Sensors & Actuators: A.

Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/sensors-and-actuators-a-physical

Advancements in smart farming: A comprehensive review of IoT, wireless

communication, sensors, and hardware for agricultural automation
Chander Prakash a, *, Lakhwinder Pal Singh a, Ajay Gupta a, Shiv Kumar Lohan b
a
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab 144011, India
b
Department of Farm Machinery & Power Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Agriculture automation is a primary issue and a rapidly developing field for the nation. The global population is
Smart farming growing swiftly, so there is a severe need to fulfill food demand. Traditional farming methods are insufficient to
Internet of things meet the rising demand, so they pressure using fertilizers to increase crop productivity. That fall impacts agri­
Mechanization
cultural activity; sometimes, land stays barren and lacks fertility. This paper is focused on the deep analysis of
Control systems
PRISMA
smart farming-related components such as the Internet of Things (IoT), wireless communication technology,
sensors, and hardware. There is serious concern about selecting technology, sensors, and hardware in the
different agriculture practices. This may result in an increase in mechanization among various agricultural
practices in an easy way. This paper provides a systematic extensive review of the implication of automation in
agriculture. And addressed how agricultural operations may benefit from modern sensors, wireless communi­
cation technologies, and hardware. Although, major challenges and components have been discussed. Moreover,
future applications for crop health, human health, and machine health are also addressed in this study.

1. Introduction internet network [10]. Numerous communication solutions in the

market allow interconnection between networks and devices, including
In the fourth era (Agriculture-4.0), the agriculture sector is inte­ wireless sensors and radio frequency identification through WIFI, Zig­
grating information and communication technologies (ICT) into con­ Bee, Bluetooth, and GSM [11,12].
ventional farming methods [1]. Technologies to enhance smart farming, In smart farming, numerous parameters are monitored to improve
like the Internet of Things (IoT), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Big yield and optimize the environmental conditions, irrigation process, pest
Data Analytics (BDA), Remote Sensing (RS), and Machine Learning and fertilizers, unwanted plant management, soil status, greenhouse
(ML), are explicitly ensuring the new revolution in agriculture practices production environment, and reduce costs of the process inputs [13].
[2,3]. Globally, the use of IoT has been increasing daily, pointing toward Besides this, smart farming technologies are essential in the IoT system.
new smart directions and device information to enhance productivity [4, These technologies are differentiated into data acquisition, investiga­
5]. The fundamental principle of IoT introduced the connectivity be­ tion, and evaluation of smart farming technologies [14]. Many devel­
tween machine-to-machine and man-to-machine is formerly achievable oped countries like Europe have adopted smart farming: Australia and
on a larger scale [6]. The IoT combines three visions: internet-oriented, the United States of America [15,16], furthermore other individual
things-oriented, and semantic-oriented [7]. countries like Italy [17], Brazil [18], Ireland [19], and India [20]. In
The IoT is a worldwide network of devices that can operate, identify, Table 1, Some relevant reviews and survey studies have been performed
and monitor any object on the planet through the internet and the on applying smart farming to enhance agriculture production with the
connectivity of virtual and physical things using integrated information aspects of Agriculture 4.0 (Agri 4.0).
and communication technologies [8,9]. The fundamental objective was
to enable the sharing of real-time information or data over autonomous 1.1. Motivation and contribution
networks. Smart computational sensors, which contain real-time data,
will also communicate with anyone, anywhere, and anytime through an Though smart agriculture is a new phase, many commercial products

* Correspondence to: Research Scholar, Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar,
Punjab, 144011, India.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Prakash).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2023.114605
Received 1 June 2023; Received in revised form 29 July 2023; Accepted 14 August 2023
Available online 16 August 2023
0924-4247/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

