasis is laid on dealing with adverse framework conditions, explicitly
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taking them into account and attempting to influence them in favour of clients. Finally, in order
to achieve these improvements, new efforts must be made to specify and operationalize
(extension) objectives and concepts (sustainability, participation, gender-specific target-group
approach and poverty alleviation).
2.1.2.7 The cost sharing approach
This approach is based on local people sharing part of the cost of the extension program. Its
purpose is to provide advice and information to facilitate farmers’ self-improvement. It assumes
that cost-sharing with local people (who do not have the means to pay the full cost) will promote
a program that is more likely to meet local situations and where extension agents are more
accountable to local interests. Control and planning is shared by various entities and is
responsive to local interests. Success is measured by farmers’ willingness and ability to provide
some share of the cost, be it individually or through local government units. Problems may arise
if local farmers are pressured into investing in unproven enterprises.
2.1.2.8 The educational institution approach
This approach uses educational institutions which have technical knowledge and some research
ability to provide extension services for rural people. Planning is controlled by those determining
the curriculum of the educational institution. Implementation is through nonformal instruction in
groups or individuals through a college or university. Attendance and the extent of participation
by farmers in agricultural extension activities are the measures of success. Ideally researchers
learn from extension personnel who, in turn, learn from farmers. However, this rarely occurs in
practice. The advantage of this approach is the relationship between specialized scientists and
field extension personnel.
While the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) of the United States is still the only system in
which the main extension function remains within the university, some developing countries,
notably India, have integrated educational institutions into practical extension work. Within the
United States of America, state universities have traditionally cooperated with local counties and
the US Department of Agriculture in doing extension besides education and research. Within the
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last 130 years, extension goals of the land-grant colleges have shifted from practical education to
technology transfer and, more recently, to a much broader concept of human resource
development.
With the emergence of strong private and other public sector research and development
organizations and dramatic changes within the agricultural production sector, CES is facing new
challenges with regard to coordination and cooperation. Apart from its traditional roles,
networking will become a primary role (Bennet 1990). In this model, industry as well as
intermediate and end users of knowledge become part of the extension system.
While in most countries, the main contribution of educational institutions to extension will be the
training of qualified, dedicated, and responsible personnel, some Indian agricultural universities
have come close to the US model without taking over the full load of extension work. In the
field, they have taken over functions which are only inadequately performed by the ministry,
thus supporting general extension work. Remarkable features are direct assessment of clients’
needs, user-oriented research, quality training for state personnel, and a strong linkage between
academic education and field practice. Models vary from state to state. The Punjab Agricultural
University (PAU) has its own multidisciplinary extension team in each district, engaged in
adaptive research, training and consultancy. Backed up by extension specialists on campus, they
are transmitters and receivers of experiences from researchers, farmers and state extension
workers. At PAU, a unique system of processing these experiences is practised. Regular
workshops are held which unite university and department staff from research and extension
together with outstanding farmers. New findings and feedback are presented, evaluated and
published as a ‘Package of Practices’ to be used by all extension staff for the next season (Nagel
1980).
In the Philippines, which works with ministry-operated extension, university field contacts have
been combined with practical development work. The University of the Philippines at Los Baños
(UPLB) has its own ‘social laboratory’ in rural areas. Transfer of ideas is not limited to
production technology, but includes the testing of communication strategies as well as helping
farmers to organize themselves. Experiences are channelled back into UPLB teaching and
research.
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2.2 Extension methods
2.2.1 Extension methods
Extension Methods refer to the techniques used by an extension system as it functions. In this
section we will discuss several of the methods extension agents commonly use to help farmers
form opinions and make decisions. The success of extension depends to a very great extent on
the choice of suitable methods. An extension agent’s choice of any of the many methods
available will depend on his or her specific goals and on the circumstances in which he or she
works. The extension agent also must decide how to use these methods.
Individual or face-to-face, group and mass media extension methods are discussed in turn. Print
and electronic media such as newspaper, radio and television help extension agents to reach large
number of farmers simultaneously. However, there is little opportunity for these farmers to
interact among themselves or to provide feedback to the extension agents. Group methods reach
fewer farmers but offer more, if somewhat variable, opportunities for interaction and feedback.
Formal lectures normally provide fewer opportunities than group discussions, although informal
talks usually involve adequate interaction and feedback opportunity. Individual extension
consists mainly of a dialogue between extension agent and farmer
None of these methods can be singled out as the best one: all of them have their advantages and
disadvantages. The choice of methods depends on various factors such as the tenure system in
the area, community organization, and resources available for extension. A combination of
extension methods is more effective than just one method. For example, in an area where tenure
is communal, or land management is based on communal efforts, a group approach is likely to be
more effective than an individual approach. Meetings, field days and approaches to schools may
also be good options.
Usually decisions have to be made communally, and the best entry point may be through
established decision-making systems, such as community meetings. Knowledge of traditional
systems for making decisions is essential, particularly in pastoral areas where such systems are
often still of great importance.
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Even if the tenure is individual, communal management practices often exist. For example,
postharvest grazing, changes in behaviour in this respect may be very desirable since
uncontrolled postharvest grazing is a constraint to tree growing and soil conservation, and a
change in this practice can best be achieved if the whole community is addressed. It may be
difficult for an individual to introduce restrictions in this situation since the neighbours expect
grazing to be free for all. In communities where group work is common, and groups have already
been organized for various tasks, a group approach may also be more feasible than an individual
approach.
2.2.2 The individual/household extension Method
An extension worker, interacting on one-to-one basis with the people, is utilizing an individual
method. Through working individually with the clientele, the extension worker learns about the
people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work. In
addition, it provides the opportunity for the local citizens to get to know the extension worker so
that the personal bond between the extension worker & the community can be established. It also
provides the opportunity for mutual discussion (dialogue) between the extension workers and the
farmers.
Individual extension alone is not a very effective way of promoting the well-being of the mass of
small farmers or reaching large numbers of clients, but as the most intensive form of
communication between farmers and extension workers, it plays an important role in private
extension as well as in complementing group and mass extension methods, if the outreach of
extension is defined geographically.
Generally, individual extension method involves the process of meeting the farmer individually.
We can have several methods of individual extension. Some of these are
 Individual counseling of contact farmers and functionaries in client group

organizations:
 communication of difficult technical matters;
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 organizational advice on setting up and running group organizations;
 preparation of meetings, programs and campaigns;
 communication of up-to-date information;
 working out solutions to problems together.
 Discussion with individual members of the client groups

The advisor can have discussion with individual farmers on an ongoing basis in order to:
 gather information that he needs for checking the content and methods of extension
work;
 find out reactions to the development measures on offer;
 give farmers the chance to talk about issues which they would not discuss in the
presence of others;
 avoid giving the impressions that they are only willing to talk to contact farmers
and officials.
2.2.2.1 The extension talk
Extension talks differ from a normal conversations, an enquiry, or an interrogation. It is always

the client and his/her way of perceiving a problem that is the focus and starting point of the
extension worker. We distinguish between formal and informal extension talks. Formal talks
usually take place on the farm or in the advisor’s office. The aim of these sessions is to isolate
concrete problems and work out ways of solving them. In contrast there are informal contacts
that can occur in numerous occasions, and the extension worker may well find this is the easiest
way of getting to know the wishes and difficulties of client groups and of establishing contact
with them.
The course and function of extension talks should be determined by the objective of clearly
identifying existing problems and their causes and trying to arrive at possible solutions
together.
During this process of identification of problems, we often find that farmers and advisors have a
different appreciation of problems. A discussion can only be productive if a common way of
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looking at a problem can be found, and this depends on the existence of mutual respect, empathy
and patience on both sides. This is particularly relevant in those cases where the client gives only
vague expression to difficulties. The advisor must not be tempted to impose a solution on the
farmer even though he might be in a position to do so on account of his superior knowledge and
power of expression.
Understanding problems becomes easier when the person to be advised is respected as an

individual. It is not uncommon to find prejudice, a desire to impress, and a moralizing,
disapproving attitude on the part of the extension worker, which may give rise to a defensive
attitude on the part of the client and make supportive extension work an impossibility.
(Hoffmann V., et al., 2009:123)
Going through the process of problem solving together with the client poses a challenge for the
extension worker. It also demands much patience. Extension workers should not be afraid to face
this challenge.
Individual extension talks are a key instrument of extension, if serious specific decisions need to
be taken in order to help clients in solving complex problems. However, individual extension
talks are time consuming. If used as the only tool, they will constrain the extension worker’s
ability to collaborate adequately with all his or her clients. Different forms of group extension are
more effective when extension staff has to deal with larger numbers of clients.
2.2.2.2 Individual extension on the farm
The extent to which discussion can take place in the fields or on the farm depends on the local
conditions, the farmer’s routines, the time of day or year, and the content of the counseling
session. A discussion at the farm offers the following advantages compared with other methods
of individual extension work:
 The farmer/client feels secure in his surroundings and is more willing to discuss matters
openly.

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 Problems such as plant diseases, soil fertility, cropping methods, animal keeping or farm
organization can be investigated directly on the spot.
 It is easier to get farmers to see the benefit of innovations when they are in familiar
surroundings.
 The advisor is in a position to check the validity of any claims the farmer makes. With
the result of his own observations and on the basis of any additional information, the
advisor finds it much easier to work together with the farmer to arrive at possible
solutions.
 Regular visits to the farm mean a regular exchange of ideas, which is necessary if the
content and methods of extension work are to be continually brought up to date. This is
essential for training contact farmers and functionaries in the context of group extension
procedures.
 If the advisor is already familiar with the farm, his visit can be restricted more and more
to just dealing with essential technical matters.
2.2.2.3 Individual extension in the office or home of the field advisor
Visits by farmers to the office or home of the extension worker in developing countries are not
very common. The reasons for this include the often considerable distance to the nearest advisor,
transport problems and costs, perhaps bad experiences (having to wait a long time, having
business differed, empty promises), and personal inhibitions about presenting their problems.
Better educated and financially secure farmers with experience of dealing with authorities are
more likely to seek out the adviser for themselves, a fact which encourages selective counseling
of the better-off farmers and reduces the chances of the poorer client groups. (Hoffmann V., et
al., 2009:126)
2.2.2.4 Individual extension by telephone and through letters or e-mail
Meeting personally is absolutely necessary at the start of an advisor-client relationship. Later on,
if a positive and trusting relationship exists, not every activity must involve personal contact.
Where possible, shorter messages and standard information can also be transmitted impersonally,

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e.g. by letter, fax, e-mail or SMS. Telephone calls are intermediate means of contacts that allow
for a direct exchange of information and an immediate response to a message, meaning that
misunderstanding can be better prevented compared with one-way communication. The diffusion
of mobile telephone networks even to remote areas makes things much easier. But the more
critical phases in complex problem solving call for physical presence and direct personal contact.
2.2.2.5 Individual extension in the market place or at religious places
Being present at markets or near the church or mosque may make it easier for clients to approach
the adviser. The hurdle clients have to overcome may be lower compared to calling by phone or
going to the office, so that after a few words of greeting and small talk, the client can indicate
that he or she has problems and needs support. Then an appointment for a meeting can be made.
Beginning to talk about the problem immediately is generally not appropriate: the situation is too
public, not confidential enough, and too much noise and disturbance limits the efficacy of
interaction.
Advantages of the individual method:

 Unclear messages that have not been fully understood can easily be clarified;
 The extension officer is able to secure cooperation and inspire confidence in the family
through personal contact;
 It facilitates immediate feedback on the effectiveness of the measures discussed;
 It may be the best way to ensure that everyone in the family participates in decision-
making.
Disadvantages of the individual method:

 It is expensive in terms of time and transport;
 Only a few farmers may be visited, and sometimes they may be mainly the extension
worker’s friends;
 The area covered is small since all the effort is concentrated on a few farmers.

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2.2.3 Group Extension Methods
By meeting people in-groups it is assumed that an extension worker can contact & influence,
more clients than by contacting them individually. This will improve cost effectiveness to the
extent that it achieves more with the same resources or the same with fewer resources.
This method involves working with groups or the community at large. It is suitable when
discussing matters related to the whole community (such as postharvest grazing, protection, and
management of indigenous forests) and when there are activities to be undertaken by a group
(e.g. group nurseries). The advantages and disadvantages of the group approach for agricultural
R&D is described in detail in Chapter 4. (Anandajayasekeram P., et al. 2008:104) The direct
target group may be a women’s group, a church organization, a cooperative society or the
community in general. Extension work can be carried out at meetings, either organized
specifically for the selected purpose or by making use of meetings that were already organized
for some other purpose. Meetings are effective venues for receiving information from the
community, for discussing issues of communal or individual interest and for spreading new
ideas. Field days and demonstration are best organized on individual farms.
In group extension work, several members of the client group who are linked by formal or
informal ties are addressed at the same time. The advantages of group work are made clear by
the following points.
 A large number of farmers can be reached, even if the material and staffing provision of
the extension service is limited.
 There are definite time savings compared with individual extension work.
 Extension costs per head of the client group are reduced.
 Group methods permit more participants by the client group.
 Group extension work means increased observation of the advisor’s performance by the
farmers, which is an incentive to greater effort on his part.
 Farmers exchange their views of a problem, their experiences and judgments, and this is
more convincing than the same content coming from the advisor.

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 Techniques of group dynamics can be used to accelerate the spread of information and
increase the willingness of the farmers to make decisions.
 If the advisor does not express himself adequately, he is frequently “translated” by the
members of the group.
 Advantages and disadvantages can be weighed up more thoroughly in group discussions:
a group as a whole is prepared to accept a higher risk than an individual, and the potential
for superior performance of groups and teams compared to individuals can be activated
for extension purposes.
Group Extension work is therefore the most important method for advising and promoting
the interests of a large number of farmers. The more it is supplemented by individual and mass
extension, the greater are its chances of success. DARR (2009) provides empirical proof of better
adoption of innovations through extension groups. But group extension work is not always the
best way of communicating particularly difficult and complex subject matters. (Hoffmann V., et
al., 2009:128)
2.2.3.1 Settings for work with groups
The classic setting is a discussion group in a circle or round table arrangement, be it outside or
inside. But there are also other group settings important for extension work, such as
demonstration, field days, excursions and visits. Finally, more education-oriented group work
can be part of extension work in training centers or in rural schools. …
A. Group discussion
The group discussion is comparable in its aims to the discussion between an advisor and an
individual, but it becomes more difficult for the extension worker when there is a large number
of people taking part and he or she has quite a different role to play. The success or failure of
group discussion depends largely on the level of preparation.
The advisor must prepare the group session carefully in order to present the necessary
information effectively to put appropriate and stimulating questions to the group. If it is not

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possible to prepare leaflets or handouts, there should at least be a blackboard or some other item
of presentation equipment available. Practical demonstration should be fully rehearsed
beforehand. Questions of detail should be clarified in preparatory discussion with other advisers
or by consulting specialists. When their presence is necessary, they should if possible be brought
into the group discussions.
Running group discussions

The discussion should begin as punctually as possible. Advisers arriving late offend participants
who have made an exhausting trek or have to get on with urgent work in their fields.
At the beginning of the discussion the agenda should be briefly presented again and any
additional items included.
The freer the group members feel to speak, the more the discussion will eventually be based on
sound reasoning. It is the job of the discussion leader to encourage timid and diffident
individuals to take part. Equally, he or she should prevent domination of the discussion by
pompous and long-winded talkers, limiting their speech and keeping strictly to the agenda.
A group discussion should be considered if it is certain – or highly expected – that various

opinions on a given topic are represented within a group or when there is no general agreement
about a certain issue. The objective is the exchange of knowledge and information between the
participants.
B. “Extension group” – extension circle

Specific forms of group extension are extension groups or extension circles. These are a group of
farmers (e.g. farm managers) who decide to meet regularly in order
 to exchange experiences and learn from each other and
 to solve common problems

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C. Demonstration
Demonstration display different levels of complexity, from demonstration plots with a single
crop or cropping practice, or a contact farmer who can show several innovations on his own farm
or on neighboring farms, through to a pilot farm that provides an example of a complete best
practice farming system.
A demonstration should be a clear and practical presentation of production techniques. We

usually distinguish between demonstrations of results and demonstrations of methods. Result
demonstration compares the results achieved by various production techniques. It shows why a
practice should be adopted by physically showing how a new or different practice compares with
a commonly used local practice. Method Demonstration presents a new technique, that means
method demonstrations is done to show how something is done step by step for the purpose of
teaching new teachings & practices
D. Field day.
It is a day or days in which an area containing successful farming is open for people to visit.
E. Excursions
Farmers are shown farms & experimental fields outside their own areas. Its function is to make
participants aware of innovations away from their home.
2.2.3.2 Mass media
This method involves the use of the mass media (e.g. radio, posters, drama, television,
newspapers, films, slide shows) to inform the public. Mass media are mainly used to create
awareness.
A. Function of media
i. Setting agenda of important discussion
Media can have important influence on what we think and talk about, even though they may not
decide what we must think. e.g. media can draw attention to problems faced by a population
during famine, etc... They can stimulate farmers to discuss points with extension workers.
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ii. Transferring knowledge
We learn only part of what we know about the world through our observations & direct
experiences, or from hearing about other people’s experiences & observations. We gain much of
what we know about the world from the media. Knowledge is more likely to be transferred
successfully if it meets a need or fills a vacuum. New ideas diffused through media are more
acceptable if they link-up with existing knowledge than when they attempt to modify it.
iii. Forming and changing opinions

Mass media play an important role in developing opinion when members of the public do not
have strong views about particular issues. Media also have important effects in changing
opinions when the position they advocate differs only slightly from one’s own opinion.
iv. Changing behavior

Mass media can be used to change patterns of behaviors, especially where these changes are
small and relatively unimportant or where they help us to fulfill an existing wish, e.g. Adverts
draw consumers attention to products they felt a need but didn’t know existed.
We tend to assume that receivers are resistant when media fail to achieve behavioral change,
although logically the source of the message may also be responsible. Source credibility,
reliability & relevance are very important. Credibility will generally be higher if the source is
considered to be an expert, if he agrees with the receivers on important points.
2.2.3.3 Advantages of mass extension methods:
• These methods can increase the impact of extension staff through rapid spread of information;
• Many people can be reached within a short time, even in remote areas.
2.2.3.4 Disadvantages of mass extension methods:
• The amount of information that can be transmitted is limited;

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• Radio and television reception is poor in some areas and the target group may not own sets,
particularly TVs;
• It is difficult to evaluate the impact since there is no immediate feedback;
• Production of both programs and printed materials is costly and requires special skills.
Components of effective extension methods
An effective extension system has several key components:

 The most important factor is that it is participatory in nature, i.e. participation by all
involved leads to more effective programs, development of suitable technologies and
sustainability;
 Because funding is a limiting issue in most countries, a pluralistic system where different
types of extension providers play a part is an effective extension system. This includes
the ministry of agriculture or comparable government institutions, private companies,
non-governmental organizations and farmers’ groups. Funding would come from various
sources including the government budget, donors, private companies and payment by
clientele;
 An effective system has limited bureaucracy, yet is accountable to funders and clientele
and provides monitoring and evaluation throughout the entire project;
 An important aspect of an effective system is that diversity is encouraged. Issues such as
gender, age and ethnicity are examined and addressed.

