EE8702-POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

AND CONTROL
 Chapter 1

PRELIMINARIES ON POWER SYSTEM

OPERATION AND CONTROL
 POWER SCENARIO IN INDIA

• Today’s power systems in India are very huge in terms of Installed capacity,
Energy generated, Transmission and Distribution system, Number of customers
and Total investment. As on June, 2020, installed capacity in India exceeds 371 x
103 MW with annual energy generated exceeding 1389 Billion kWh (1389 x 1012
kWh). Transmission network has AC transmission lines rated for 220 kV, 400 kV
and 765 kV along with HVDC lines rated for ± 500 kV and ± 800 kV. Operation and
control of interconnected power system is really challenging task and it cannot
be done manually. Therefore power systems are controlled by using powerful
computers installed at Energy Control Centers.

• Levels of power system operation

• The total power system in India is not being operated in totally integrated
manner. However, attempts are being made to achieve full integration.

• National Load Dispatching Center, having headquarters at New Delhi, is the

coordinating agency.
INTERNATIONAL DISPATCH CENTRE NATIONAL DISPATCH CENTRE
• There are FIVE Regional Loading Dispatching Centers as described below.

1. Northern region load dispatching center at New Delhi covering states of HP, J
and K, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP, Delhi, Uttaranchal and Chandigarh.

2. Western region load dispatching center at Mumbai covering Gujarat, MP,

Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Daman Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

3. Southern region load dispatching center at Bangalore covering AP, Telangana,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry and Lakshadweep.

4. Eastern region load dispatching center at Kolkata covering WB, Bihar, Orissa,
Sikkim and Jharkhand.

5. North eastern region load dispatching center at Shillong covering Assam,

Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.

The third level of consists of state load dispatching stations in each state capital.
• Installed capacity in different regions as on June, 2020 are as follows:

Northern 99.556 x 103 MW

Western 120.976 x 103 MW

Southern 112.375 x 103 MW

Eastern 33.527 x 103 MW

North eastern 4.560 x 103 MW

Islands 0.058 x 103 MW

Total 371.054 x 103 MW

 ALL INDIA INSTALLED CAPACITY (IN MW) OF POWER STATION (As on June 2020)

Renewa Grand
Region Coal Lignite Gas Diesel Nuclear Hydro
ble Total

Northern
53440 1580 5781 0 1620 20086 17049 99556
Region

Western
72935 1540 10806 0 1840 7623 26232 120976
Region

Southern
44364 3490 6492 433 3320 11775 42501 112375
Region

Eastern
27285 0 100 0 0 4639 1503 33527
Region
North
Eastern 770 0 1812 36 0 1577 365 4560
Region

Islands 0 0 0 40 0 0 18 58

ALL
198794 6610 24992 510 6780 45699 87669 371054
INDIA
 Severe Blackouts
• BRAZIL AND PARAGUAY // NOVEMBER 10-11, 2009
-17,000 megawatts of power, outages quickly spread through both countries
• CHENZHOU, CHINA // JANUARY 24 - FEBRUARY 2008
-two-week blackout for 4.6 million people, death toll exceeded 60
• GERMANY, FRANCE, ITALY, AND SPAIN // NOVEMBER 4, 2006
-10-15 million Europeans lost power
• JAVA AND BALI, INDONESIA // AUGUST 18, 2005
-500 kilovolt transmission line, 5,000 megawatt shutdown
• INDIA // JULY 30-31, 2012
-670 million people
-some states had attempted to draw more power than permitted due to the higher
consumption( Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana )
-22 out of 28 states in India, were without power.
• Weak inter-regional power transmission corridors due to multiple existing outages
(both scheduled and forced);
• High loading on 400 kV Bina–Gwalior–Agra link;
• Inadequate response by State Load Dispatch Centers (SLDCs) to the instructions of
Regional Load Dispatch Centres (RLDCs) to reduce over-drawal by the Northern
Region utilities and under-drawal/excess generation by the Western Region utilities;
• Loss of 400 kV Bina–Gwalior link due to mis-operation of its protection system.
 Power Position (Demand & Availability)

Power in MW
Peak demand Peak met
Region
Apr.2015 Apr. 2016 Apr. 2015 Apr. 2016

Northern 41540 45253 40004 43600

43135 44952 42600 44870

Western
37801 41082 36786 40472
Southern
17368 18681 17304 18634
Eastern

North 2220 2497 2114 2358

Eastern

All India 136884 145103 132119 142618

 2012 India blackouts
• The July 2012 India blackout was the largest power
outage in history, occurring as two separate events on
30 and 31 July 2012.