and platforms exist, highlighting that the market is ready to adopt [33]. 2. VOSviewer analysis
Most of the collection, integration, and data analysis acquired by IoT
sensors are focused on commercial solutions, and only a few offer pre­ In the first stage, 974 articles are extracted from the Scopus database
dictive analytics [22]. Current concerns provide significant challenges in with the two keywords (i.e., smart farming and precision farming) in the
determining an appropriate deployment strategy, energy-efficient media CSV format. Extracted articles contain all the bibliometric information,
access, measurement intervals, and routing protocols. Yet, emerging further utilized as input for the VOSviewer analysis. This analysis
challenges may occur during real-time operations. For example, suppose measures how frequently keywords and citation information has been
there is sudden contact with obstacles on the moving machinery in the used in the selected articles. This information gives an effective way to
actual working environment. In that case, the signal will be compro­ measure the influence of articles in the scientific community. Further,
mised which may lead to damage to the inter-communication system. In the co-occurrence of the keywords and co-citation of the reference has
the current Indian scenario, the demand for food-grain is increasing with been visualized. For creating the map, some criteria have been selected
increasing population. The requirement of food grains to fulfill the de­ as a threshold with a minimum number of co-occurrences of the key­
mand of the population is estimated at 300 million tons by 2025, and words is 5. From a total of 2351 keywords, only 106 keywords meet with
345 million tons by 2030 [34]. To meet the ever-increasing demand of selected threshold criteria. As a result, 9 clusters have been drawn with
food grains, there is a serious need to manage the crop productivity with the 1020 common links, and the total strength is 2882, as shown in
an optimized way. Therefore, low-cost IoT that enabled with more ac­ Fig. 1.
curate data analysis can be implemented in the tradition farming The node’s size symbolizes the co-occurrence of terms (i.e., co-
methods to enhance the farm productivity for end-users. occurring keywords). The thickness of the relationship shows the fre­
This study examines the existing literature on using IoT systems, quency of co-occurrence of keywords (i.e., frequently appears to occur
wireless communication technologies, and sensors for different purposes and co-occur keywords). The connection defines the interconnection
in agriculture activities. Our main goal is to study the adoption of new between two items, and the node is the strength of that particular item.
Agro 4.0 emerging technologies that enhance the safe and productive Similarly, the co-citation analysis is analyzed to measure how usually
environment, explain how these technologies can lead towards new the article has been cited in the selected documents. The map visuali­
visions for smart farming applications, and gain insight into future zation has classified the data into 9 clusters, 218 co-occurrence items,
research opportunities. The contribution of this study is divided into with 2546 links and 3572 node strength. The network visualization co-
three axes. The first axis defines the in-sight literature on the role of IoT occurrence of citation has been illustrated in Fig. 2.
in agriculture activities. The second point elaborates on wireless tech­ In the results of this analysis, a total of 106 keywords are found as
nologies, sensors, and hardware in agriculture IoT systems. The third important from the 2351 keywords. Moreover, analyzing the 106 key­
axis concerns facing challenges when implementing IoT systems in words in a single study is impossible. So therefore, some important
actual farm conditions. The primary objective of this systematic review keywords have been selected from these keywords, such as "Agriculture
is to assist researchers in better understanding the Internet of Things 4.0, Big data analysis, Cloud computing, Agriculture automation, Ro­
(IoT) system in smart farming. The published literature, e.g., systematic botics, Smart sensors, Internet of Things (IoT), Unmanned aerial vehicle,
literature review [23,35,36,3] systematic road mapping of study [37] Raspberry Pi module, Zigbee technology, Crop monitoring, Health
concept IoT [38,39], IoT sensors and IoT networks used in smart farming monitoring, Image processing, Digitization, Data analysis, Edge
[40,41] along with published articles with the concept of smart farming Computing, etc.". Maximum keywords have been selected based on
has been followed in the present study. occurrence and link strength of keyword used in the literature. For
example, the "internet of things" keywords co-occurrence links was 172
with the strength of 466. Only the highest strength of keywords is

Table 1
Related review for agriculture.
Reference Period Papers Industry 4.0 Objective Finding
studied

[21] 2002–2019 93 Big Data Analysis Review on MLA used in Agriculture Machine learning in the sustainable agriculture supply chain.
[22] - - Big data analysis Survey on state-of-art in the agriculture system -
[23] 2013–2019 65 IoT Survey on UAV in the agriculture system Various farming practices have improved the overall metrics.
[24] 2008–2018 167 IoT Survey on the current application in arable Interoperability was the main challenge in smart farming
land
[25] - - IoT and Big Data Review on livestock farming Incorporating big data analysis technologies to enhance
analysis productivity.
[26] 2014–2019 52 IoT Review on aquaponic agriculture. Aquaponics sensed parameters are discussed in detail.
[27] - - IoT Survey on IoT application in smart farming MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport) outperforms the
other protocols.
[28] 2016–2020 20 Machine Learning Review on the application of MLA in sensor AI helps to improve automation in agriculture as an
and IoT data agriculture ecosystem. improvement in crop yield.
[29] 2016–2019 29 Deep Learning A systematic survey on deep learning in Deep learning with high accuracy provided in results.
and Big Data different agriculture problems.
Analysis
[30] 1998–2018 > 50 IoT and Big data Survey on implementation in agriculture More advantages can be added by using deep learning in the
analysis automation machine learning algorithm
[31] - - Big Data Analysis A review of deep learning algorithms in smart Deep learning can be implemented in different agricultural
agriculture activities.
[32] 2014–2017 40 Big Data Analysis Survey on deep learning techniques in the Provided higher accuracy.
agriculture sector.
[3] 2010–2015 110 Big Data Analysis Big data analysis in agriculture farming-a Various challenges have been discussed.
review
Present 2010–2022 62 IoT in Smart A systematic review about the IoT related tools IoT in smart farming, sensors, hardware, software, wireless
Study farming and technologies and further implemented in technologies, IoT modules, and future crop, human, and machine
smart farming health directions have been discussed.