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2.3. The importance of extension methods and approaches
2.3.1 Approaches to Extension
By approaches to extension we understand the fundamental Concept and functional method of

extension adopted in order to fulfill its aims, especially in the planning phase. To be helpful, any
description of an approach covers two main aspects: a more or less complete description of the
extension system and its elements, and a sequence showing where to start and how to develop
the system into higher levels of performance. (V. Hoffman et.al., 2009)
Two basically different classes of approach can be distinguished, namely the production
technology approach and the problem-solving approach. The logical consequences of the
problem-solving approaches are:
 Advice directed specially towards client groups and sub-groups and the development of
approaches to problem solving which are tailor-made for their problem situation
 Active participation of client groups and sponsoring institutions in the planning,
implementation and evaluation of extension measures
 The planning and implementation of development and extension projects, doing justice to
the requirements of participation and not pre-empting important decisions
2.3.2 Extension methods
Extension methods in general are systematic ways of reaching objectives. But as the objectives
are so many in our case, it is not really easy to classify methods according to objectives.
Extension methods consist of techniques of communication between extension workers and
client groups with the aim of motivating and enabling them in final ways of solving their
problems. This leads to questions like:
 How to proceed under the “given conditions”
 How to understand the specific context of a situation?
 Who are the clients and other stakeholders in the situation, and what do they want?

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 What is the capacity, the potential and task of extension in such a situation?
 Which aim or goal should be envisaged in this situation
If we do not know the situation well enough, we have to analyze it, and if this does not bring
about enough certainty, we should start some tentative activities, evaluate reactions and so
gradually develop our methodology. Methods relate to influencing processes, so determining
methods means thinking in terms of phases and sequences and of how it might be best to
proceed. It also means change towards improving situations, so our interest has to be focused on
those factors that can be altered by our joint activities with the clients.
2.3.3 Importance of Extension Methods and Approaches
As mentioned above extension methods and approaches have prominent importance in designing
and developing extension programs, implementing different development activities, sharing
information, disseminating technology, etc. In addition to the abovementioned advantages
extension approaches and methods have different importance as mentioned below.
2.3.3.1 Information and Technology Dissemination
Extension Methods and approaches are important in disseminating information/technology

whether through transfer or diffusion.
2.3.3.2 Delivering Extension Messages
Farmers need different information from different sources. Extension agents deliver required
information to farmers to satisfy need using extension methods
2.3.3.3 Increase Knowledge of Farmers
The delivery of information or extension message to farmers by extension agents increases

farmers’ knowledge. The increase in farmers’ knowledge in turn improves their activities.

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2.3.3.4 Bringing Attitude Change
The main purpose of extension is to change clients’ attitude. It is only making clients’ change
their attitude that would make them accept new ideas and change or improve their way of doing
things. Through organized and appropriate approach extension professional bring attitude change
in clients by using relevant methods.
2.4. Applying appropriate extension methods and approaches
2.4.1 Introduction
An extension agents’ choice of any of the methods available will depend on his specific goals
and on the circumstances in which he works. A substantial number of proven educational
techniques exist from which the extension worker may choose to setup learning situations and
maximize the transfer of information and skills to young and adult learners.
Once the needs of an area or community have been identified, it is the task of extension workers
to choose the teaching methods that will be most effective in achieving their objectives.
2.4.2 Principles of selecting Extension method
2.4.2.1 No single extension method is better than another
The extension worker should choose those technique (s) best cited to the situation. None
technique is considered superior to another
2.4.2.2. Use a number of teaching methods
Experience in extension work has shown that the more the number of ways new information is
presented the faster an individual learns

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2.4.2.3. Methods will overlap
For instance, if a demonstration stimulates group discussion, two methods are utilized which will
reinforce the information considered in the demonstration.
2.4.2.4 Use visual aids and written materials when possible
Teaching can be reinforced and supported by use of visual aids and written materials because
they facilitate understanding.
2.4.3. Extension Approach
Extension Approach refers to the dominant guide and style of action of an extension system to
achieve the system goals and objective more effectively. It is the dominant factor in extension
management and administration. It influences the management of agricultural organisation in
planning subject matter coverage, methods, targeting, resource allocation and monitoring and
evaluation.
There are different extension approaches among which we can choose to accomplish a required
objective. Based upon the environment we are working in, it is important to choose the
appropriate approach to bring required change in a specific situation.

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Self-Check 2 Written Test
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and write the letter of you choice on
the space provided
___ 1. Which of the following statements is correct about Extension approach?
A. It is the essence of an agricultural extension system
B. It is the style of action within a system
C. It embodies the philosophy of the system
D. All of the above E. None of the above
___ 2. Which of the following is correct about extension method?
A. It refers to the techniques used by extension system
B. Extension agents use it to study the concept of agricultural extension
C. The success of extension depends on the choice of suitable method
D. The choice of method depends on the goal of the extension agent
___ 3. The importance of extension methods and approaches include:
A. Increasing farmers spare time B. Delivering extension message
C. Bringing attitude change D. Increase farmers knowledge
___ 4. Which one of the following differs from the rest concerning the selection principles
of extension method?
A. Methods will overlap B. No single extension method is better than another
C. Use visual aids D. Written materials are not used

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

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LG #26 LO #3- Apply Agricultural Extension
Communication and Facilitation for
technology promotion
Instruction sheet
 The concept, principle and type of communication
 Identifying, understanding and solving communication barriers,
 Elements of communication
 Audio visual techniques
 Roles and characteristics of extension communicator
 The basic concept of facilitation
 Roles and responsibilities of a facilitator
 Conflict resolution skills
 The skills of a facilitator
 Understand the concept, principle and type of communication to have good extension
communication knowledge & skill
 Identify, understand and solve communication barriers to undertake effective
communication
 Define and use elements of extension communication to create positive environment for
communication
 Understand audio visual techniques to provide Agricultural Extension and communication
delivery services
 Recommend roles and characteristics of extension communicator to improve the
communicator’s performance
 Understand the basic concept of facilitation to improve facilitation skills
 Apply the roles and responsibilities of a facilitator to progress facilitation skills

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 Conflict resolution skill is understood to enhance homogeneity
 The skills of a facilitator are applied for communication & technology promotion

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Information Sheet-3
3.1. The concept, principles and types of communication
3.1.1 Meaning of communication
The word communication originates from the word ‘communis’; which means common. So
communication is an act by which a person shares the knowledge, feelings, ideas, information,
etc. in ways such that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of the
message. The sociologists, the educationists and the psychologists have defined communication
in various ways and according to the disciplines to which they belong.
But, it can be generalized that communication is a process of social interaction, i.e., in a

communication situation two or more individuals interact. They try to tangibly influence the
ideas; attitudes, knowledge or feelings taking place between two individuals. In a face-to-face
situation communication is not a mere exchange of information but something more, because in
such a situation, along with the information one passes, the gestures, expression, language, the
manner of expression and tone - all these combined together, create a sort of impact on both.
Some kind of change occurs as a result of interaction. This change may be visible in terms of
knowledge and behaviour.
Communication can occur even without uttering words

Communication can occur even without words. Our four senses - audio, visual, touch and smell
communicate. The ringing of an alarm clock communicates to us that we are to get up, the peep
outside the window i.e., the visual sense, gives us the indication of weather - rain, snow, fog,
storm, etc; the touch of a pot, whether hot or cold, communicates to us whether it can be handled
or not; the sense of smell gives us knowledge whether meat or eggs are being cooked for
breakfast.
So when a message is sent from a source to a receiver and produces a specific mental or physical
response communication occurs.

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Communication - a two way process
The index of communication may not always be a positive reaction. Therefore, it is essential that
the transmission of facts or information is carried in such a manner that the meaning intended
and the use of messages is understood by the communicators, so that it becomes a two - way
process.
3.1.2 Importance of communication in Extension work
Communication has attained great importance in Community Development and Extension

Programmes. It is through this process that the aims and objectives of the programme are to be
widely disseminated to the people and useful information to solve their problems is to be passed
on to them. This necessitates that the extension workers should have a thorough understanding of
the communication process.
The extension worker cannot expect to bring about change unless he is able to communicate
effectively. He has to create a conducive situation where information can be transmitted with
greater impact on the people. The new knowledge acquired through research has to be
disseminated to effect change in the methods of farming or living and in improving them. The
central challenge, therefore, to the extension worker is to help people to adopt innovations for
increasing the agricultural production. The better the communication the earlier will be the
development of a society.
3.1.3 Scope of Communication
Scope, in this context, refers effectively to the sphere of operation (or influence) of the
communication. There are two aspects to this: 'audience scope' and 'subject scope'. [Principles of
Communication: n.d. p 12. No Author name]
Audience scope
First and foremost, it is essential for the communicator to clearly identify the target audience of
the communication. This will allow the recipient to decide "Is this communication intended for

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me?"It will also allow the communicator to tailor the communication (especially the language
used) to the particular needs of the audience.
Most technical communications are not aimed at specific people, but at groups of people, or
more likely, at job functions or users of particular products. It may also be the case that the
communication is aimed at 'the general public'. In each case, the communicator must ensure that
the target audience is clearly identified.
Subject Scope
In order to allow readers to further ascertain whether a communication contains information that
they need to know, or that they may be looking for, a communication should always clearly
identify the subject scope of the communication. The subject scope is a specification of the
information covered by the communication.
Obviously, any specification of the scope of a communication should appear as near to the start
of the communication as possible. The whole point in specifying the scope is to allow the reader
to decide whether the communication is relevant to them.
3.1.4 Functions of communication
One of the functions of communication which man has developed to his extreme social
advantage is that of communicating to some living aspect of the environment in order to
establish, maintain, exploit or alter the relationship with that person. According to Lee Thayer
the basic functions of communication may be categorized as under:
The information function

The basic element of adapting oneself to the environment or adapting the environment to oneself
is information. We must have some information about going on in our environments to concern
ourselves about it. And we must have some information about ourselves, our intentions, goals,
etc., in order to have something to be concerned about. So the getting or giving of information
thus underlies all communication encounters, either directly or indirectly. Information is basic to

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all of the other applied functions of communication. Communication is not going to occur unless
someone is acquiring and consuming some information about himself or his environment.
Usually, when we speak of informative communication, we refer to ‘international’

communication. That is, we refer to the consequences of reactions intended or sought by the
originator.
Command or instructive functions

Those who are hierarchically superior (in family, business, military, civic or personal life) often
indicate communication either for the purpose of informing their subordinates or for the purpose
of telling them what to do, how to do, etc.
One of the expectations that properly socialized subordinates bring to their relationships with
superiors is that they are obliged to accept certain kinds of orders from certain superiors to do
certain kinds of things. When the rules about who can order whom to do what things, are
mutually understood, neither the supervisor nor the subordinate expects to engage in a dialogue.
The command and instructive functions of communication are more observable in formal
organizations than they are in informal organizations. Individuals who are hierarchically superior
within an organizational structure are both privileged and obligated to command (and/or to
control) certain task-related behavior of their subordinates.
Influence or persuasive functions

The sole purpose of communication is to influence. We communicate to influence, to effect with
intent the behavior of other person(s).
Aristotle defined the study of rholotic (communication) as the search for all the available means
of presentation. So he clearly implied that the main aim of communication was ‘presentation’.
Integrative functions
The major function of communication at the interpersonal level is that of self-integration or of
continuously off setting any disintegration, (i.e. entropy that might otherwise occur).

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At the level of formal organizations, larger than face-to-face human groups, integrative functions
are provided in part by bureaucratization, proceduralisation, industrialization, etc. When a social
system exceeds the integrative limits of face-to-face encounters, the necessary integrative
mechanisms become embedded in that social system, literature, art, folklore, mythology, beliefs,
orientations, etiquette and institutional practices.
Undoubtedly there is some advantage both to the individual and to the organisation in the
relative integrity of their perspective structures.
All communication behavior has its purpose, its goals, and the production of a response. When
we learn to phrase our purpose in terms of specific responses from those attending to our
messages, we have taken the first step towards efficient and effective communication. The
failure to affect the receiver in ways that were intended can be attributed to one or both of the
two causes - inefficiency and/or misperception.
3.1.5 Principles of Communication
It is comprehensively understood that to enrich one’s lives, it is necessary for the individuals to
promote communication processes in an effective manner. But these can be promoted in an
effective manner, when the individuals acquire an understanding of principles of communication.
Through the principles of communication, the individuals are able to generate information in
terms of ways that are necessary to put into operation the communication processes in a
worthwhile and efficacious manner. It can be stated that principles of communication are
meaningful in enriching the communication processes. (Kapur R., n.d. (The Principles of
Communication)) .
The principles of communication comprise of factors, which are necessary in making the
communication processes worthwhile and efficient. In various types of settings, it is vital for the
individuals to augment one’s understanding in terms of these principles. Furthermore, they need
to be put into operation by all the members. These have been stated as follows:

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Trustworthiness – Effective relationships are built on trust. Within the working environment,
when the individuals trust each other, they will be able to communicate in a well-organized
manner.
Within a working environment, individuals are required to work in collaboration and integration
with each other. When superiors assign various types of job duties to their subordinates, they
trust that they possess the essential skills and abilities that are necessary to carry out their job
duties well and generate the desired outcomes. In order to make the communication processes
meaningful, it is vital to have trust. When individuals experience barriers and difficulties within
the course of the implementation of job duties, it is apparent that they will need support and
assistance from others. When the individuals trust others, only then they approach them to seek
assistance and support. Trustworthiness is therefore regarded as one of the indispensable
principles of communication.
Effectual Speaking Skills – Possession of effectual speaking skills is regarded as one of the
indispensable principles of communication. It is vital for the individuals to recognize the
significance of speaking skills to participate in number of tasks and activities including
interviews, group discussions, oral examinations, competitions, presentations and so forth. In
enhancing ones speaking skills, it is vital for the individuals to work towards up-gradation of
their language skills.
Active Listening – Active listening is referred to focusing entirely on the person speaking.
Active listening is also regarded as one of the important principles of communication. When
individuals are communicating with the main purpose of providing support and assistance to
others, it is vital to implement active listening. Active listening is a difficult task and takes
practice. The reason being, in most cases, the individuals are willing to talk rather than listen.
Good Writing Skills – Written communication is also regarded to be of utmost significance. It is

vital for the individuals to pay attention and focus on the up-gradation of writing skills as well.
Good writing skills not only enable the individuals to communicate well, but also perform their
tasks and activities in a well-organized manner.

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Good Reading Skills – Reading skills are also regarded as an important principle of
communication. At all levels individuals need to focus on the up-gradation of their reading skills.
The up-gradation of reading skills is crucial for all individuals, irrespective of their job positions
in all types of settings. Quick, efficient and imaginative reading techniques are essential in order
to achieve success.
Non-Judgemental – Judging others is not regarded as good basis for building relationships. It is
easy to say that one should be non-judgemental, but it is a difficult principle to follow. Being
non-judgemental is regarded as an indispensable principle of communication, as it enables
individuals to depict broad-mindedness, leniency and easy-going nature. Individuals in
leadership positions are required to be non-judgemental. When they have identified the
inconsistencies in others’ performances, it is vital for them to give feedback in a constructive
manner. When individuals receive constructive feedback, they usually form positive viewpoints
and aim to bring about improvements. Furthermore, non-judgemental attitude enables individuals
to augment their skills and abilities.
Value Difference – Value difference is referred to valuing the different contributions of the
individuals that one interacts with in order to reinforce ones terms and relationships. It is
comprehensively understood that individuals are different from each other in terms of natures,
attitudes, competencies and abilities.
No Assumptions –Individuals can interpret words they listen to in a manner that was not
intended to the person who said them. When someone has said something and others take those
words as completely different, then the communication processes has not taken place in an
effective manner. Hence, when individuals are speaking to each other or communicating in a
written form, they need to ensure that they are able to understand each other well. It is important
to understand clearly, what others mean, rather than making assumptions. When individuals
make assumptions and they prove to be incorrect, then they may have to experience detrimental
effects. It is worthwhile and favourable to check the understanding of individuals, particularly
the ones, with whom one is communicating with. To clarify that individuals have understood the
aspects clearly, one should not make assumptions. Therefore, when there are not any
assumptions, communication takes place in an efficient manner.
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Authenticity – Authenticity is referred to genuineness, reality, validity and truthfulness. When
individuals are communicating with each other, it is of utmost significance for them to put into
operation the trait of authenticity.
Developing Interest and Curiosity – Developing interest and curiosity are regarded as
important principles of communication. These are essential on the part of speakers and receivers
of information. When the speakers are speaking, they need to possess efficient knowledge in
terms of topics and depict clarity and fluency. In addition, it is vital for them to depict interest in
the implementation of their job duties. Hence, when they will develop interest and curiosity, they
will be able to generate the desired outcomes. On the other hand, development of interest and
curiosity is essential on the part of receivers as well. The receivers are supposed to pay attention
and acquire an efficient understanding of the concepts that are being imparted to them.
3.1.6 Types of Communication
3.1.6.1 Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal Communication — is the kind of communication that occurs within us. It involves
thoughts, feelings, and the way we look at ourselves.
Because intrapersonal communication is centered in the self, you are the only sender-receiver.
The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which
processes what you are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that you talk to
yourself, or discard certain ideas and replace them with others.
Even though you are not directly communicating with others in intrapersonal communication,
the people and the experiences you have had determine how you “talk” to yourself. For example,
if you had a good day, you are likely to look at your-self in a positive way. If a teacher was
disappointed with your work, or if you had a fight with a fellow student, you are likely to focus
more on your depression or anger. You can never look at yourself without being influenced by
the relationships you have with others.
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3.1.6.2 Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication occurs when we communicate on a one-to-one basis— usually in

an informal, unstructured setting. This kind of communication occurs mostly between two
people, though it may include more than two.
Interpersonal communication uses all the elements of the communication process. In a

conversation between friends, for example, each brings his or her back ground and experience to
the conversation. Outing the conversation each functions as a sender - receiver. Their message
consists of both verbal and non-verbal symbols. The channels they use the most are sight and
sound. Because interpersonal communication is between two (or a few) people, it offers the
greatest opportunity for feedback. Psychological noise is likely to be minimal because each
person can see whether the other is distracted. The persons involved in the conversation have
many chances to check that the message is being perceived correctly. Interpersonal
communication usually takes place in informal and comfortable settings.
3.1.6.3 Small-Group Communication
Small - group communication occurs when a small number of people meet to solve a problem.
The group must be small enough so that each member in the group has a chance to interact with
all of the other members.
Because small groups are made up of several senders-receivers, the communication process is
more complicated than in interpersonal communication. With so many more people sending
messages, there are more chances for confusion. Messages are also more structured in small
groups use the same channels as interpersonal communication, however, and there is also a good
deal of opportunity for feedback. In view of their problem - solving nature, small groups usually
meet in a more formal setting than people involved in interpersonal communication.