• The outage affected over 620 million people, about 50%

of India's population, spread across 22 states in
Northern, Eastern, and Northeast India.

• An estimated 32 gigawatts of generating capacity was

taken offline in the outage.

• Electrical power was restored in stages in the affected

locations between 31 July and 1 August 2012.
Properly designed power system should have the following
characteristics:

1. It must supply power, practically everywhere the customer

demands.

2. It must supply power to the customers at all times.

3. It must be able to supply the ever changing load demand at all time.

4. The power supplied should be of good quality.

5. The power supplied should be economical.

6. It must satisfy necessary safety requirements.

The delivered power must meet certain minimum requirements with
regards to the quality of the supply. The following determine the
quality of the power supply.

i) The system frequency must be kept around the specified 50 Hz

with a variation of  0.05 Hz.

ii) The magnitude of bus voltages are maintained within narrow

prescribed limits around the normal value. Generally voltage
variation should be limited to  5%.

LET US SEE WHY THERE IS FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE DEVIATION

Frequency and Voltage Regulation
SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION
The variation of load on the power station with respect to time.

SYSTEM LOAD

• From system’s point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads:

1. Domestic
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
4. Agriculture
5. Others - street lights, traction.
Domestic:
Ø Lights,

Ø fans,

domestic appliances like heaters,

Ø refrigerators, air conditioners,

Ø mixers,

Ø ovens,

Ø small motors etc.

1. Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0;

2. Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3;
3. Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15
Commercial:

Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans, AC etc.

1. Demand factor = 0.9 to 1.0;

2. Diversity factor = 1.1 to 1.2;
3. Load factor = 0.25 to 0.3

Industrial:

Small scale industries: 0-20kW

Medium scale industries: 20-100kW

Large scale industries: above 100kW

Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains

fairly uniform throughout the day.
For heavy industries:

1. Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9;

2. Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8

Agriculture:

Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors

1. Demand factor = 0.9 to 1;

2. Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5;
3. Load factor = 0.15 to 0.25
System Load Characteristics
a) Connected Load
b) Maximum Demand
c) Average Load
d) Load Factor
e) Diversity Factor
f) Plant Capacity Factor
g) Plant Use Factor
 IMPORTANT TERMINALOGIES

Connected load

It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply

systems.

Maximum demand

It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.

Demand factor

It is the ratio of maximum demand to connected load.

Demand factor= (max demand)/ (connected load)
Average demand

The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day
or month or year) is known as average demand
Daily average demand = (no of units generated per day) / (24 hours)
Monthly average demand = (no of units generated in month) / (no of
hours in a month)

Yearly average demand = (no of units generated in a year) / (no of hours

in a year)

Load factor

The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is
known as load factor.
Load factor = (average load)/ (maximum demand)
Diversity factor

The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is known as
diversity factor.
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand ) / (maximum demand).

Capacity factor

Ø This is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could
have been produced during a given period.

Capacity factor = (actual energy produced) / (maximum energy that have been
produced)

Plant use factor

Ø It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours
for which the plant was in operation.

Units generated per annum= average load * hours in a year

 ECONOMIC OF GENERATION
1. Load curves
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with
respect to time

Ø The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power

station with reference to time is known as load curve.
Ø There are three types, Daily load curve, Monthly load curve, Yearly
load curve .
Types of Load Curve:

Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day

Monthly load curve–Load curve obtained from the daily load curve

Yearly load curve-Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve

Daily load curve

Ø The curve drawn between the variations of load with reference to various time period of day
is known as daily load curve.

Monthly load curve

Ø It is obtained from daily load curve.

Ø Average value of the power at a month for a different time periods are calculated and plotted
in the graph which is known as monthly load curve.

Yearly load curve

Ø It is obtained from monthly load curve which is used to find annual load factor.
Base Load:

The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station

Peak Load:

The various peak demands so load of the station

 2. Load duration curve:
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of
descending magnitudes.
 Necessity for Automatic Load Frequency Control (LFC)

5 kW 5 kW

~
T G
5 kW L

5 kW 5.1 kW 5 kW 4.9 kW

~ ~
T G T G

5.1 kW L Increase in
4.9 kW L
Reduction in
Kinetic energy, Kinetic energy,
speed and speed and
frequency frequency

CHANGE IN LOAD WILL RESULT IN FREQUENCY VARIATION. TO MAINTAIN

CONSTANT FREQUENCY, INPUT TO GENERATOR NEED TO BE CHANGED.