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3.1.6.4 Public Communication
In public communication the sender-receiver (the speaker) sends a message (the speech) to an
audience. The speaker usually delivers a highly structured message, using the same channels as
in interpersonal and small-group communication. In public communication, however, the
channels are more exaggerated than in interpersonal communication. The voice is louder and the
gestures are more expansive because the audience is bigger. The speaker might also use
additional visual channels such as slides, flip charts, and so on. Generally, the opportunity for
verbal feedback in public communication is limited. The audience members may have a chance
to ask questions at the end of the speech, but usually they are not free to address the speaker as
he or she is talking. However, they can send nonverbal feedback. If they like what the speaker is
saying, they may interrupt the speech with applause. If they like what the speaker is saying, they
may interrupt the speech with applause. If they dislike it, they may move around a lot of simply
stop paying attention. In most public communication the setting is formal.
3.1.7 Dimensions of Communication
Human communication processes are quite complex. We differentiate verbal and nonverbal, oral
and written, formal and informal, and intentional and unintentional communication.
[Communication Principles. n.d. p. 6]
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

When we think of communication, we usually think of spoken messages. However, experts
usually divide communication into two primary categories: verbal and nonverbal
communication. Verbal communication involves the use of symbols that generally have
universal meanings for all who are taking part in the process. Verbal communication may be
spoken or written. These spoken or written verbal symbols are known as words. For example our
name is a symbol that represents us. Democracy is a symbol for a particular political system.
Additionally, verbal communication is highly structured and uses formal rules of grammar.
Nonverbal communication involves the use of symbols other than the written or spoken word,
such as gestures, eye behavior, tone of voice, use of space, and touch. Although nonverbal
symbols have socially shared meanings, they have no formal structure or rules of grammar.
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3.2 Identifying, understanding and solving communication barriers
3.2.1 Barriers to Effective Communication
Ineffective communication may be attributed to many different types of human and technical
barriers. They may be classified into four categories: intrapersonal, interpersonal,
organizational, and technological.
3.2.1.1 Intrapersonal Factors — Communication within one person
Selective Perception: The relationship between perception and communication is complex. The
way in which we perceive a subject or an event affects not only the way we conceive of it but
also the way in which our thoughts about it are converted into a form of meaningful
communication. For example, it is a well-known fact that people have a tendency to see and hear
only what they are emotionally prepared (or want) to see and hear. Furthermore, research
suggests that people seek our favourable messages and ignore unpleasant ones. In other words,
they reject or inaccurately perceive information that is inconsistent with their previously
established beliefs and expectations.
In addition to differing in their perceptual ability, people also differ in their ability to develop
and apply basic communication skills. Some people are incapable of expressing themselves
verbally but are able to write very clear and concise messages. Others are effective speakers
but poor listeners. In addition, many people read slowly and find it difficult to understand what
they have read. When such difficulties exist, they are potential barriers to effective
communication.
Without understanding, there can be no communication. Unless people comprehend the

information directed at them, they certainly cannot be expected to act effectively upon it.

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3.2.1.2 Interpersonal Factors (Interpersonal Communication between two persons)
Climate: Within an organizational context, the relationship between two people largely derives
from the treatment each receives from the other and from the way in which this reciprocal
behaviour is interpreted. As the two people interact, the feelings that arise either limit or
encourage both the content and the frequency of their communications, as well as the methods in
which they attempt to communicate with each other. This combination of attitudes comprises the
climate of an interpersonal relationship. The lack of a positive climate can easily lead to a
restricted flow of communication, gamesmanship in the manipulation of information, and
widespread distrust and antagonism. The resulting decay of group and enterprise effectiveness
has been well documented.
Trust: The communication process is a transactional relationship between a sender and a

receiver. The transfer of information is meant to have a reciprocal effect on both interacting
parties. A major characteristic of all such relationships is trust. Distrust and suspicion between
two people can serve only to increase defensiveness and decrease the frequency of open
expression, subsequently decreasing the likelihood of effective communication.
Credibility: Closely related to trust, “credibility” refers to the perceived characteristics of a

source of information. Empirical research has identified four distinct elements of source
credibility: honesty or general trustworthiness, expertise or competence, dynamism or
enthusiasm, and objectivity or open-mindedness. These characteristics are not necessarily
possessed by a given source but are attributed to that source by individual receivers. Thus, the
credibility of a source is actually receiver determined. For example, when presented with
identical communications from different sources, people will most often believe the one coming
from the source that they perceive to be the most qualified, honest, fair and forceful.
Sender-Receiver Similarity: Research generally indicates that the accuracy of communication

between two communicators is directly related to the extent to which they perceive themselves to
be similar. The degree of similarity between communicators in terms of such characteristics as
age, sex, intelligence, race, and socioeconomic status and such factors as common attitudes,
interests, values and abilities influences the ease and openness with which they communicate.
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Communicators who perceive themselves as being similar are generally more willing to accept
the viewpoints of one another and to express common agreement.
3.2.1.3 Organizational Factors
Status: A person’s status in an organization depends largely upon the prestige associated with
the position he or she occupies. The influence of status on the direction and frequency of
organizational communication has been the subject of numerous studies. Evidence indicates that
(a) people generally prefer to direct their communication to individuals of higher status; (b)
persons of higher status generally communicate more with one another than they do with persons
of lower status; (c) the wider the status differential, the greater the likelihood that information
will flow from the higher to the lower status persons rather than vice versa (d) high status
persons generally dominate conversations with lower status persons; and (e) low status persons
often attempt to gain the favour of those with higher status by displaying respect, offering praise
and agreeing with their views.
These findings clearly suggest that status is a major influence on the process of communication.
From an organizational viewpoint, there are at least two reasons that people prefer to
communicate with individuals of higher status. First, such interactions can be an effective way to
gain peer group recognition and prestige. Second, communicating with higher status superiors
who possess the capacity to gratify or deprive is often perceived as a means of increasing one’s
chances of satisfaction. Hierarchical Transmission: Hierarchical differentiation is a structural
aspect of the development of an organization. As organizations grow, hierarchies develop not
only to facilitate the accomplishment of broadened activities but also because they are necessary
to communication. Information must be systematically channeled to all parts of an organization.
Although hierarchical transmission is thus desirable, it does give rise to numerous
communication difficulties. For instance, the more levels a message must pass through, the
longer it takes to reach its destination and the less likely it is to be accurate. In addition to the
factors associated with both the efficiency and the effectiveness of vertical information flow
discussed earlier, certain individual processes also serve to distort the hierarchical transmission
of information. Such distortions have been shown to take a number of systematic forms:
condensation, closure, expectation, and association. These distortions contribute to both the
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selective retention (sharpening) of certain details in a message and the selective omission
(leveling) of other details.
Condensation: Research indicates that the recipient of a message who in turn is responsible for
passing it on to another person typically distorts its content (especially in word-of-mouth
transmissions) in a predictable manner. That is, what he or she repeats will be shorter and less
detailed than what he or she received. Often only the salient points of the message are forwarded,
and most often in a condensed form; certain portions of the message are therefore intensified,
and others are ignored. Condensation frequently occurs in situations where inferences are drawn
from a sum of evidence and the inferences, rather than the evidence itself, are communicated.
Interestingly, it seems that, as a message is relayed, its midsection is more likely to be condensed
(that is, edited) than either its beginning or its end. In addition, the longer the period between the
time a message is received and the time it is relayed to the next level and the larger the number
of people involved in its transmission, the more likely it is to be distorted.
Closure: Relayers of ambiguous messages, which rumours quite often are, tending to fill in-
that is, to close gaps in the information that they are transmitting.
Expectation: Evidence further suggests that relayers of information are often prone to bias
communications in the direction of their own attitudes and expectations.
Association: Research further indicates that when events or outcomes have occurred together in
the past, they are often associated with one another at a later date. For instance, if past errors
have been attributable to a particular person, that person is likely to be linked to any recurrence
of the original errors, often without justification.

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3.3 Elements of communication
3.3.1 Communication Process
Communication process refers to the creating, transmitting, receiving and interpreting of

messages between a source and a receiver. Like any process, communication process has steps or
stages. First there should be a reason (stimulus) and interest (motivation) to create a message and
transmit it from the senders' side. The sender then encodes the message, that is, the sender
incorporates the message into a signal (spoken work, a drawing on the chalkboard, or printed
materials) to convey it to the receiver. The sender puts the message into transmittal form (signal)
and sends it via a communication medium.
To achieve the desired results, the sender must first get the attention of the receiver. The sender
must send the message in such a way that the receiver can understand it, accept it and do or act
accordingly. The receiver upon receiving the signal tries to make sense out of it. That is the
receiver decodes the message. Decoding is the interpretation activity by the receiver of the
message received. In the process there are various distorting factors referred as noise that act on
the signal as it is being transmitted.
Noise is interference or barrier in the communication process. It can happen from any one the
elements of the communication process or from the environment. Example of noise in the
classroom setting include background sounds, glare on the chalkboard, and flickering lights.
Other noises like semantic noise (e.g. difficult words), written material too small to be read; and
difference in field of experience between the sender and the receiver creates barrier in the
communication process.
It is important to remember the meaning as such cannot be transmitted. What is actually

transmitted are the symbols of meaning, such as words or pictures. The sender can only transmit
verbal or pictorial symbols from which the receiver constructs his/her own meanings. The
communication process is the interaction between the elements of communication. Thus, to
understand the communication process better, it is worthwhile to look at the elements of
communication, which can be depicted by models.
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3.3. 2 Elements of Communication
The important elements of communication are:
3.3.2.1 The communicator:
The qualities of a good communicator are:

A. What he knows: These include his objectives, the needs of his audience, their
interests and abilities.
B. What is his interest in his audience and its welfare, his message and how it can help
the community?
C. His preparation: and
D. His skills in selecting and treating the message
3.3.2.2 The message:
A message is the information the communicator wishes his audience, or community to receive,
understand or accept and act upon. The message may be scientific information about agriculture,
homemaking, livestock raising, etc. A good message should be clear and understandable by the
audience.
3.3.2.3 Channels of communication
Channels are the connecting links between the communicators and receivers. For effective work,
the communicator should take the following factors into consideration:
 The specific objective of the message
 The nature of the message
 The needs, interests and knowledge of the subject
 Channels of communication available
 Time available to the communicator and audience

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3.3.2.4 Treatment of message:
Treatment of a message relates to the technique or manner of performance necessary in

presenting the message. Its purpose is to make the message clear, understandable and realistic to
the community. It requires original thinking, deep insight into the principles of human behaviour
and skill in creating and using improved techniques of presentation of a message.
3.3.2.5 The audience:
The audience could be members of the community. It may consist of one person or more in
occupational groups or interest groups. The more homogeneous an audience, the greater the
chances of successful communication. At the primary level, there are only two audiences.
(i) Intended audience, and

(ii) The unintended audience, i.e., all others in the geographical area
3.3.2.6 Feedback
One is constantly communicating back to the other, thus, “the return process is called feedback”,
and it plays a very important role in communication. Communication often involves an action,
reaction and interdependence. The communicator can use the reaction of the receiver as a check
for his own effectiveness and a guide to his own future action. The reaction of the receiver is a
consequence of the response of the source. As a response consequence, it serves as feedback to
the source. When a source receives feedback that is rewarding, he continues to produce the same
kind of message. When he gets non-recording feedback, he will eventually change his message.
3.3.3 Communication Model
Some sociologists, educationists, psychologists, anthropologists and rural sociologists have

described the process through various models. Their usefulness lies in the manner in which they
are used.

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3.3.3.1 Aristotle’s model
Speaker Speech Audience
Fig 3.1 Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle says that all those three ingredients or elements are essential for communication. These
can be organized to study the process through the person who speaks, the speech he produces
and the person/audience who listens. Such communication takes place in a face-to-face situation,
or in direct communication. The speech is either a message, an idea, a thought or a feeling.
3.3.3.2 Shammon - Weaver Model
Source Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination
Fig. 3.2 Shammon - Weaver Model
If we translate the source into speaker, the signal into speech and destination into listener we
have the Aristotle’s Model Plus two more ingredients: a transmitter which sends out the message
and the receiver which catches the message to take it to its destination.
3.3.3.3 Westley and Machean Model
Sender Encoder Message Decoder Receiver
Fig. 3.3 Westley and Machean Model
This also has five elements/ingredients on the lines of the Shammon & Weaver’s Model. Here
the sender encodes the message which is passed through a channel and is then decoded and its
meaning is drawn, after which the message is clear to the receiver.

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3.3.3.4 Leagan’s Model
Communi Message Channel Treat- Audience Response of

cator ment Audience
Fig. 3.4 Leagan’s Model
This has six elements. It is more or less designed on the pattern of the Westley and Machean’s
model. Though the terminology is different, most of the elements are common. Audience
response is the sixth elements about which Legean says that it is vital to the process, especially
when it is meant to bring about change in people.
3.3.3.5 Berlo Model
Source Encoder Message Channel Decoder Receiver
Fig. 3.5 Berlo Model
This has also six ingredients. The difference from the Wesley and Machean Model is that Berlo
adds message to his model.

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3.4. Audio visual techniques
3.4.1 Importance of Audio-visual Aids in Teaching and Learning
Teaching is a reciprocal communication between and among pupils and teachers. Learning is
essentially a social process. Teaching is only instrumental to learning and it uses everything for
the guidance of the learner into profitable educational experiences.
Audio-visual aids influence the effectiveness of teaching by lessening some of the learners’
difficulties, eliminating some hindrance in the communication process and expediting teaching.
Thus creative use of a variety of media increases the probability that the audience will learn
more, retain better, recall lessons learned and improve their performance of the skills they are
expected to develop. This is because audio visual materials evoke the maximum response of the
whole organism to the situations in which the learning is done.
Audio visual aids are resources for learning. Research findings indicate that human beings learn
more easily and faster by audio-visual processes than by verbal explanation alone. This is
because audio-visual materials permit teachers and students to interact and to use their
environment to their own best advantage. But audio-visual devices misused will contribute less
to education than to confusion. Before using audio-visual materials, analysis of the audience is
necessary in order to know their needs, capabilities, their special interests and motivation, and
their styles of learning. One has to evaluate also the strengths and weaknesses of the instructional
media to see whether the media match with the instructional objective. From among alternative
learning experiences (e.g. learning by doing, learning by observing) one chooses that offering
best promise to achieve for the students the sought outcome, and the audio-visual materials that
can perform better that particular learning experience chosen.
In short if appropriate media are used. Teaching and learning can be simplified with a best result
and fast concept building on the subject matter or idea taught or communicated.

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3.4.2. Advantages and disadvantages of media
Some extension situations may require a personal visit to a farmer. The cost of an individual visit
is high and organizations are now concentrating on group visits backed up by media.
Communication Media
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Can reach large audiences.  The cost of equipment is initially high
 Relatively inexpensive per person  Maintenance and repairs may be
reached expensive and difficult
 Can reach the isolated  Not easy to obtain good feed back from
 Only a small staff required the audience
 Can give out timely news
 Can reach people every day in their own
homes
Personal Visit
Advantages Disadvantages
 Personal contact can sometimes be very  Visits to farmers can be very expensive
effective in motivating farmers and can only be done at intervals
 Good feedback can be obtained  Often only the more advanced farmers are
visited
 Many staff are required to give good
Every personal visit should always be backed up by using communications media as it makes the
visits more cost-effective. However as farmers become more motivated and as the
communications media improve face-to-face communications can be reduced. In situations
where the farming community is well motivated the use of media alone is effective.
Sometimes farming people rely almost exclusively on media for their information. The radio or
television gives them weather or market news and also information about outbreak of insect
pests. The commercial media inform them of good buys in machinery, fertilizer, stock, seed,
buildings etc. The farming press and magazines provide more detailed information and articles

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about farming enterprises. The radio may even broadcast farm family serial programmes which
creates interest and may provide some knowledge and motivation.
3.4.3 Relative effectiveness of various aids
Visual media are particularly important since research suggests that most of what we learn is
through our eyes, rather than through our ears touch or sense of smell. Thus as the Chinese
apparently said one picture is worth a thousand words. What people remember some days after
being presented with a message is much more important than what they recall immediately
afterwards. Research shows that a combination of words and visuals after a three day time lapse
is some six times more effective just words.
Recall after 3 hours Recall after 3 days

Words only 70% 10%
Visuals only 72% 20%
Words and visuals 85% 65%
3.4.4 Classification of instructional media
Audiovisual materials are classified in a number of ways by different authors. Among these are:
a. Audio, visual and audiovisual

b. Printed and non-printed
c. Projected and non-projected
d. Hard ware and soft ware
3.4.5 Non-projected visuals
3.4.5.1 Introduction
Non projected visuals include all aids which are seen, or can be used without the help of a
projector. They do not require electrical power. They are simple and direct, and can be prepared
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by you yourself quite easily. In addition, they are generally relatively inexpensive and can be
made from locally available materials.
Non projected aids can help to translate ideas into a more realistic format. For example, you can
draw on a flipchart the different stages in the lifecycle of an insect.
Caution remains necessary, as when using any aid:

 Some visuals may require special attention; a cartoon is symbolic rather than a direct
representation.
 Does the audience indeed get the same idea as you meant them to get?
 Some visual aids are too small to use for large groups. You may have to use the method
of circulation or distribution. Or, you can decide to use a projected visual aid such as the
overhead transparency.
In the paragraphs below, several non-projected visual aids will be introduced and discussed.
3.4.5.2 Posters
Posters help to focus attention on a particular message. They are commonly used in extension
(agriculture, health, education, social issues, etc.)
A principle of developing and using posters, displays and calendars, is that all pictures, drawings
and illustrations must be checked to make sure their message is clearly understood by the
intended target group.
Posters can be divided into 2 main categories:
 motivational
 instructional
3.4.5.3 Extension folders
What are extension folders?

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 simple publications used in extension, education and advertising
 single sheets of paper, folded in 1 or more places (creating 4, 6, or 8 panels)
 used to present (agricultural) information to farmers and other extension clientele e.g. a
new maize variety, warning about a pest problem, advise on marketing
Characteristics of an effective extension folder

 idea
 simple language
 written in personal tone ('you' and 'we')
 brief and concise, using as few words as possible to convey the message clearly
 well illustrated
 simple and attractive design
 stimulates action
3.4.5.4 Flipcharts
Flipcharts are a very simple and effective training media. They can be made and used in various
ways and for different sorts of training sessions or number of trainees.
Flipcharts consist of a series of large paper sheets fastened at the top end so that they can be
flipped over each other. Sometimes these sheets are blank pages on which instructional materials
are written during the training. However, they can also be designed in advance and be arranged
sequentially to communicate a message.
There are 4 sorts of flip charts:

a. Sheets of newsprint paper which can be used in the training session and can be written up then
and there, using the suggestions of the trainees.
b. Hand drawn flipcharts can be prepared before the training sessions and shown to support a
prepared talk.
c. Flipcharts can be designed and printed. These can be used by lots of trainers and so can be
professionally produced and illustrated.

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d. Flipbooks can also be designed, illustrated and printed and can work like small flipcharts. The
book can be self supporting and is useful with small groups.
3.4.5.5 Newsletters
Newsletters are printed materials designed to provide information and news for a specific
audience. They may be designed and used as training materials, especially in extension training.
Organisations publishing newsletters also use them for promotional purposes.
3.4.5.6 Cloth Boards

Cloth- or flannel boards consist of a rough-textured cloth, such as a blanket or a piece of felt, on
to which drawings, photographs or words can be placed. The drawings have sandpaper
(Birchuko waraket) glued to the back which makes them stick to the fluff of the cloth.
3.4.5.7 Displays
The words 'display' and 'bulletin board' are sometimes used to indicate the same media. Indeed,
sometimes they are the same. A bulletin board is a type of display. However, a display can be
many other things, and can show both printed and real objects and models.
Displays are media that are often overlooked. When used well, they can be very effective in
training. They can be made for all kinds of visual and written subjects. They can be printed and
distributed widely, or they can be one only (e.g. a product made by trainer or the trainees).
'To display' means: to show, place or spread out so that there is no difficulty in seeing. A shop
may display their goods in the windows. An architect who may show the intended building with
help of a display; some models and drawings. A biology teacher may change the display in the
classroom each week; depending on the topic of the class. A trainer may lay out several books on
tables, for the trainees to look through. An extensionist may display different seeds and varieties
to effectively teach about the different morphologies. A display is used intentional and
deliberately.

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3.4.5.8 Chalk boards
The most common display surface in the classroom is, of course, the chalkboard. Once called
black boards, they, like chalk, now come in a variety of colours.
3.4.5.9 Real Objects
The best visual aid is the real object and this should be used whenever possible. The audience
should be allowed to see and feel the object, e.g. seeds, fertiliser, a piece of equipment, coins,
etc.
3.4.5.10 Models
Models are three-dimensional representations of the real thing. A model may be larger, smaller,
or the same size as the object it represents. It may be complete in detail, or simplified for
instructional purposes.
Models can provide learning experiences that real things can not. Important details can, for
example, be accented with colour. Some models can be disassembled to provide interior views,
not possible with the real thing.
Models are useful when describing things which are difficult to bring into the training room as
real objects. This can be because the real object is too large, too small to be seen effectively,
potentially dangerous, or hard to get, e.g. a model of a building such as a dairy parlour, a model
of the planetary system, a model of a cow's stomach, a model of a car engine, etc.
Models can take a lot of time to make yourself. They are more often used in exhibitions. The
scale of the model should be shown, and you must make sure that things which are small in
reality are not shown too large on the model. If they are out of proportion, they might not be
recognised.

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Models and real objects are the recommended media when realism is essential for learning - with
concepts that involve three dimensions; tasks that require identification by size, shape, colour,
and hands-on or laboratory practice.
When considering students' learning styles, teachers often give models and real objects a high
priority. Most learners, including adults, when given a choice express a preference for hands-on
experiences rather than a passive listening.
3.4.6 Projected Visuals
3.4.6.1 Introduction projected Visuals
Projection equipment is different kinds of mechanical devices that can be used to project visuals.
They are important bridges that enable us to bring a wealth of visual materials of many types into
the experience of an audience.
With a general knowledge about projection equipment, one can make needed adjustments and
minor repairs which will often yield greatly improved feature on the screen. Hence, knowledge
of the following principles of projection equipment is essential to all who try to improve the
teaching- learning or any communication situation.
For better understanding projection equipment can be classified according to their projection
system:
a. Direct projection system

b. Indirect projection system
c. Reflected projection system
The difference between these projection systems is the method by which light is directed from
the source through, or reflected from, the object to the screen.

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3.4.6.2 Direct projection system
This is the most commonly used system. By this method, the light passes directly from the
projector lamp through the condense lenses, through the material, through the objective lens and
to the screen. A minimum of light is lost by the direct projection system. Thus, direct projection
system requires all materials to be inserted upside down in a vertical position, with front side
next to the lamp.
Projection equipment that come under this system are:

A. Still picture projectors
i) Slide projectors
ii) Film strip projectors
B. Motion picture projectors

a) 8mm, motion picture projectors
b) 16mm, sound motion picture projectors
c) 35mm, sound motion picture projectors
3.4.6.3 Indirect projection system
In this system light passes indirectly from the projector lamp through the condenser lenses on to
a mirror, reflected light from the mirror passes through the FRENZEL lens (converges the light).
The converged light passes through the objective lens and on to the screen.
Indirect projection is used for special purposes. An example is an overhead transparency

projector with an indirect light source and using mirror. The projection can be used in well lit
room.
3.4.6.4 Reflected system
Reflected projection is only found in the opaque projector. Opaque materials such as pictures,
book pages, objects and other types of flat or semi-flat objects can be projected by reflected
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method. In the opaque projector, condenser lenses are not used to spread the light evenly over the
object being projected, instead a series of mirrors surrounds the flat platen of the projector. These
mirrors reflect all possible light on the picture or object.
The image is reflected in a large mirror immediately above the object through a large objective
lens to the projection screen. The reflected projection system absorbs a great deal of light making
it mandatory to use opaque projector in a darkened room for satisfactory projection. Thus,
reflected projection systems require all materials to be placed in a horizontal position, face up,
with the bottom edge of the material closer the screen.
3.4.6.5 Slides and Slide Projector
Slides are small individually framed photographic positives which are projected onto a screen as
visual aids. They may be used alone, or in combination with a spoken script or documentary
tape. They are usually made from 35mm film framed in a 5cmX 5cm mount.
3.4.6.6 Overhead Transparencies (OHT) and Overhead Projector (OHP)
Teachers/trainers can make their own transparencies for display on an overhead projector.
Colorful, well through-out transparencies can greatly improve a lesson. The teacher can keep
facing the audience, and time is not wasted in writing on the blackboard. Another great
advantage is that overhead transparencies can be stored for future lessons.
Setting up the OHP

Setting up the OHP is quiet easy, but needs to be done before the training starts. It requires
electricity and a stand. It needs to be set up in a room with a white wall or screen to project on.
Try projecting any transparency on the OHP to focus on the wall or screen. The distance form
the screen to the OHP makes the image on the screen larger or smaller. The image should be the
right size for the number of viewers to clearly see/ read the information- even from the back of
the room. It is important to set up the machine in such a way, that when you sit down, you do not
block the view for those behind. The screen can be mounted at an angle high-up on the wall, so

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that it is parallel to the lens on the OHP. In this way everyone can see the screen above the
speaker. If it is at angle, the image will be square rather than key-hole shaped.
The screen needs to be placed out of direct sunlight so that everyone can read all the projected
images clearly. Try to also reduce the light coming into the room as much as possible when
making a presentation.
3.4.6.7 Transparencies
Transparencies are larger transparent sheets of film on which information can be written and
projected onto screens using overhead projectors. Common transparency materials include
cellophane, acetate, glass and infrared film. The most common of these is the acetate film, which
may be clear or tinted.
3.4.6.8 Film Strips
A filmstrip is a roll of 35mm transparent film containing a series of related still pictures intended
for showing one at a time. The film-strip projector is a dual purpose machine which will also
project 2 by inch mounted slides. Various filmstrip formats have evolved since the advent of the
filmstrip more than half a century ago.
A filmstrip is arranged in frames and each frame is a separate picture meaning ¾ by 1 inch.
Filmstrips come in 2 picture sizes. The standard format today is the single frame filmstrips, in
which the images are printed perpendicular to the length of the film (move downwards though
the projector). In the slide format (double filmstrip 11/2 by 1 inch), the images are parallel to the
length of the film (move horizontally through the projector).
Commercially produced filmstrips typically contain about 20-60 images, or frames, and are
stored rolled up in small plastic containers.
Until the 1960’s most film strips were silent; that is, there was no audio accompaniment.
Narrative information was printed at the bottom of each frame. After that time, recorded sound
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tracks were made to accompany the filmstrips. Currently, audio cassette tapes are the standard
means for giving sound filmstrips their ‘voice’. The sound filmstrips carries a double input. It
appeals to both eye and ear.
3.4.6.9 Opaque Projector
Opaques projection is a method of enlarging and displaying non-transparent material on a screen.

A very bright light is reflected from the material to be displayed, rather than passed through it.
The opaque projector can be used to magnify small three-dimensional objects also (e.g. coins,
plant leaves and insect specimens).
3.4.7 Audio material
Hearing and listening are not the same, although they are of course interrelated. At the risk of
some over simplification, we might say that hearing is a physiological process, where as
listening is a psychological process.
Physiologically, hearing is a process in which sound waves entering the outer ear are transmitted
to the eardrum, converted into mechanical vibrations in the middle ear, and changed in the inner
ear into nerve impulses that travel to the brain.
The psychological process of listening begins with someone’s awareness of and attention to
sounds or speech patterns, proceeds through identification and recognition of specific auditory
signals, and ends in comprehension.
Audio materials are widely available and are relatively cheap. They are widely used in
transmitting information. Audio materials provide a sense of immediacy. Radio shows,
dramatizations, and concerts capture the attention of people.
Radio and recordings (cassette tape, phonograph records and compact disks) depend on
stimulating a single sense to convey meanings. They use the sense of hearing, and listening is the

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key to communication through radio and recordings. Radio and recordings are therefore more
abstract than television and films, which use the sense of sight and hearing at the same time.
Auditory communication is not confined to words of language. Music and various sounds are
used to express feelings and concepts for which we have no verbal symbols. Radio and
recordings require critical listening. Radio, like television, can apply live and recorded
broadcasts.
3.4.8 Audio-Visual Material
3.4.8.1. Motion Picture Projections
Film refers to the celluloid material on which a series of transparent images, when projected at
24 frames (or images) per second, is perceived by human as a moving image. As with video, the
illusion of motion is caused by persistence of vision.
Motion picture film comes in various widths and image sizes. For movies shown in theaters,
35mm film is most commonly used. For films shown in schools, 16mm film is the most common
format.
Television and motion pictures have much in common: they both make use of sight and sound.
They often supplement each other. Although motion pictures were put into wide use earlier, most
television programs are made on films and motion pictures make up many of television’s most
exciting presentations. Hence, many ideas and principles of television are the same for motion
picture application.
3.4.8.2 Television and video recorder
The importance of television as a teaching and motivating medium was underestimated at first.
People now realize however, that it is a very powerful medium, not only for teaching and
imparting information, but also in changing attitudes.

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In some countries families watch as much as 6 hours of television per day. For many younger
people it is their main source of information and ideas. Thus, where television is available, it is
sensible to use it to communicate good ideas about development to the rural community.
A television programme can form an excellent base for a lesson or discussion, as can showing a
film or running a video- tape. The advantage of video- tape and film over television is that they
can be stopped at intervals to discuss what has happened so far and that they can be replayed
Making and using video in training is different from making TV programmes. A training video
will need to be more like other visual training aids. It will need to assist the trainer, the training
session discussions and the trainees activities. As with other media, trainers and subject
specialists should sort out their training objectives clearly. They should come up with ideas on
how the video is to work in the training.

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3.5. Roles and Characteristics/Ethics of Extension Communicator/Worker
3.5.1 Role and Ethics of Extension Worker
3.5.1.1 Fundamental purposes of agricultural extension
From the philosophy of agricultural extension we learn that activities are undertaken with the
clients to achieve the following purposes.
 To improve people’s thinking and decision making capacity to live a better way of life
 To improve learning and management skill
 To improve the linkage and interaction among people for exchanging relevant
information and materials
 To enable people to conserve natural and manmade resources and utilize them widely
 To enable people to be responsible and accountable in their activities.
3.5.1.2 Tasks of development agents in relation to the fundamental purposes of

agricultural extension
To achieve the philosophical essence discussed above development agents should know in
general
 The uses of development activities and their environment
 The learning difference between children and adults
 The ethical qualities of development workers
A. Uses of development activities and their environment

Extension is a social process. Extension programs are people oriented activities. The focus of
attention is put on people on how to bring into reality the various purposes mentioned above. It is
therefore very indispensable to keep in mind the various multidimensional social variables that
affect our programs in line with the technical and biological dimension of innovation. These can
be seen briefly as the following
 The farmer as individual: Individuals differ in their interest, value, potential to learn, etc.
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 The farmer as a member of the family: decisions made by a given household are very
complex since they reflect the multiple objectives of the people involved in the process;
the husband, wife, the elder children etc.
 The farmer as a member of the community: the community may set opportunities or
constraints in the development of a given individuals farm.
 The farmer in connection with the farm: the farmer as producer and manager undertakes
various activities including risk aversion and potential analysis in his/her farm decision.
 The farmer in relation o the wider society: sometimes the socio-cultural background of
the society may determine the type of the farm activities. A given farmer therefore tries to
see the acceptance of the activities by the society.
 The farmer in relation to the market: most of the Ethiopian farmers are subsistent
producers, so whenever we intend to develop the agricultural sector beyond that level we
have to think also the availability of markets for both the farm inputs and outputs.
B. Development agents should know the learning difference between children and
adults
Extension education has a great role in extension activities. A change in behaviour among the
clients of extension program is brought through a teaching and learning process. The difference
between children and adults as learner can be summarized as follows.
Children Adults
Rely on others to decide what is Important Decide for themselves what is important to
to be learned be learned
Accept the information at face value Need to validate the information based on
their beliefs and experience
Expect what they are learning to be useful Expect what they are learning to be
in their long-term future immediately useful
Have little or no experience upon which to Have much past experience upon which to
draw (are relatively clean sheets) draw (may have fixed view points)
Little ability to serve as a knowledge Significant ability to serve as a
resource to teachers or fellow classmates knowledgeable resource to the trainer and
fellow learner
3.5.2 Ethical qualities of development workers
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3.5.2.1 Respect for the farmer
Anyone who does not sincerely respect farmers and believe in their abilities to develop cannot be
an effective development agent. Cultural trappings such as the status of farmers are lower than
the development agent, farmers are poor because of their own particular characteristic or habits
such as being lazy and etc. should be discarded. Development workers should realize that
farmer’s refusal of some of the advice or recommendations that do little for them is their wisdom
and pragmatism. Farmers will solve their problems provided, they are fully aware of their own
situation, and of all factors, which obstruct or support their plans, including economic, cultural
and social trappings that bind them. It is wrong for a development agent to think that he/she
knows everything better than the farmers. Certainly, the farmers know their area, physically and
biologically, better than the development agent. In most cases, they have better knowledge of the
crops they grow with hands than the outsiders.
They know their fellow farmers and their community better than the social worker. In general
farmer (adults) never starts from zero. What they don’t know, but the development agent should
know, are the factors outside the local community, which may obstruct or support their plans,
and probably the economic, social and cultural trappings that bind them. It is the task of the
development agent therefore agent, therefore, to encourage farmers to consider their own
situation and to make constructive plans by combining the knowledge and skill of the
development agent of factors outside the local community with the farmer’s excellent knowledge
of his/her area. All these can be done only with the development agent’s respect for the farmers
and beliefs that farmers can develop themselves and their farmers.
3.5.2.2 Understanding the farmer
Often the elite development worker thinks that he/she knows and understands the farmer well
when in fact he/she knows almost nothing. Such lack of knowledge and understanding hinder
any development action that the agent may initiate. A true development begins, thus when the

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development agent on-going thirst for more knowledge and understanding of farmers. To
achieve this development worker has to look at things from farmers’ point of view.
3.5.2.3 Credit for farmers
Some development workers tend to boast above certain achievements. In case there is any
success in development, it is the farmers who should deserve the credit because they are the one
who put their hand on and made the effort to obtain it; so never take away credits from them. If
the development agent takes away this credit and claims that he success occurred because of
his/her own work, farmers can never gain the confidence to improve their own situation through
cooperation.
3.5.2.4 A sense of humour
A sense of humour is needed to remain sane and avoid giving up in frustration rural development
work is not easy; there are many obstacles. The development agent should keep a sense of
proportion about every thing- the farmers, the problems, natural obstructions, and the people who
obstruct. He/she should not think that development is all his/her burden. He/she must do his/her
burden. He/she must do his/her best but his/her work is only a part of the whole process. To be
too serious may create difficulties in getting closer with farmers and in learning from them.
3.5.2.5 Creativity
One must be creative while working with farmers in solving their problems. It is true that
everything cannot be learned from a manual or be taught. A certain situation or a specific aspect
may suddenly appear in the process of development; it thus requires a creative imagination to see
the possibilities.
Creativity, however, does not develop in a vacuum. It has a better chance of developing when the
development agent accumulates a wealth of experience, observation and tactics. Moreover no
two situations are exactly alike. Conditions usually change within a short time. The development

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agent, therefore, be sensitive to changes in the situation so that he/she can adjust the plans
accordingly.
3.5.2.6 Tenacity
Development work is a tedious one and, since the development agent caries out his/her tasks day
in and day out. Tenacious behaviour is very much required. Tenacity is needed because the
objectives of extension activities cannot be accomplished within a day, a month or even a year.
The development of farmers is a process of the people growing up and assuming responsibilities
for them.
3.5.2.7 Love for the farmers
A development worker has to have a genuine love for the farmers. Love here refers to the
concern given to farmers in the process of development self-help schemes to support themselves
and enjoy a good standard of living in the future.