 Normal excitation.
V = 1.0 p.u.
Necessity for Automatic ~
Voltage Regulator (AVR) T G
No load condition

Normal excitation. V < 1.0 p.u.

Increased excitation.
V = 1.0 p.u.
~
~
T G
T G
L L
Rated Rated
2 2

Excitation ?
V=?

~ LOAD CHANGES RESULTS

IN VOLTAGE CHANGES.
T G
TO KEEP VOLTAGE CONSTANT
L EXCITATION MUST BE
Rated
ADJUSTED.
4
Frequency fluctuations are detrimental to electrical appliances. The
following are a few reasons why we should keep strict limits on
frequency deviations.

• Three phase a.c. motors run at speeds that are directly

proportional to the frequency. Variation of system frequency
will affect the motor performance.

• The blades of steam and water turbines are designed to operate

at a particular speed. Frequency variations will cause change in
speed. This will result in excessive vibration and cause damage
to the turbine blades.

• Frequency error may produce havoc in the digital storage and

retrieval process.
Both over voltage and under voltage are detrimental to electrical appliances.

Electric motors will tend to run on over speed when they are fed with higher
voltages resulting vibration and mechanical damage. Over voltage may also
cause insulation failure.

For a specified power rating, when the supply voltage is less, the current drawn
is more and it will give rise to heating problems.

Therefore it is essential to keep the system frequency constant and the voltage
variation within the tolerance.

Voltage and frequency controls are necessary for the

effective operation of power systems.
3. P- f and Q-V CONTROL LOOPS

In order to perform voltage and frequency control, a basic generator will have two
control loops namely:

Automatic voltage regulator loop

Automatic load frequency control loop.

The Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) loop controls the magnitude of terminal
voltage |V|, for varying load conditions. Terminal voltage is continuously
measured, rectified and converted as a dc voltage. The strength of this dc signal,
being proportional to |V|, is compared with a dc reference |V|ref. The resulting
“error voltage” after necessary amplification, serves as input to the exciter. The
excitor applies the required voltage to the generator field winding, so the
generator terminal voltage |V| reaches the value |V|ref.
The automatic load frequency control (ALFC) loop regulates the real power
output of the generator and its frequency (speed) for varying load conditions.

ALFC loop is not a single one as in the case of AVR. A relatively fast primary loop
responds to a frequency (speed) changes via the speed governor and the steam
(or hydro) flow is regulated with the aim of matching the real power generation to
relatively fast load fluctuations. By “fast” we mean changes that takes place in
one to several seconds. Thus, primary loop performs a course speed or
frequency control to maintain the real power (megawatt) balance.

A slower secondary loop maintains the fine adjustment of the frequency, and
also maintains proper real power interchange with other pool members. This loop
is insensitive to rapid load and frequency changes, but focuses drift-like changes
which take place over periods of minutes.
Fig. 1 shows the two control loops, AVR loop and ALFC loop.
The AVR and ALFC loops are not fully non-interacting. Little cross coupling does
exist between AVR and ALFC loops. AVR loop affects the magnitude of the
generator emf E. As the internal emf determines the magnitude of the real power,
it is clear that changes in the AVR loop will be felt in the ALFC loop.

However, the AVR loop is much faster than the ALFC loop and hence AVR
dynamics may settle before they can make themselves felt in the slower load-
frequency control channel.

Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 will deal with LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (LFC) and
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR respectively.
4. ECONOMIC DISPATCHING

Once it is possible to ensure electric power supply with constant frequency and
voltage, next we may be interested to operate the power system in a most
economic manner.

The main aim of economic dispatch problem is to minimize the total cost of
generating real power at various stations considering the system loads and
losses in the transmission network.

There are certain engineering constraints that are to be satisfied while finding the
optimal solution. The problem become complicated when the power system has
different types of generations such as thermal, hydro, nuclear, wind, solar etc.

Optimal Power Flow method, which makes use of optimizing technique, is used
to determine the optimal status of power system for a given load condition.
5. UNIT COMMITMENT

The other challenging problem is Unit Commitment (UC).

The system load changes in cyclic manner. It is not advisable to keep all the units
available all the time. When system load decreases, it is better to shut down one
or more units and when the system load increases at a latter time, units are to be
brought in.

Unit commitment problem is finding the shut down and commissioning rule so
that the total cost of generation over a period of time, say one day, is minimum.

A simple but sub-optimal approach to the UC problem is to impose priority

ordering, wherein the most efficient unit is loaded first to be followed by the less
efficient units in order as the load increase. Several practical constraints will
make the UC problem more complicated.