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3.6. The Basic Concept of Facilitation
3.6.1 Introduction
While most programme managers recognise the benefits of participation, many lack the practical
skills to effectively involve diverse stakeholders in planning and managing development
programs. Most excellent facilitators are not naturals at what they do — rather, they work hard to
develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to harness the power of groups. These people
help diverse groups and local people to learn from their collective experience, take joint action,
and develop their own facilitation skills.
This information sheet offers a brief overview of facilitation including its benefits, core values,
basic concepts, guidance on when and where it is needed and practical tips for using facilitation
to increase participation and to strengthen each stage of the Activity Cycle.
3.6.2 What is facilitation?
In broad terms, facilitation is the process of making something easier or less difficult. In
development activity, facilitation is used in the context of group meetings or workshops in which
a basically neutral person with no decision-making authority helps the group to be more efficient
and effective when planning, implementing, and monitoring and evaluating meetings and
workshops.
Facilitation is a way of providing leadership without taking the reins. It’s the facilitator’s job to
get others to assume responsibility and take the lead. Here’s an example: Your employees bring
you a problem, but instead of offering them solutions, you offer them a method with which they
can develop their own answers. You attend the meetings to guide the members through their
discussions, step-by step encouraging them to reach their own conclusions. Rather than being a
player a facilitator acts more like a referee. That means you watch the actions more than
participate in it. You control which activities happen. You keep your finger on the pulse and
know when to move on or wrap things up. Most important, you help members define and reach
their goals.

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3.6.3The benefits of strong facilitation skills
 Increased ability to manage diverse groups at each stage of the Activity Cycle;
 Improved skills for managing conflict;
 Better utilization of local knowledge, resources, and capacities;
 Enhanced collaboration, co-ordination and understanding amongst project
stakeholders;
 More committed and timely group action;
 Increased management capacity of partners;
 More effective meetings and workshops.
3.6.4 The purpose of facilitation
The Brazilian educator, Paolo Freire, believed that education should be liberating, rather than
giving learners answers. Education should aim to increase the learner’s awareness, so that they
are able to identify problems and their causes, and find solutions to them. A facilitator’s role is to
help a group through this process by asking questions that encourage new ways of thinking about
and analyzing their situation. The facilitator does not know all the answers. Their role is to help
the group think critically about their own needs and interests, and to make decisions for
themselves.
There should be a balance between offering ideas to guide the group and patiently listening and
questioning. The facilitator’s role is also to encourage each member of the group to contribute to
the best of their ability. Everyone has valuable knowledge and a valuable contribution to make.
But people can be reluctant to share their knowledge. They may lack the confidence or may not
consider what they know to be important. Sometimes people do not want to share their
knowledge because it gives them a certain amount of power and advantage over others.
However, when we do share our knowledge, everyone benefits. The person sharing it does not
lose it after giving it away, and the person receiving it has received something new which they in
turn can pass on to others. The facilitator’s role is to build trust and respect between the members
of the group and to encourage dialogue and learning, from which the whole group will benefit.

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3.6.5 Useful Guidance
Rogers (1969: see Annex 3), a pioneer in learner-centred approaches to education, offers many
sound ideas for effective facilitation. Although much has been researched and written since Carl
Rogers developed his ideas, his guidelines (with slight modifications) are still relevant and
timely:
 A main role of the facilitator is setting the initial mood or climate of the group.
 The facilitator helps to elicit and clarify the purposes of the individuals in the
group as well as the more general purposes of the group.
 She or he relies upon the desire of each participant to implement those purposes
that have meaning for her or him, as the motivational force behind significant
learning.
 He or she organises and make accessible a wide range or resources for learning.
 The facilitator is a flexible resource to be utilised by the group.
 He or she accepts both the intellectual content and the emotionalised attitudes
and tries to balance his/her emphasis or these aspects with the group’s
corresponding emphasis.
 The facilitator may share opinions with the group, once the acceptable climate
has been established, but he or she must do so in ways which do not demand nor
impose but represent simply a personal sharing which group members may take
or leave.
 Throughout the group experience, the facilitator remains alert to expressions
that indicate deep or strong feelings.
 In his or her functioning as a facilitator of learning, the facilitator recognises
and accepts his or her own limitations.
3.6.6 Practical Tips
A facilitator is neither a content expert nor a lecturer. A facilitator helps participants to interact
with each other, gain new information, and build upon their experience. The facilitator guides a
process which will help participants to reach their stated goals and objectives within the time

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allotted. The facilitator s key role is to help the group experience and learn together. If you are
working with participants who may not understand the role of a facilitator, explain this to them.
YOU will become a good facilitator if you follow the above hints and also:
 Be alert to signs of confusion (puzzled or frustrated looks, people asking neighbours
questions, resistance, etc.);
 Don t do the group s work. Learning is more effective and lasting if the individuals and
small groups discover on their own (learning by doing);
 Circulate, but don t become a permanent part of any one group because you may too
easily influence the group;
 Spend sufficient time with each group during small group work to be certain they have
grasped the tasks and concepts supporting it;
 Review portions of the small group tasks which are causing confusion if several
individuals or groups are having difficulty;
 Ask frequently if there are questions. Sometimes the training activity specifically
suggests asking if there are questions, but you should ask even if the activity does not
specify doing so;
 When you DO ask a question, allow group members time to think before answering.
Slowly count to 10. This may seem like a long time and silence may feel uncomfortable,
but allowing participants’ time to think is essential if you want thoughtful answers;
 Don t feel that you must be an expert. Remind the group and yourself that you are a
facilitator. Remind them (and perhaps yourself) of THEIR expertise and experience. Ask
other participants for their ideas on a question. Don t feel you should answer everything
— you shouldn t!
 Be flexible. Keep the times of your sessions and depth and breadth of content somewhat
flexible. Changing something doesn t mean you planned poorly, but probably means you
are listening, watching, and adjusting your plans to fit the situation;
 Take at least two 15-20 minute breaks — one in the afternoon and one in the morning.
Suggest short stretch breaks as needed;
 Finally, RELAX!

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3.6.7 When and why is facilitation needed?
Rich, effective, growthful dialogue within groups cannot be forced but it can be encouraged and
nurtured. This is a main part of a facilitator s role.
Through careful planning, designing effective and proven processes, observing and making
skilled interventions, a
good facilitator can make the difference between slow, boring, or hostile meetings and
workshops and more effective ones in which group members actively contribute, feel ownership,
and ultimately apply their understanding and learning in their work.
3.6 .8 What makes a good facilitator?
A good facilitator has certain personal characteristics and skills that encourage group members to
participate in a discussion or activity. Facilitation is about getting a balance between these
different characteristics – for example, between being a good listener and a good communicator,
between being patient and dynamic. Although certain skills and techniques can be learnt and
applied, the most important thing is the facilitator’s ability to relate to individual group members
in a way that makes them feel valued and encouraged. This will affect the way the whole group
works together and what it will achieve. Good facilitation is not easy. It is like conducting a
music band. Though the music is written down already, it is the conductor’s job to build the right
atmosphere, to help each individual to be their most creative and to blend everyone together to
form an exciting and productive team. A facilitator is like a conductor. Great music emerges
when everyone is communicating together. Good communication, just like good music, is more
about listening than talking. If everyone plays all the time, there is nothing but an unpleasant
noise. It is the conductor’s job to help each player to listen to others, to keep quiet until it is the
right time for them to play.
Facilitation is the art, not of putting ideas into peoples’ heads, but of drawing ideas out. A
facilitator is best when people barely know that he or she exists. … A good facilitator is one who
talks little. When the work is done, the aim fulfilled, they will all say, “We did these ourselves.”

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A good facilitator is interested not only in whether an objective is achieved, but how. The
process is just as important as the product. The process of building local knowledge and skills is
vital if the group is to gain the confidence and ability to initiate and sustain positive change. Ask
participants to think of situations where people were not consulted about an issue that directly
affected them. This could be a development project where the organization involved did not
consult the community about what changes it wanted to make. As a result, the project did not
lead to lasting change because the community didn’t want to remain involved. What difference
does it make if people’s ideas and experience are taken into account in future planning and
activities? Emphasis that even if this process takes time, it leads to better relationships and more
sustainable change. A well-facilitated discussion process is essential.
3.6.9 Challenges for Facilitators
Is it harder to be a facilitator or a teacher? Hopefully you will say it is much harder to be a

facilitator! Why can facilitation be difficult? Answers might include
 Taking control of discussion
 Dealing with difficult questions
 Managing conflict
 Handling dominant people
 Working with shy people

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3.7. Roles and Responsibilities of a Facilitator
3.7.1 What Dose a Facilitator Do?
Facilitators make their contribution by:

 Helping the group define its overall goal, as well as its specific objectives.
 Helping members assess their needs and create plans to meet them
 Providing processes that help members use their time efficiently to make high-quality
decisions.
 Guiding group discussion to keep it on track
 Making accurate notes that reflect the ideas of members
 Helping the group understand its own processes in order to work more effectively
 Making sure that assumptions are surfaced and tested
 Supporting members in assessing their current skills, as building new skills
 Using consensus to help a group make decisions that take all members opinions into
account
 Supporting members in managing their own interpersonal dynamics
 Providing feedback to the group, so that they can assess their progress and make
adjustments
 Managing conflict using a collaborative approach
 Helping the group communicate effectively
 Helping the group access resources from inside and outside the group
 Creating a positive environment in which members can work productively to attain group
goals
 Fostering leadership in others by sharing the responsibility for leading the group
 Teaching and empowering others to facilitate
A good facilitator follows the following responsibilities:

 Keeps the group focused on task and process;
 Remains as objective as possible;
 Is an informed guide helping the group to chart its course and accomplish its goals;
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 Listens more than talks;
 Adopts to various learning styles;
 Encourages everyone to participate while remembering that individuals participate in
different ways. Some may talk only in small groups, but they are still participating.
Others may wish to talk constantly and may be contributing little;
 Protects members of the group from attack by others;
 Is gender and culturally sensitive;
 Energises a group or slows it down, as needed;
Recaps, occasionally, what has happened in the workshop and helps group to make connections
between the sessions.

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3.8. Conflict Resolution Skills
3.8.1 Facilitating Conflict
Dealing with conflict is a fact of every facilitator’s life. Consider the following scenario: Imagine
Yourself facilitating an important meeting. Everything is going along great until you hit agenda
item #3. Suddenly two members start arguing. Listening goes out of the window, as each person
pushes his or her ideas. The rest of the group got uncomfortable, as the two combatants become
more and more emotional. The discussion spin in circles and people get upset! What do you do
now? For starters remember that conflict is often the symptom of a problem with the task or the
process.
3.8.2 Comparing Arguments and Debates
All facilitators need to be attuned to the differences between a debate and an argument. Healthy
debate is essential. If a group doesn’t express differences of opinion, then it’s basically incapable
of making effective decisions. Dysfunctional arguments, on the other hand, lead to disaster.
Facilitators don’t want to limit debate; they just want to make sure it doesn’t become
dysfunctional.
3.8.3 Steps in Managing Conflict
When facilitating conflict, divide your strategies into two categories that mirror the steps in
conflict management.
Step 1: Venting: this involves listening to people so that they feel heard and so that any built-up
emotions are diffused. People are rarely ready to move on to solutions until emotional blocks
have been removed.
Step 2: Resolving the issue: choosing the right structured approach to get to solutions. This can
be a collaborative problem-solving activity, compromising, accommodating or consciously
avoiding.

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Let’s examine each step in more detail
Step 1: Venting People’s emotions

Facilitators need to vent emotions when the following are in evidence:
 People pushing their points of view without being at all receptive to the ideas of others
 People becoming angry, defensive and personal with each other
 Negative body language, like glaring and finger pointing
 Sarcastic or dismissive remarks
 People “yeah, butting” and criticizing each other’s ideas
 Quiet people “shutting down” to stay out of it
 Extreme ager to the point where relationships are damaged
When negative emotions are in evidence, facilitators need to act quickly so that these emotions
don’t poison the dynamics of the group. To vent conflict:
Slow things down: get the attention of the group by stopping the action and asking people to
slow down. You can use the excuse that you can’t take notes as quickly as people are talking.
Ask them to start over and repeat key ideas.
Stay totally neutral: never take sides or allow your body language to hint that you favour one
idea or one person over another.
Stay calm: maintain your composure and do not raise your own voice. Speak slowly with an
even tone. Avoid using emotional body language.
Revisit the norms: point out the existing norms and remind people of their prior agreements.
Engage the group in writing new norms.
Be assertive: move into the referee mode. Insist that people speak one at a time. Make them put
their hands up and stop people who interrupt others. Don’t stand by passively while people fight.
Raise awareness: on a clean sheet of flip chart paper record member ideas about the difference
between debates versus an argument. Ask them which one they want to have.
Make interventions: don’t ignore ineffective or dysfunctional behaviours.
Emphasize listening: paraphrase key points and ask others to do the same thing.

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Do a process check: stop the action any time emotions get out of hand or if the discussion is
spinning in circles. Intervene by saying: “I’m noticing that points are being made with
considerable emotion. What can we do to change the tone to create a healthy debate?”
Use a structured approach: use technique such as force-field analysis, multi-voting, systematic
problem solving, cause and effect analysis, etc., to interject needed objectivity. Don’t let any
discussion rage on without imposing structure and systematically capturing key ideas.
Use the flip chart: make note of key points so they aren’t lost and to prevent group members
from repeating points. Read back flip chart notes whenever you want to regain control.
Create closure: make sure that the debating is really going somewhere. Ask group members to
help summarize what has been agreed. Test these items for agreement, help the group create
action plans to insure implementation of key suggestion.
3.8.4 Listen- Empathize- Clarify-Seek Permission-resolve

Listen፡ Instead of arguing when you hear a point you disagree with, listen attentively to the
other person’s main points. Let people share their views without interruption. Look interested
and say things like: “Tell m more. That is interesting. Uh-huh, I am not sure I understand. could
you go over that again?”
Empathize: Accept the views of the other person even if you don’t agree with them. Let people
know you understand their feelings. Say: “I don’t blame you for feeling that way. I see what you
mean.” “I understand how you fell. I’m sure I’d feel the same way if …”
Clarify: Delve deeper to insure that you have a clear understanding of what the other person is
saying to you. Say: “Let me see if I’ve got it straight, what you are saying is …” “Is it possible
that … The idea you are proposing is …”
Seek permission: Tell your side after the other person has expressed all of his or her concerns
and feels clearly understood. Say: “Now that I understood your views, can I explain mine?” “It
seems that this would be a good time to bring up a few points you haven’t mentioned.”
Resolve the Issue: Once you have both heard each other, this is the time to start dealing with the
problem together.

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Step 2: resolving Issues
Here five basic approaches you can choose from, once emotions have been vented, in order to
resolve the underlying issue:
Avoid: ignore the conflict in the hope that it will go away. Maintain silence or try to change the
subject
Accommodate: ask people to be more tolerant and accept each other’s views. Ask them to try
getting along. This sometimes involves asking one person to give in to another person.
Compromise: look for the middle ground between highly polarized views. Ask each person to
give up some of what he or she wants, in order to get other items he or she thinks are more
important.
Compete: use force to make points and quell any conflicts. Go for a personal win even if the
other person feels like he or she has lost the argument.
Collaborate: face the conflict, draw people’s attention to it, surface the issues and resolve them
in a Win/win way by using a systematic problem solving approach.
The five Conflict Options: Pros and Cons

Each of the aforementioned approaches can work in specific situations. Facilitators need to
understand each one and choose the one that suits the situation.
Avoiding---when conflict is avoided, nothing gets resolved. Yet this is the right approach to use
if the issue at stake is very trivial, can’t be solved or will result in a total lose/lose situation for
the group. Avoiding is sometimes a wise interim strategy to give people a chance to calm down
before addressing issues. The main consequence of avoiding is that issues aren’t resolved and
there’s no creativity applied towards finding a solution. The problem remains to fester and can
crop up later. While avoiding has its place, groups become ineffective if they avoid too many
issues.

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Accommodating--This is a social response aimed more at keeping the peace than solving the
problem. This approach can involve asking everyone to just get along or asking one party in a
conflict to give in to the other party. Accommodating is the appropriate approach in situations in
which one person is only slightly interested in the issue, while the other party cares deeply. It’s
also the right approach to take when exploitation of the issue reveals that one party is wrong.
This style is most applicable to family and other social gatherings in which tolerance and civility
may be of greater importance than finding the right answer. The consequence of accommodating
is that the underlying issues are often left unexplored in the interest of keeping the peace.
Compromising--This is a mediated approach to managing conflict that is used when two people
or two groups have formulated strong positions. Neither party feels he or she can accept the
position of the other, so a neutral middle option needs to be developed. The good thing about
compromising is that it does yield a solution. The problem is that both parties must give up
points to get others. The process of compromise also tends to be adversarial. People push their
views in the hope that their poison prevails. At the end of a compromise, people feel that they’ve
both won and lost. They may also harbor negative feelings towards the other party because of the
adversarial nature of the process. Compromise leaves people feeling, “I’m going to have to live
with it!”
Competing---This is a strategy of defending oneself and arguing one’s point of view in order to
score a win over another person. Competing is a contest of wills in which the person who wins
does so at the expense of the other person. Competing has its place in those situations that are
clearly defined as competitive, such as sports and war. In these situations, the winner doesn’t
worry about the feelings of the loser. Since competing is combative and adversarial, facilitators
never use this approach to settle issues.
Collaborating -This approach strives to build consensus. It involves naming the issue and then
engaging group members in analyzing the facts of the current situation, generating creative ideas,
objectively sorting through potential solutions and agreeing on a course of action. Collaboration
relies on objective information. Everyone inputs ideas. People are encouraged to listen and build
on each other’s points. Solutions are generated through the use of non-competitive processes
such as brainstorming. The best course of action is determined by applying a set of criteria to the

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choices available. At the end of collaboration, everyone feels that he or she was heard and that
the final strategy reflects his or her thinking. While the final outcome may not be exactly what
they would have decided on their own, all members feel that they have had a say. Because
collaboration emphasizes working together for a win/win, it creates a consensus. At the end of a
conflict resolved through collaboration, people’s feelings about the solution are: “I can live with
it!”
The main drawback to collaboration is that it requires a great deal of time and thus may result in
a waste of energy if used on an insignificant issue.
Avoiding doesn’t deal with the Issue Use it in those 10% of situations, when issues
can’t be resolved
Accommodating just smoothes things over Use it only in those 5% of situations, when
keeping the peace is of more importance than
finding a solution
Competing divides groups and creates win/lose Facilitators should never let people compete!
0% applicability
Compromise seeks to find the middle ground Use it in those 20% of situations, when faced
with polarized choices
Collaboration gets people working together to This is the # I preferred approach for all
find the best solution for everyone facilitator. Use it in 65% of all conflict
situations
Collaboration encourages people to work together to objectively seek solutions that they can all
live with, because it’s consensual, it unites and generates solutions that everyone feels committed
to implementing. It is the superior conflict option.
Assumptions underlying collaboration: Collaboration is a superior way of solving a problem

during a meeting. However, a number of conditions need to be in place to insure a successful
outcome. Members must:
 have sufficient trust among themselves to open up and be supportive of each other when
necessary
 have a positive intent to work towards a win/win solution

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 have relevant information on hand to make a sound decision
 have the time to make this decision
 believe the topic is important enough to warrant spending the time it will take
3.8.5 Conflict Management Norms
Anytime you anticipate that a session has potential to become contentious or if the group has had
stormy meetings in the past, it’s important to create new norms specially targeted for conflict
situations. As with all other norms, these are created by the members, preferably at the start of
the session. Use the following questions to trigger the discussion:
 “What behaviours and rules should we adhere to if we find ourselves getting into serious
disagreements?”
 “What can we do to insure that we have a healthy debate instead of a heated argument?
Some sample norms targeted at conflict situations include:

 We’ll speak one at a time
 We’ll look at each other when we speak and acknowledge any valid points made by the
other person
 We’ll accept all ideas as valid when presented
 We’ll build on each other’s ideas
 We won’t dismiss any idea without really exploring it
 We’ll make sure everyone is heard --- not just a few people
 We won’t get emotional, argumentative or personal
 No one will attack anyone else
 If the discussion gets heated or we start going in circles, we’ll call a time- out and look at
how we are doing things
 No one will deliberately block the group from reaching a final solution by taking a
position
 We’ll take a systematic approach to resolving issues rather than just pushing personal
points of view

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Once conflict norms have been established, refer to them at strategic moments to encourage
effective behaviours. You can also use the conflict norms in the middle of a session as a mid-
point check.

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3. 9. The Skills of a Facilitator
3.9.1 Introduction
As mentioned above many programme managers lack the practical skills to effectively involve
diverse stakeholders in planning and managing development programmes. Most excellent
facilitators are not naturals at what they do—rather, they work hard to develop the knowledge,
attitudes, and skills needed to harness the power of groups. These people help diverse groups and
local people to learn from their collective experience, take joint actions, and develop their own
facilitation skills.
In Chapter 6 above, different facilitation skills and characteristics are explained in detail. Here
under we will see some additional skills of a facilitator including Active listening, summarizing,
synthesis, and conflict resolution.
3.9.2 Active Listening

Resolving a complaint or conflict requires that you can listen to and understand what the other
person is telling you. In order to be a good listener, you should practice active listening skills.
There are five key aspects of becoming an active listener including paying close attention,
Demonstrating physically that you are listening, checking for understanding, not interrupting,
and responding appropriately. A facilitator, to be successful in his/her facilitation work, should
practice and develop this skill.
3.9.3 Summarizing
Summarizing is giving a shortened version of something that has been said stating its main
points. A facilitator deals with many people at a time. Different individuals may raise different
ideas concerning a point of discussion. In this situation if a facilitator doesn’t have a
summarizing skill he couldn’t help participants reach at an agreement. So a good facilitator
needs to develop a good summarizing skill.
3.9.4 Synthesis
Synthesizing is developing a new unified whole which results from the combination of different
ideas, influences or objects. While a facilitator is dealing with managing different ideas or facts

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coming from different individuals, he/she is expected to develop a new unified whole to reach at
a solution. So synthesis is an important skill that a facilitator should develop.
3.9.5 Conflict resolution

Conflict is often the symptom of a problem with the task or the process. When to individuals or
groups got in to conflict, it is due to a conflicting interest on a task or a process that they
disagree. Under this kind of a situation, to help the conflicting individuals or groups get along
there should be a good facilitator having good facilitating skill with respect to conflict resolution.

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I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and put the letter of your choice on
the space provided
___ 1. Which one of the following is correct about communication?

A. It is a process B. It has a universally agreed upon single definition
C. Originated from the word ‘Communis’ D. It takes place accidentally
___ 2. Which one of the following differs from the rest with respect to the functions of
communication?
A. Information function B. Command function
C. Demotivating function D. Integrative function
___ 3. Intrapersonal communication:

A. occurs between two or more individuals B. Takes place in a group situation
C. It is not important D. Occurs within us
___ 4. Which one of the following elements of communication comes first in the process?
A. The message B. The communicator C. The message D The channel
II. Essay:
5. Communication occurs even without uttering words. Discuss.

__________________________________________________________________________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

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LG #27 LO #4-Conduct Training
Instruction sheet
 Conducting needs assessment
 Carrying-out preparation
 Conducting the implementation training
 Carrying out Evaluation
 Conduct need assessment to provide appropriate training
 Carry-out preparation to facilitate the training process
 conduct implementation to capacitate trainees based on organizational training guide line
 Carry-out evaluation to understand the outcome

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Information Sheet-4
4.1. Conducting Training Needs Assessment
4.1.1 Basic Concepts of Training
Training is about extending and developing individuals’ capabilities for better performance in
their jobs. It involves the transfer of new knowledge, skills and attitudes to develop and maintain
trainees’ competencies to perform specific roles at their work place.
There are many definitions in the literature. Here are some that may be helpful in summarizing
many of the ideas on training:
Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better (Jucious, 1963). It helps people
to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization facilitates
the employees' learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of
the organization's goals and objectives.
Van Dersal (1962) defined training as the process of teaching, informing, or educating people so that (1)
they may become as well qualified as possible to do their job, and (2) they become qualified to perform in
positions of greater difficulty and responsibility.
Education also provides knowledge, skills and attitudes and brings about changes in behaviour of
individuals. However, training differs from education.
Training Education
- Usually short term - Long term
- Narrowly focused & specific - Broadly focused
- Designed to meet a specific need - Aimed at preparing people and has immediate
application for the future.
Training may be necessary for many reasons:

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- When there is a discrepancy between an employee’s current performance and the required
standard of performance in his/her present position.
- When there are changes in a job description or the addition of new responsibility in the present
position.
- When an employee moves to a new position and acquires a new set of responsibilities.
- When some new way of doing something is developed.
Note that:
1. Training has a very clear purpose- it relates to improvements in performance for job / career,
specific tasks, productivity, etc. The term “training” is also used of less focused needs such as “
awareness creation” and “consciousness raising”
2. Training may be delivered through formal “teaching “ or by experiential means (learning by
doing through apprenticeship, work attachment, etc)
3. Training is provided in response to identified needs- hence it is generally given for specific
“target groups”, over a relatively short time span.
4.1.2 Benefits of Training
Well planned and effective training can have numerous potential benefits both for individuals
receiving training and the organizations and institutions in which they work.
From the individual trainees’ point of view, training increases job satisfaction through improved
performance, better pay, and higher prestige associated with higher productivity work. It also
increases their potential for promotion within the organisations in which they work, or in the
labor market in general.
There are also numerous organizational benefits associated with training.
- It leads to higher productivity and output through improved skills and job performances.
- It can increase the quality of output and customer satisfaction.
- It fosters the image of the organization as dynamic and forward looking, in turn attracting both
customers and potential recruits.
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- It can also help enhance and define better the roles and functions of employees within the
organization.
This can result in long term cost servings through better industrial relation, improved employee
morale, reduced absenteeism, etc.
Phases of training
Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number of steps
ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of the training
process affects the whole system, and therefore it is important for a trainer to have a clear
understanding about all phases and steps of the training process. In the broadest view, there are
three phases of a training process: planning, implementation, and evaluation.
Planning Phase
The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training needs assessment and
curriculum development - are very important.
Implementation phase
Once the planning phase of a training program is complete, then it is time to implement the
course. Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, or it is the process
of putting a training program into operation.
Evaluation phase
Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of activities in light
of their objectives. Raab et al. (1987) define training evaluation as "a systematic process of
collecting information for and about a training activity, which can then be used for guiding
decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training
components."

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4.1.3. Training Needs Assessment
4.1.3.1 What is Training Needs Assessment?
A training need is said to exist when a gap between the work performance of an individual or
organization and a desired level of competency is perceived. This suggests that a training need
can be described as a set of specific skills, knowledge, and attitudes, which are needed by
individuals in a given organization or occupational category in order to perform a particular job
or task more efficiently.
Training Needs Assessment refers to the process whereby such training needs are identified,
prioritized, and selected for specific action as part of a training program. The first step of the
training cycle is the identification of training needs. Training should never be provided unless
needs have been clearly analyzed and identified. Once a problem has been identified, a number
of solutions may exist. It is very important, however, to realize that training is not always the
answer.
Whenever a deficiency of knowledge, skill or attitude exists, it is all too easy to fall into the trap
of thinking that some form of formal training program is necessary. It is often better to decide
what we must not teach or need not teach, in order to determine what we must teach.
Gane (1972) also notes that before deciding to provide training, one should consider whether
changing the organization, the equipment or the job itself, or changing the people concerned by
the selection, would ease the problem, before the expensive, uncertain process of training is
embarked on to change people’s performance directly.
It might be asked why training is not a cure for all performance ills. The fact is that training has
high costs. Men and women are taken away from productive work and time and money are spent
on achieving objectives which might have been managed more cost- effectively.
Before Considering training, therefore, the situation should first be analyzed carefully in order to
decide whether a deficiency in performance can be rectified using non-training measures, such as
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making changes in human, technological, financial, organizational, social and information
systems. specific examples could include making changes to the working environment,
improving housing, transport or the general infrastructure or, in an organization, altering the
criteria used in selecting staff.
Training should only be carried out when it is believed that the same results, in terms of... job
performance, cannot be obtained so efficiently, effectively and economically by any other
strategy.
In the case of a new training program, TNA is deemed necessary at an early stage in the process
of planning. In the case of an existing program, it is used mainly for improving, modifying and
adapting it to the needs of a particular clientele. In either form, TNA is an integral part of the
training cycle, and an indispensable element in the overall planning process
Thus while the overall objective of identifying and bridging the “ gap” between “what is “ and
“what should be” may be the common denominator of most TNA programs, there is considerable
variation in the systematicity with which individual TNA undertakings are conceived and
implemented.
A systematic needs assessment is a comprehensive process involving:
 deciding the target population (beneficiaries)

 defining and identifying needs
 Measuring competency short comings
 Prioritizing between them
 Setting training objectives in the light of assessment findings.
4.1.3.2 Benefits of Needs Assessment
At the most general revel TNA helps planners decide which problems to address through training
and how to address them. But TNA also performs other specific functions within the training
cycle:
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 It provides the baseline data upon which all planning decisions are made.
 It assists the setting up of a results-oriented training program: the identification of needs
form the basis for analyzing the results of training.
 Needs assessment improves training effectiveness through better targeting: it sorts out
problems into those which require a training solution & those which need other types of
attention; it also identifies individuals who need training, and the type of training they
require.
 It helps to avoid some of the most common mistakes in training, eg. Spending
unnecessary time on teaching difficult, but relatively unimportant, material; or forgetting
to include highly essential, but easy to teach, material; teaching what trainees already
know, etc.
 TNA provides valuable insights and leads in respect of the design, development and
delivery of training programs:
(a) type of training to be undertaken
(b) the location of training
(c) the time- tabling of training activities
(d) their resource requirements (funds & staffing)
(e) Selection, preparation and adaptation of training materials and methods.
For instance, needs assessment results can shed valuable light on the appropriateness or
desirability of the use of computers in training.
4.1.3.3 Effective Needs Assessment
Several difficulties may hamper the successful formulation and implementation of needs
assessment in practice. While many problems arise out of the resource constraints faced by
training programs (time and cost dimensions), many difficulties are of conceptual or
organizational character. An awareness of these issues at an early stage will generally help the
design of needs assessment exercises.

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4.1.3.4 Conceptual Considerations (6)
As indicated earlier, needs may be conceived of as a gap between an existing situation (“What
is“) and another, under ‘ideal’ or ‘desirable’ conditions (“What should be”).
This relationship is illustrated below.
The Need Gap
What ought to be = Desirable Situation

Need = Difference, shortfall, Deficiency
What is = Actual situation
Applied to the needs of an individual trainee, for instance, this translates itself into identifying an
‘ability gap’ i.e. the deficiency in knowledge, skills and attitudes which present the attainment of
job performance at ’required standards’.
Training Needs as Ability Gap
What K, Ss and As What K, Ss & As are

does S/he have? required?
The Ability Gap (TN)
The advantage of this model is that it distinguishes between two possible courses of action when
the identification of ability gaps is completed.
 Fitting the employee to the job : by better selection or provision of training
 Fitting the job to the employee: by job redesign or providing job aids.
The distinction is also a useful reminder of the fact that not all perceived problems and
performance gaps are due to lack of training, eg. they may be caused by factors such as internal

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conflicts, low morale, etc. Attributing the right gap to appropriate training needs thus forms an
important part of the challenge in TNA.
Understanding Need Levels

Some serious problems arise at the level of measuring ‘ability gaps’. These arise partly out of
difficulties in establishing the base-line or existing levels of knowledge/attitude/skills for
individuals concerned, and partly in defining ‘desirable’ standards for trainers to achieve. To
illustrate these difficulties, the following schematic outline may be used to describe five levels of
individuals’ attainment:
a. Nil Knowledge level practically absent or negligible regarding some subjects
b. Deficiency Some general awareness, but insufficient knowledge

c. Sufficiency Fairly adequate knowledge or skill to perform, but short of efficient
performance.
d. Precision The required level to achieve precision & consistency in performance
e. Perfection Combining precision with speed in performance: the ‘ideal’ level of
attainment.
Problems of needs ‘perception’ are another common source of difficulty for undertaking TNA.
Some authors have distinguished between felt and unfelt needs. The former are those needs
which people do recognize, and the latter those which they do not. With recognized needs, there
is a stronger spur or urge to take action to bridge “gaps”. However, needs assessment is more
challenging when the knowledge of such need among trainees is missing or unreliable.

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Possible perceptions of Training Needs
Training Need
Unfelt need Felt need
1 2 3 4
1. Performance problem not perceived at all
2. Performance problem perceived, not aware that problem is due to lack of training
3. Performance problem perceived, aware of type of training needed, but unable to determine its
amount
4. Performance problem perceived, able to identify type and amount of training.
Category 4- ‘The fully aware’ participant
4.1.3.5 Approaches to Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is concerned with identifying the type of training needed, as well as those in
needs, down to the level of the individual organization and its constituent elements (departments,
units and individuals)
Three levels may be identified specifically
a. Organizational level needs: Concerns identifying the type of training needed by

organizations and /or units and departments within them.
b. Occupational level needs: involves identifying the attitudes and knowledge
refinements for carrying out a particular type of job or function
c. Individual level needs: deciding the organizational and occupational needs leads at the
question of who or which individuals are in need of what type of training.
The difference between these should, however, not be exaggerated. Since training is ultimately
about upgrading the performance capabilities of people and individuals, it may be argued even at
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the former two levels, needs are examined in abstraction from the individuals who may require
training. Thus there are clear intersections between these; nevertheless each represents a
particular angle or perspective from which identification of needs takes place.

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4.2. Carrying-out Preparation
4.2.1 How to Prepare for Training
There are several major steps in training session preparation. These areas include the
importance of promoting the program to top management, preparing training materials,
the training space, trainers, and trainees. The most successful training sessions are well-
planned and well-prepared.
4.2.2 Promote Training to Management
Lack of upper-management support and commitment is one of the top five reasons why training
is not as effective as it’s expected to be. Without top-level support, employees have less
incentive to retain information and apply it to their work. When top management shows interest
in the learning process, participants are more likely to apply new skills and knowledge to their
work. Upper management’s influence on how employees react to training cannot be
overestimated.
4.2.3 Prepare Training Materials
Preparing training materials in-house is more laborious than using prepackaged materials, but if
done right, it only has to be done once. With a logically organized filing and storage system, you
will have training sessions that are reusable and easy to update as equipment or procedures
change. You will have complete control over what is trained in your company.
According to the ASTD, preparation time varies for different training methods:
 Traditional classroom training requires about 40 hours of research and development for 1
hour of instruction.
 Computer-based training requires about 200 hours of research and development for 1

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 Video-based training requires anywhere from 40 to 120 hours of research and
development for 1 hour of instruction.
Web-based training requires anywhere from 40 to 200 hours of research and development for 1
4.2.4 Prepare the Training Space
Prepare classroom and hands-on training areas by checking for:

 Adequate seating arrangements
 Comfortable environmental conditions
 Sufficient lighting
 Required equipment, such as video player/monitor, slide projectors, flip charts and other
media, are available
Classroom preparation is extremely important. Even if your training space is a cordoned off part
of the plant, cafeteria, or other work area, you need to get it ready for training. For example,
make sure the area will accommodate the number of trainees for the session. If trainees have to
stand or if they are packed uncomfortably tight, they will not be as receptive as possible to the
material you present.
Make sure you have enough handouts or other materials for trainees. Ensure tools, equipment,
machines, or other props for demonstration or practice are working properly. The need for proper
preparation cannot be overstated. Trainees will gather first impressions in the first few minutes
of the session, and they will judge the material and the trainer on how prepared the training
environment is. Everything should run smoothly at the start of the session.
As the person in charge of training, it’s up to you to develop standard preparation procedures to
ensure a high standard of training. Every detail counts.