Economic dispatch and Unit commitment problem are discussed in Chapter 4

6. LOAD FORECASTING

If the load coming on the system is known in advance, then we can schedule how
to operate various units. But customers used to switch on or switch off the load
as per their requirements. Hence it becomes necessary to forecast the system
load.

Load forecasting is done by analyzing the past load data. Certain load forecasting
techniques are available to find the system loads at different points of time, as
well as peak load, based on the records of past data.

Short term forecasting is carried out to find load for a day while long term
forecasting aims to get load for a month or a year.

There is a continuing need to improve the methodology for forecasting power

demand more accurately.
7. LOAD SHEDDING

When the total load is more than the total generation capacity, then load
shedding has to be resorted. This has to be done to save the electric grid from
collapsing.

If it is a regular power shortage, load shedding can be done in a planned manner.

There are situation wherein because of unexpected fault in generators or in

transmission lines, deficiency may be created all at a sudden and the operators
will have no time for decision making. To save the system on such cases we
need to implement automated load shedding.

8. ISLANDING

Islanding is the functioning of a section of power system separating from the

original power system. This may happen due to major fault, resulting a portion of
network disconnected and start functioning of its own if possible. The whole
system will go to restorative mode after which normal status will be restored
slowly.
 Normal

Generation shifting
Increase reserve

Restorative Alert

Fault clearing
Load shedding Excitation control
System separation Fast valving
Load shedding

Emergency
Emergency
In extremis

Power system operating states

9. RECENT TREANDS IN REAL TIME CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEM

Power systems are operated by system operators from the area control centers.
The main goal of the system operator is to maintain the system in a normal
secure state as the operating conditions vary during the daily operation.

Accomplishing this goal requires:

i) continuous monitoring of the system conditions

ii) identification of the operating state and

iii) determination of the necessary preventive action in the case of state found to

be insecure.

This sequence of operation is referred as the security analysis of the system.

System operators should do on-line security analysis.

The first step of security analysis is to monitor the current state of the system.

This involves acquisition of measurements from all parts of the system.

The measurement may be both of analog and digital type.

Substations are equipped with devices called Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) which
collect various types of measurements from the field and are responsible for
transmitting them to the control center.

More recently, the so-called Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) are replacing or
complementing the existing RTUs.

Once the data are collected, they are processed in order to determine the system
state.
It is possible to have a mixture of these devices (RTUs and IEDs) connected to a
Local Area Network (LAN) along with Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
(SCADA) front end computer, which supports the communication of the collected
measurements to the host computer at the control center.

The SCADA host computer at the control center receives measurements from all
the monitored substations’ SCADA systems via one of many possible types of
communication links such as fiber optic, satellite, microwave, etc.

Fig.2 shows the configuration of EMS / SCADA system for a typical power
system.
Fig.2 shows the configuration of EMS / SCADA system for a typical power
system.
SCADA host computer
Planning
Local Area Network Energy Management CONTROL
and
System (EMS) Functions CENTER
analysis
functions State Estimator

Communications
CORPORATE
Network
OFFICES
SCADA - Front end computer
SCADA - Front end computer of another substation

RTU RTU IED IED RTU

Substation Monitored Devices

Fig. 2 EMS / SCADA system configuration

Measurements received at the control center will include line power flows, bus
voltage and line current magnitudes, generator outputs, loads, circuit breaker
and switch status information, transformer tap positions and switchable
capacitor bank values.

These raw data and measurements are processed by State Estimator (SE) in
order to filter the measurement noise and detect gross errors. State estimator
solution will provide reliable estimate of the system state based on the available
measurements and on the assumed system model.

This will then be passed on to all the Energy Management System (EMS)
application functions such as the contingency analysis, automatic generation
control, automatic load frequency control, economic load dispatching, load
forecasting and optimal power flow, etc.

The same information will also be available via a LAN connection to the corporate
offices where other planning and analysis functions can be executed off-line.
1. Explain why the frequency and voltage keep changing in the uncontrolled

power system,

2. What are the requirements of a good power system?

3. What do you mean by good quality of power supply?

4. Frequency fluctuations are detrimental to electrical appliances. Justify this.

5. What are the effects of over voltage and under voltage?

6. Name the two control loops in a generator and briefly describe them.

7. What is economic dispatching?

8. What is Unit Commitment problem?

9. Explain the importance of load forecasting?

10. When load shedding is resorted?

11. What do you understand by Islanding?

12. With necessary block diagram, explain what do you understand by “Real

Time Control of Power System”.