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4.2.5 Prepare Yourself
Each trainer has different qualifications, experience, expertise, and methodology of training.
Even trainers who are intimately familiar with a subject must properly prepare for the training
session. The following guidelines are designed to review the basics of preparing trainers for
learning sessions.
4.2.5.1 Practice Makes Perfect
Practice your presentation. The best instructors always do at least one dry run before the training
session. Practicing improves presentation skills and confidence levels. It allows trainers to
foresee any technical or logistical difficulties and prepare back-up plans for any contingencies.
4.2.5.2 Overcome Presentation Phobia
Many times, especially with lectures, trainers conduct sessions in front of large groups. Many
people are uncomfortable with public speaking even when they have a well-prepared
presentation.
Here’s a two-step process for overcoming stage fright:
(a) Prepare the mind by putting everything in perspective. Trainees are here to learn from
you, they want you to be a good trainer, because they’ll learn more that way. Focus on them and
making sure they understand the material. Don’t worry about your performance, you’re just the
messenger. Deliver the message. Accept the fact that you will be nervous and, in fact, put that
nervous energy into an energetic delivery.
(b) Prepare the body. Trainers need to familiarize themselves with the training environment,
including the lighting, temperature, and layout of the classroom. You can do this during your
practice session and also by arriving early on the day of training to check that
everything is in order. Drink nondairy fluids to soothe your vocal cords and prevent a dry or sore

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throat from extensive talking during the session. You may also want to learn relaxation
techniques and develop a standard ritual before training sessions to relax and prepare yourself.
4.2.6 Prepare Trainees
You’ve taken the time to prepare the training materials, the training space, and yourself. To
ensure the most productive training session, you also need to prepare trainees.
You want trainees to be highly motivated before they walk through the training doors. Consider
using some of these pretraining techniques to put trainees in a receptive frame of mind, get them
geared up for the topic, and prepare them to learn.
 Distribute a session outline or agenda before the meeting. Trainees who might be anxious
about training will be put at ease when they know ahead of time what will be covered.
And since knowledge is power, all trainees benefit from knowing what’s on the agenda.
You benefit when trainees enter the room already thinking about the topic.
 Distribute presession activities. Along with the outline, include fun and simple open-
ended questions or situations, such as these:
 General questions:
 What do you already know on the training topic?
 Why do you think this training is needed?
 How will this training benefit you and the company?
 Case studies involving the upcoming training followed by debriefing

questions:
 In this case, what would you do?
 What would you have done differently than the characters?
Ask trainees to be prepared for a brief class discussion on the case study. Take a
few minutes at the beginning of the session to ask trainees for their answers.
 Distribute an expectation questionnaire. Via survey, e-mail, group meeting, etc., ask what
trainees expect from the session. Use the results to customize the session as much as
possible to the audience while still meeting all training objectives.

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4.3. Conducting Training
4.3.1Training Techniques
In principle, there are a wide variety of techniques that trainers can employ to conduct their
courses. In practice, however, choice is constrained by such factors as trainer’s confidence and
competence, and resources available for training.
This section outlines the pedagogic features of a number of common techniques. These are
classified into three groups, reflecting their broad common areas of functionality. Some methods
are most suited for presenting information, others for encouraging participant involvement, and
yet others are best as activities outside the training room.
4.3.2 Presentational Techniques
Most training programmes will involve, albeit to varying degrees, the transmission of new
information and knowledge to trainees. Introducing the course programme and its broad
objectives is one such general example, teaching specific knowledge (such as principles of
macroeconomics, cost benefit analysis, sampling techniques, etc) is another.
Presentational techniques are didactic for most part, i.e, they are one way communications from
the trainer/tutor to learners. They economize both on space and time given their ability to put
across a large amount of material to sizeable audiences in limited periods of time. Their
drawbacks relate to the passive nature of their approach to instruction, their limited success in
arousing participants’ interests, sustaining their concentration, and achieving satisfactory
memory retention rates.
4.3.2.1 Lecture
Lecture is one of the most common forms of presenting information to an audience, particularly
of a large size. Communication is mostly one way: while the lecture goes on the audience listen

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and (normally) take notes. It is customary to defer questions (Other than those with a clarifying
nature) to the end of the session.
Lecture allows a large volume of material to be covered in a relatively short-period of time. This
explains its proven appeal to situations when time considerations are over-riding (as in intensive
training courses). The effectiveness of lecture can be boosted if it is accompanied by
appropriate visual support and written material. For instance, the provision of summary notes
and handouts (see Chapter 4, Section 4.3) can assist learners create a mental structure of the
material presented to them, usefully direct their concentration, and moderate the pressure on
them to take notes.
The main difficulty arises from the didactic nature of teaching. Lecture does not address the
needs of the individual learner; nor does it provide opportunities for the audience to participate -
thus keeping them as passive listeners. Besides, most people are unable to concentrate for more
than a relatively short period. Thus assimilation tends to be haphazard and selective: parts of the
material may even be missed altogether or inaccurately recorded. Moreover, in the absence of
feedback it is difficult to judge whether or how much of the material covered is actually taken in.
Retention rates too tend to be alarmingly low: unless possibilities are provided for discussion,
practice, simulation or activities of the like, most of what is ‘heard’ in the lecture room typically
tends to be rapidly forgotten.
4.3.2.2 Demonstration
A demonstration is a classroom technique in which the trainer illustrates a certain technique or

skill under actual or simulated conditions.
As with lecture, demonstration is a presentation technique, intended to impart new knowledge

(skills in this case) to learners. In a demonstration, however, participants have the added
advantage of actually seeing the results of more abstract theories and concepts.

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A demonstration may be conducted ‘live’ with the trainer performing the task in the presence of
the trainees (sometimes followed by trial sessions). Or, it may be assisted by visuals (slides,
film, video, etc), to illustrate how the task may be carried out under specified circumstances.
The main advantage of demonstration is that it shows learners how a task may be actually
conducted. In this sense, it can be both ‘convincing’ (raising learners’ confidence in the trainer’s
ability), and alerting (making them aware of the practical dimensions of their training). The
visual aspect of demonstration also represents an improvement over lecture in that it enables
better assimilation and retention rates to be achieved
The advantage of demonstration in teaching a range of ‘mechanical’ jobs and skills should be
evident (eg packaging, gardening, crop protection, fence-building, driving, painting and
decorating, etc). However, it can also be used to impart practical skills (of not always very high
intellectual level) in a number of other different contexts:
(Calculation techniques: the trainer can take time to demonstrate, through appropriate examples
and exercises, calculation techniques such as shadow prices, farm budgets, policy analysis
matrix, etc)
(Computer sessions: demonstrations are also very common for introducing new software (data
base, spreadsheet, survey analysis) or illustrating their usage for particular purposes (eg
electronic mail) - see Section 5 below.
Much of the steps which raise the effectiveness of lecture (see above) also apply to a
demonstration session (pace of presentation, its structure and overview, the quality of speech and
mannerism, etc).
However, for demonstration to be particularly effective, a few more points should be observed:
(Given its practical angle, it may be helpful to actually start a demonstration session with
common and popular mistakes: showing how not to do things may be as, if not more, instructive
as showing how to do them.

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(Demonstration sessions must provide ample opportunities for questions from participants-
to clarify ambiguities, to relate points raised to their own experiences, and to consolidate their
comprehension in general.
(Ideally they must be followed by trial sessions to give trainees an opportunity to practice
their observed instructions.
4.3.2.2 Participatory Techniques
As implied by their collective name, participatory techniques involve learners in the process of
learning, enable them to air their viewpoints, and encourage them to draw from their own
backgrounds and experiences in the course of training.
Moreover, whereas presentational methods involve participants mostly in ‘hearing’ about, and at
best ‘seeing’ the results of, new knowledge and information, many participatory techniques
involve them in active or experiential learning and ‘learning and ‘learning by doing’ (see Chapter
2, Section 4).
As we shall see, their possible drawbacks are mostly to do with their relatively time consuming
nature, preparation requirements and costs, and less direct trainer control over their execution.
Brainstorming: brainstorming is a spontaneous and none-evaluative technique of generating

innovative and creative ideas by the facilitator and the group.
Symposium: A Symposium is a meeting where speakers deliver short addresses without regard
for feedback from the group
Case Study: (A description of a real or imaginary yet realistic situation. a case study is not
simulation)
Case study involves detailed examination of a specific situation. The situation or experience
placed under scrutiny may be real or hypothetical, yet must be carefully chosen to reflect on, and
closely relate to, the core of the training program.
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In studying a case trainees develop skills to analyse to situation and to think through the
consequences by applying (or failing to apply) relevant principles or practices. Thus the
methodological strength of case study is that it combines practical/problem solving approaches to
learning with detailed, in-depth analysis of particular situations.
By ‘bringing in a chunk of reality’ into the classroom, case studies are best used as
complementary activities to other training methods. For instance, whereas lecture is most
effective in communicating basic information on a subject (not much of which is subsequently
retained!), case study is best used as a supplementary activity for the application of that
knowledge.
Careful selection of case studies can thus make an important contribution to:
 the development of understanding
 synthesis of ideas; and
 critical ability
Historically, the use of case study has reflected its overall appeal in dealing with real situations,
practical problems and policy decisions rather than with overarching development of theoretical
abstraction. No wonder that its use has been widely associated with such professions as business
studies, medicine, social work and law. Today, of course, case study is a powerful and versatile
teaching tool used in training contexts in a large number of disciplines including agriculture
Buzz Group: (Buzz group is a small discussion group which may be asked to produce ideas on
a narrow or an open-ended topic within a specified time limit)
This technique is a modified form of brainstorming, which aims to generate discussion and to
lead to new ideas and solutions on the basis of small group discussions.

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A buzz group normally consists of about 5-6 members. The group may be asked to produce ideas
on a narrow or an open-ended topic within a specified time limit. It is customary for the group to
appoint a reporter to convey their findings at the end of their deliberations.
The range of topics assigned for buzz group discussion may vary widely. Some examples are
given below:
 thinking about applications of a theory
 raising questions
 drawing a list of issues
 identifying the causes of a particular problem.
This approach can also be used occasionally in the lecture room, where the lecturer stops for a
few minutes and asks small groups of people sitting next to each other to deliberate on a
particular issue. One advantage of this approach - apart from breaking the monotony of the
lecture and injecting a sense of participation - is to check learners' understanding of particular
issues before proceeding to other, more complicated, ones.
Buzz group, however, differs from brainstorming in two respects:
 Smaller, more informal nature: as stated above, a buzz group consists of a small group
of participants 'buzzing' together for a relatively short period of time (sometimes a few
minutes).
 Discussions: contrary to brainstorming, where criticism is deferred until after ideas have
been pulled together, in the buzz group, discussion features an important part of the
process of in-group exchange of ideas.
Group Discussion: (verbal interaction between two or more participants in a learning situation.
Discussions may form part of forum, panel, question-and -answer session, syndicate, etc.)
Discussion allows trainees to exchange ideas among themselves and/or with the trainer. It
stimulates interest and, if conducted skillfully, can encourage participants to draw on their own
experiences to contribute to the topic under discussion. Used at an early stage in the course,

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discussion can also help break the ice and to provide participants an opportunity to practice self-
expression.
Discussions may be held either in a structured or in an informal manner.
Role Play: (Role Play is a training technique in which participants play certain roles in an
informal and non-theatrical but realistic manner. It may be structured or spontaneous)
Role play is a training technique in which participants ''act out'' hypothetical or real life situations
in front of an audience. The trainees are given necessary background information and some ideas
about how to organise their roles. There is no set dialogue or script: the parts are made up as the
activity proceeds. The group or audience (or both) then discuss the role play and its implications
for the problem under consideration.
Most people are familiar with the idea of role play from a passive position (watching plays and
TV, observing or recalling children's games, and so on). Yet, involving them in active role plays
in training can positively induce their interest, arouse emotional involvement, and develop their
spontaneity and problem solving skills.
Specifically, role plays can be used to:

 Change or develop attitudes (eg putting an aid recipient in the shoes of the donor, or vice
versa - the so-called reverse role play
 Develop negotiation skills (as in project funding submissions)
 Explore delicate human relations (eg in project management and monitoring)
 Bring out the social and political environments of projects, the questions of human
constraints to implementation, multiple and often conflicting objectives, the identification
of externalities, hidden costs and benefits and the wider effects of a project.
 Foster 'learning by doing', by making mistakes (in the face of inadequate data and time
pressure) and benefiting from subsequent feedback. There is also scope for capturing the
role play scene on video for feedback

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The drama aspect in role plays enables the purely intellectual experience gained in most other
discussion techniques to be extended into an emotional experience as well. This can make role
plays a valuable support activity in many training contexts.
Role plays can take two forms:
a. Spontaneous role plays: group members discussing a situation may highlight a problem area
(such as those encountered in interviewing beneficiary farmers for collection of monitoring data
in a project area). Two members of the group may than act out the interview, attempting to
demonstrate how the problem arises, and how it may be resolved.
a. Structured role plays: a more common and possibly more useful type of role play. This is
based on prepared material (written, video, audio or a combination of these) with structured
goals. The necessary information must be provided for the participants (unless one role player
has knowledge of a hidden agenda). In this case, participants need sufficient time for studying
the material and for preparing their role plays.
Workshop (is a meeting organized with the principal objective of promoting experiential
learning and producing identifiable results/solutions to problems)
Seminar: (A Seminar is a meeting arranged to share research outcome of a particular project

through lectures, papers, reports and discussions. It is conventional to have some discussion
leaders)
4.3.2.3 Exploratory Techniques
Other than the classroom techniques discussed in previous pages, trainers may also use a number
of other outside activities to enhance and enrich the process of training.
In practice these can take a variety of forms. However, three of the most common methods are
discussed below:
 Assignment
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 Project
 Field trip/visit
The attractions they can offer as supplementary training activities are not difficult to see:
 The reinforcement of classroom learning
 Assessment and evaluation both by the learner and trainer
 Feedback to the trainer
 Increased attention to the needs of separate individuals and groups within the class
Field Trip/Visits: (It enables participants in a program to travel to the field to see projects,
operations, systems and structures and relate them to the classroom learning experiences)
Field trips or visits enable learners to see at first hand, or try for themselves, some of the things
they have learnt in a training course.
To be effective and successful, field trips or visits need to be incorporated into the training
programme with a clear sense of purpose. This in turn requires some effort on the part of the
trainer:
 to communicate clearly the objectives of the activity from the start (or in advance),
 to plan and administer it effectively; and
 to provide ample opportunities for discussion and debate afterwards.
Not so infrequently, however, visits and field trips turn out to be mere 'social' events. The
possibility of this inherent drawback, which faces even the more serious and well though-out
outside activities, cannot be taken lightly even by the more competent trainers.
Assignments
Assignments are probably the most familiar form of out-or-class activities. Most trainees will
have a good idea of what assignments are and what purposes they may serve from their school
days. In the professional, adult, learning context, too, the use of assignments can be usefully
explored to
 reinforce individual learning
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 to provide continuity between different sessions
 to enrich and extend learning beyond the confines of classroom
Assignments can take a variety of forms, among which some of the most important are:
Reading, Writing, and Exercise.

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4.4. Carrying out Evaluation
4.4.1. What is Evaluation?
It is possible to find almost as many definitions of evaluation as there are writers in the field.
One broad definition, proposed by the United Nations Joint Inspection unit is as follows:
Evaluation is a process which attempts to determine as systematically and objectively as possible

the relevance, effectiveness and impact of activities in the light of their objectives, i.e. their aims
and purposes.
Evaluation, however, can also be defined in more limited contexts. Evaluation goes on at
different levels and, depending on the level at which it takes place, may have very different uses,
audiences, information sources, and focal points.
Definition of Training Evaluation

Most training activities exist in a larger context of projects, programmes and plans.
Training Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and analysing information for and about
a training activity which can be used for planning and guiding decision making as well as for
assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training components. It is also used to
determine the immediate results of the activity.
Process implies that it must be undertaken before, during and after training
It is concerned with value judgment. It should not be confused with assessment, which measures
the performance of individual learners.
Tyler, who developed the objectives approach to curriculum design, sees evaluation as a
mechanism for the analysis of the effectiveness of the objectives. He states that evaluation is
essentially the process of determining to what extent the training objectives are actually being
realised by the program of curriculum and instruction.
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4.4.2. Benefits of Evaluation
Feedback from evaluation work brings substantial benefits in terms of improved training and
curriculum planning decisions.
It may be used to feed into policy decision, to act as a springboard for further research, as
grounds for continued or discontinued founding for public information
4.4.3. Types of Training Evaluation
4.4.3.1. Evaluation for Planning
Training needs assessment is a tool for evaluation for planning. It provides the baseline date
upon which all planning decisions are made. This information will enable to make critical
decisions regarding formulation of training objectives and course content, etc.
4.4.3.2. Evaluation of Methods and Materials
There are many instructional methodologies and types of materials from which to choose.
However, not all are equally effective for reaching all types of trainees or for teaching specific
content.
Each instructional method/material has specific characteristics and advantages and depending on
such factors as types of trainees, subject matter being taught. It is therefore suggested that all
instructional methods intended to be used should be evaluated for their effectiveness with the
target audience.
4.4.3.3. Process Evaluation
Process evaluation is conducted to detect or predict defects in the procedural design of a training
activity during the implementation phase. Key elements of a training activity are monitored in a
systematic manner with the goal of identifying potential problems before they become serious.
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It is also used to measure trainee progress toward the objectives set during the planning phase.
Process evaluation is a tool to help improve the efficiency and effectiveness of a training
program. The overall process evaluation strategy identifies and monitors on a continuous basis
the potential sources of failure and also tells about trainee progress towards achieving training
objectives.
Process evaluation is conducted periodically throughout the duration of the training. It focus on
anything that occurs during implementation that has an important effect on success of the
training activity. It examines such contributing factors as:
 change in trainee knowledge, attitude or skill
 effectiveness of training methods and materials
 interpersonal relationship among staff
 the performance of trainers
 communication channels
 logistics
 the extent to which people involved in, and affected by, the training activity are in
agreement with its intent.
 adequacy of the resources, the physical facilities, staff and the time schedule
Both formal and informal methods are commonly used in process evaluation. formal method
include KSA tests (exam) and instruments that may require trainees, instructors, administrative
staff, and service personnel, to give their opinions on various aspects of the training activity.
Informal methods such as round table discussions, and individual interviews can also used. There
are hard and fast rules on selection of methods. Remember that process evaluation is conducted
so as to have some idea of the progress and to identify potential problems before the end of the
training activity. If done early, there will be time to make adjustments and collection.

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4.4.3.4 Terminal Evaluation
The primary objective of terminal evaluation is to determine the degree to which the intended
training objectives and goals have been met and to relate these findings to evaluation information
collected earlier in the training process. It is conducted at the end of the training activity.
The major focus of a terminal evaluation is learner performance. Learner performance can be
assessed in various ways. One way is by comparing pre-training measurements with post-
training measurements. In this method, the trainer will present results as learning gains. Another
way is by comparing the objectives of the training activity with what has actually been learnt.
Trainers who resort to the latter procedure tend to concentrate on full competency. The first
method is closely related to norm-referenced evaluation while the second is known as criterion-
referenced evaluation.
Terminal evaluation focuses on many of the same areas as process evaluation, including
organisation, facilities and resources. Terminal evaluation, however, tends to concentrated more
on trainees overall impression of the training activity.
By far the most common method used in terminal evaluation is to test knowledge, attitudes and
skills. Test results are then compared either with pre-determined standards (as specified in
objectives) or with entry level knowledge (as measured by a pretest).
As in process evaluation, training activity evaluation forms completed by trainees can also
provide valuable information on such organizational factors as length, focus, facilities and
resources.
This means that two general methods are used in terminal evaluation:
 Actual measurement of change in trainee KSA or competence, and

 Measurement of trainee perceptions about the training activity.

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Many training activities use trainee perceptions as the base for this evaluation. This kind of
evaluation information can reveal a great deal about a training activity. Trainee perceptions can
be very valuable in pinpointing reasons for training activity success or failure.
Potential problem areas about which trainees should be asked include:

 training activity organisation and management
 physical resources and facilities
 structure and pattern of the course
 appropriateness of objectives
 content
 instructors
 training methods and materials
4.4.3.5 Follow-up Evaluation
Follow-up evaluation is a method of assessing changes in on-the-job behaviour (i.e. improved

performance) as a result of training efforts. It attempts to measure the adequacy of a training
activity in preparing individuals for job tasks in real life and trying to discovery areas where it
can be improved. It is a valuable tool for gathering information on the strengths and weaknesses
of a training activity from those who are in the best position to judge former trainees and their
employers. It provides feedback from there two groups on how well the training has prepared
students or trainees for actual job, and tells the trainee which aspect of the training activity might
benefit from improvement.
A follow-up evaluation focuses on measuring change. Development projects, programmes, and

training activities are all efforts designed to produce changes, and the change desired is outlined
in the stated goals and objectives.
In measuring change (impact), a follow-up evaluation of a training activity would concentrate on

answering such questions as:
 Are trainees actually using their newly acquired KSA?

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 Do employers notice any differences in trainee behaviour?
 How do employers feel about the changes in trainee KSA?
 Do trainees feel more confident and better equipped?
The methods most commonly used in a follow-up education are:

 Trainee follow-up survey
 Employer survey
Questionnaires, telephone interviews, and personnel visits are all valuable tools which can be
used in surveys.
Collecting information from trainees who have participated in a training activity can provide
valuable insights into the strengths and weaknesses of a training program. Such information is
extremely helpful in preparations for future training activities.
The most commonly used information collection technique involves sending out mail
questionnaires. Many trainers who have adopted the technique of mailed follow-up
questionnaires have learned that the biggest problem they encounter in carrying out a trainee
follow-up involves the low response rate of trainees. It is very difficult to draw valid conclusions
when only a small fraction of former trainees filled out and returned the questionnaires. Some
suggestions on how to develop an effective follow-up instrument and increase the rate of return
questionnaires sent out are the following:
 Prepare trainees before graduation concerning the purpose of follow-up studies and the
kinds of information they will be expected to provide.
 Use short and uncomplicated questionnaires and ask only necessary and relevant
questions.
 Provide prepaid return mail
 Avoid personnel information as much as possible
 Place difficult questions cost
 Use colored or unusual types of questionnaires to attract their attention.
 Include a personalized cover letter

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Employers will usually cooperate and provide accurate evaluation of the trainee or employee and
the changes they can see as a result of participation in the training program. They are also in a
position to know what changes are coming in the work place.
Again, a mailed questionnaire is the most common instrument used to collect information and
the typical low response rate is a problem with this method. One additional factor to keep in
mind is that such forms should go through proper channels. Even if you know the supervisor or
employer of a graduate trainee, it is a good idea to send the form to a higher authority with a
request to pass it on to the trainee’s immediate supervisor.
4.4.4. Using Evaluation Results
You have reached the end of your training activity. What is next? well, if you have decided to
stay in the training field, you are back to where you started planning. But planning now is a bit
different. You have gained valuable experience and previously collected evaluation information
in an attempt to find problems and weaknesses in the earlier plan. Once this is done you are
ready to develop a new plan which incorporates changes based on rational, objective
interpretation, of what you have learned during the course of the training activity recently
completed. Information gained through evaluation activities provides a sound basis upon which
to base decisions regarding possible changes and, modifications in training activity design. In
fact, it is often said that the sole purpose of evaluation is to facilitate the planning and execution
of change. Regardless of how well an evaluation is conducted, it has little use unless the results
are used.
Therefore, all the evaluation information collected previously should be used for making
planning decisions about the next training activity.

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I. Write ‘True’ for the correct statement and ‘False’ otherwise
__________ 1. Training is about extending and developing individuals’ capabilities for better
performance in their job
__________ 2. Education is a short term activity compared to training
II. Match the terms in column A with the appropriate ones in column B
A B
___ 1. Phases of training A. Desirable situation
___ 2. TNA suggests B. Fairly adequate
___ 3. What ought to be C. Implementation
___4. Sufficiency D. Performance problem not perceived at all
___ 5. Unfelt need E. A set of specific skills
F. Approach to Needs Assessment

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

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LG #28 LO #5-Record and Document Data
Instruction sheet
 Developing data collecting formats
 Collecting and organizing appropriate data
 Documenting and reporting collected and organized data
 Data collecting formats are developed
 Appropriate data are collected and organized
 Collected and organized data are documented and reported

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Information Sheet-5
5.1. Developing data collecting formats
5.1.1 Introduction
In Agricultural Extension different activities are performed and various interactions are
undertaken with different stakeholders. This activities and interactions are ultimately reported to
relevant stakeholders to facilitate future activities. For the reports to be prepared data on different
activities are first collected organized and analyzed. This section deals with issues related to data
which would be implemented in agricultural extension.
5.1.2 Definition of Data
Data is any information that has been collected, observed, generated or created to validate
findings.
In social development, when somebody collects data for their own purposes, directly from the
respondent, it is called primary data. Sometimes, however, information can be used for
planning, monitoring or evaluation that has been collected by other people or organisations for
their own purposes. This is known as secondary data. Secondary data might include
government statistics, NGO reports, newspaper or website articles, hospital records, research
studies, evaluations conducted by other agencies, and community records – to name just a few.
Secondary data is often a valuable source of information that can supplement other forms of data
collection. (INTRAC, 2017)
5.1.3 Data collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all

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fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods
vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.
The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data
analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been
posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative),
accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of
appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have the
best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be not be
able to complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough
planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task
successfully. Data collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed by the
selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument
to collect the data from the selected sample. ttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846997
(Access date 31 Aug 2022)
5.1.4 Data Collecting Formats/Tools
Many different methodologies can be used for data collection and analysis. The list can appear
quite daunting. However, most methodologies are based around the same set of basic tools.
A list of basic data collection tools includes the following.
5.1.4.1 Interviews:
Interviews are probably the most common tool used in planning, monitoring and evaluation.
They can be carried out with one person at a time (individual interviews) or groups of people.
They can be administered formally or informally. They can be carried out face-to-face or through
remote media such as telephone. Interviews can also be conducted through written questions via
letters or email. Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or open-ended. Structured

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interviews are based around a core set of questions that are always asked in the same order.
Semi-structured interviews also contain a core set of questions, but allow the interviewer to ask
supplementary questions, or change the order in which questions are asked.
5.1.4.2 Focus group discussions
Focus group discussions (FGDs) are facilitated discussions, held with a small group of people
who have specialist knowledge or interest in a particular topic. They are used to find out the
perceptions and attitudes of a defined group of people. FGDs are typically carried out with
around 6-12 people, and are based around a short list of guiding questions, designed to probe for
in-depth information. FGDs are often used to solicit the views of those who would not be willing
or able to speak up at larger group meetings. They may also be used to access the views of
minority or disadvantaged groups, such as women, children or people with disabilities.
5.1.4.3 Observation
At its most simple, observation involves ‘seeing’ things – such as objects, processes,
relationships, events – and formally recording the information. There are different types of
observation. Structured or direct observation is a process in which observations are recorded
against an agreed checklist. Expert observation is usually carried out by someone with specific
expertise in an area of work, and involves the expert observing and recording information on a
subject. Observation may also be carried out as a participatory exercise. Where this is the case
the intended beneficiaries of a project or programme are involved in planning an observation
exercise, observing, and discussing findings.
5.1.4.4 Photography and video:
Photographs and videos show still or moving images. Photographs can be used on their own, but
are more often accompanied by written captions, providing additional information. Videos are
often accompanied by a commentary. The use of photography and video has become
increasingly common within M&E over recent years. This is partly because of improvements in

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mobile phone technology, which has increasingly enabled people to produce cheap, high quality
audio-visual products.
5.1.4.5 Case studies and stories of change
A case study is not a data collection tool in itself. It is a descriptive piece of work that can
provide in-depth information on a topic. It is often based on information acquired through one or
more of the other tools described in this paper, such as interviews or observation. Case studies
are usually written, but can also be presented as photographs, films or videos. Case studies often
focus on people (individuals, households, communities). But they can also focus on any other
unit of analysis such as locations, organisations, policies or the environment. Stories of change
are similar to case studies. However, they have a specific focus on change, and are only usually
developed after a project or programme has started.
5.1.4.6 Surveys and questionnaires
These are designed to collect and record information from many people, groups or organisations
in a consistent way. A questionnaire is a form containing questions. It may be a printed form or
one designed to be filled in online. Questionnaires may be administered in many different ways.
A survey, by contrast, is normally a large, formal exercise. It typically consists of three different
aspects: an approved sampling method designed to ensure the survey is representative of a wider
population; a standard questionnaire that ensures information is collected and recorded
consistently; and a set of analysis methods that allow results and findings to be generated.
An additional set of tools comes under the heading of community participatory tools. This
includes exercises such as mapping, ranking, timelines, calendars and diagrams. These can be
used as tools for collecting data from community level, and are often included as basic tools in
M&E exercises. However, they are more properly used as participatory methods of data
collection and analysis that also allow communities to analyze their own situation and make their
own decisions.

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5.2. Collecting and Organizing Appropriate Data
5.2.1 Data Collection
Once the method(s) and tools have been developed, the data collection can start. It is also
recommended to organize training with the data collection team(s) on the methodology. The
training should cover in detail each data collection tool that will be used and include practical
exercises of how to implement them.
Developing a data collection guide with clear instructions for the enumerators is a useful
reference tool, both during the training and after, for the actual data collection Taking these steps
will ensure that the collected data will be accurate with a minimum amount of error. In certain
cases, however, conducting a full training is not feasible due to time and resource constraints,
and having a data collection guide can be an important reference.
5.2.2 Data entry
The data collected needs then to be transferred onto a computer application, such as Microsoft
Word or Excel. Having the data in an electronic format will facilitate the data clean-up and data
analysis.
For qualitative data, the first step in the data entry process is transferring all the interview, focus
group and observation notes to a Word document for conducting content analysis.
5.2.3 Analyzing data
Once the data has been collected and cleaned, these are ready to be analyzed. Data analysis
makes it possible to assess whether, how and why the intervention being monitored and/or
evaluated is on track towards achieving, or has achieved, the established objectives.

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5.3. Documenting and Reporting Collected and Organized Data
5.3.1 Presenting Findings
Data collection and analysis efforts aim to generate, and make available, relevant information for
decision-making and the management of the intervention being monitored or evaluated. All data
visualizations should summarize the collected data and communicate the findings obtained in a
simple and intuitive way for the reader.
5.3.1.1 How to visualize findings
Step 1: Identify the data visualization goal

Before practitioners start designing any data visualization, the following questions should be
asked:
 What is the data trying to communicate?
 How will it engage or persuade the audience to act upon the information being presented?
 What is the takeaway message the audience should be left with?
It is important to be clear about the goal(s) of presenting data visually in order to design it
correctly. Defining the message is a crucial step in the process, and the graphic should reinforce
who the organization or intervention is and what it does.
Step 2: Know the audience

Knowing the audience means asking what the audience already knows, what additional
information they wish to have to learn and how much detail they require to understand the
message being conveyed.
Step 3: Think about how to visualize the story

Once the data collected is cleaned and has been analyzed, a more precise idea about what
findings to present should emerge.

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I. Choose the best answer and put the letter of your choice on the space provided
___ 1. Which of the following is correct about data?

A. When data is collected directly from the respondent it is called secondary data
B. Primary data is collected from secondary source
C. Secondary data includes reports
D. Primary data supplements other forms of data
___ 2. Which of the following differs from the rest?

A. Interview B. Observation C. Questionnaire D. Data
II. Match the items in column A with the appropriate ones in column B
A B
___ 1. Focus group discussion A. Transferring to computer
___ 2. Seeing things B. Qualitative data
___ 3. Data entry C. Data collection tool
D. Observation
Define the following terms

1. Data
2. Data collection

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Author/Copyright
Reference Materials
Books:
A. W. van den Ban and H. S. Hawkins, 1996. Agricultural Extension. Blackwell Science Ltd.,
Osney Mead.
C. Leeuwis, 2004, Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural Extension. 3rd
Edn., Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK.
P, Anandajayasekeram, Puskur R, Sindu Workneh and Hoekstra D. 2008. Concepts and practices
in agricultural extension in developing countries: A source book. IFPRI (International Food
Policy Research Institute), Washington, DC, USA, and ILRI (International Livestock Research
Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.
V.Hoffmann, Gerster-Bentaya, M., Christinck, A., and Lemma, M., 2009, Rural Extension:
Basic Issues and Concepts, (Vol 1), 3rd Edn. Margraf Publishers GmbH, Scientific Books.
Web addresses

Author/Copyright
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ministry of Labor and Skills wishs to extend thanks and appreciation to the many
representatives of TVET instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time and
expertise to the development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).

Author/Copyright
The experts who developed the learning guide
No Name Qualification Educational Region Phone number E-mail
background
1 Dr. Sileshi DVM, MSc Veterinary Kombolcha/Amhara 0920480599 [email protected]
Aregahagn Medicine
2 Dr. Chemere DVM, MSc Veterinary Alage/Federal 0913628734 [email protected]
Ayenew Candidate Medicine
3 Dr. Addisu DVM, MSc Veterinary Holeta/ Oromia 0910281160 [email protected]
Bedashu Medicine
4 Dr. Degu DVM, MSc Veterinary Alage/Federal 0910525106 [email protected]
Fitehanegest Medicine
5 Dr. Dirshaye DVM, MSc Veterinary Alage/Federal 0916497739 [email protected]
Kebede Candidate Medicine
6 Mr. Amsalu MSc RDAE Alage/Federal 0911353949 [email protected]
Bedasso
7 Mr. Derebe Tesema BVSc, MSc Animal Alage/Federal 0982253307 d
Candidate health

Author/Copyright

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ANIMAL HEALTH

Module Title: - Applying Agricultural Extension

Introduction to the Module .......................................................................................................... 1

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1.1 The concept of Agricultural extension

1.1.1 Historical roots and evolving conceptions of extension

1.1.1.1 Origins, early meanings and international terminology

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1.1.1.2 Evolving definitions

Enlightenment definitions of extension

‘Extension is an ongoing process of getting useful information to people (the communicative

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Intervention definitions of extension

‘Extension is helping behaviour consisting of – or preceding – the transfer of information,

‘Extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce

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1.2.1 Historical evolution of agricultural extension

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1.2.1.2 Immediate post-independence

Characteristics of the period between the late 1950s and 1960s:

 institutionalization of many national extension services

1.2.1.3 Extension in the 1970s

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1.2.1.4 Extension in the 1980s

Extension during this period was characterized by:

 increased emphasis on participatory approaches

1.2.1.5 Extension in the 1990s

Extension in this decade bore these characteristics:

 new approaches were piloted in an environment of fiscal stringency

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1.2.1.6 Current scenario: Diversity and institutional pluralism

 It encourages wider participation in providing resource support and control of the

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Table 1.1. Providers of agricultural extension services

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Three major lessons for extension are:

 It is important to make new things visible: An important role of extension is to make

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- Sholla Poultry Demonstration Center,

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- lack of properly organized research centers,

1.2.2.1 Agricultural Extension Service Under Alemaya College of Agriculture

1.2.2.2 The Conventional Agricultural Extension Service (1963-67)

1.2.2.3 Agricultural Extension Service under the Comprehensive Package Projects

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1.2.2.4 Minimum package projects

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1.2.2.5 T & V Pilot extension Project

1.2.2.6 Peasant Agricultural Development and Extension Project (PADEP)

1.2.2.7 Participatory Demonstration and Training System (PADETES)

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The Role of Extension in the Promotion of Agricultural Development.

Def. Agricultural development is a shift from traditional production practices to improved

Ministries of agriculture use agricultural extension as one of their instruments to promote

Agricultural extension will however seldom bring about agricultural development. In an

 Market for farm products

Name: ___________ Date: _