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Fig. 1. Keywords co-occurrence network visualization

Fig. 2. Network visualization co-occurrence of citation.

discussed in the current study. Furthermore, it is analyzed that the 3. Material and methods
maximum citations are related to the internet of things (IoT) based
studies, as mentioned in Fig. 2. This graph provides an excellent over­ A comprehensive search term was built by taking the published ar­
view and highlights items in that particular publication. The strength of ticles based on some keywords. Further, the inclusion and exclusion
each node represented the number of published citations. This analysis criteria have been developed to make the literature in funnel structure.
is limited to at least 5 or more 5 citations, as shown in Fig. 2. The inclusion criteria were that all the articles should be published in the
English language, and the objective of the current paper should be
covered in the particular literature. Keywords such as "smart farming,”

3
C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

"precision farming,” "IoT in agriculture,” "human health assessment in may be utilized to feed machine learning algorithms to make appro­
agriculture," and "machine health in agriculture" were included in the priate decisions [42]; IoT sensors are feasible to evaluate the number of
search engine, and these keywords should be mentioned in the title, parameter values like soil properties, temperature, wind flow rate, hu­
abstract, or anywhere in the entire document. midity, weather conditions monitoring, etc. Acquiring IoT-based data in
The articles should be published after 2010, contain the Scopus real-time is easy and time-saving. In a nutshell, the potential benefit of
indexing, and be published in full length. The exclusion criteria were implementing an IoT system is to enhance the advancement in
only the published articles were considered, and other published content agriculture.
such as a report and conference papers were not considered for the Some studies represent the web-based framework to the extent of the
present study. This section portrays the literature status of IoT in advancement in the agriculture system [3,104]. A study suggests that in
different field operations. A review has been conducted with full-length the early 2000 s, mobile-based technological farming solutions were
published articles in various reputed journals from 2010 to August 2022 offered, allowing the farming community to develop realistic methods
under the Scopus database. The selected papers were classified into for increasing agriculture efficiency. This study needs to identify the
different domains such as objective of the study, category of the article, purpose of the study, latest technologies, wireless communication sys­
wireless technologies, different sensors, and whether this work was tem, various sensors used in agriculture with some open challenges.
implemented in the real field or laboratory conditions or otherwise, and Because in-depth literature on smart farming is helpful to developing
identify the existing gaps and their future scope as laid by the respective countries like India [105]. The geographic relevance of smart agricul­
authors. IoT extends the ability of a human to monitor and react ac­ tural improvements is reinforced by one categorization of the situation.
cording to the environment. The PRISMA 2020 [42] was used to sys­ It is essential to focus on changes in regional components of the sector
tematically organize and employ a step-by-step method for selecting the since the digital divide may affect how smart farming is used and how
appropriate literature for this study from the searched literature, as successfully new solutions are accepted. Some Asian countries, such as
shown in Fig. 3. Bangladesh [106], China [107], Pakistan [108], India [109-111], and
others [112,113], are embracing advanced technology.
4. Results and discussion Numerous types of research have been conducted on specific agri­
cultural concerns such as soil properties, climate conditions, and smart
It is analyzed that IoT has a wide scope in agriculture for bought irrigation systems are elaborate in Table 2. It was important to research
human benefits and commercialization worldwide. The shorting litera­ precise agricultural solutions for yield improvement [114]. Smart
ture has been structured into Table 2. In Table 2, different types of farming is essential to help create and deploy technologies that can help
technologies have been categorized into four types, i.e., UAVs- Un­ enhance optimal yield conditions [114]. Optical sensing, soil analysis,
manned Aerial Vehicle), IoT-P- Internet of Things Platform, DSS- Deci­ and analysis in imaging processing are the major areas. The large variety
sion Support System, STMS-Sensing Technique and Management of solutions on the market and machine learning models can assist with
System, and sub-technologies (wireless communication system) are an effective prediction. The previous research addressed profitability
mentioned with the different types of sensors used in the actual or lab­ contributions, reducing the danger of crop failures, protecting farmer
oratory conditions. IoT systems extend the ability of a human to monitor interests with excellent farming conditions, and agricultural technolo­
and collect data during real-time operation. Moreover, real-time data gies in various aspects [115]. Keywords offered in the process are vast in

Identification of studies via databases and registers

Records removed before

Identification

screening:
Records identified from*(2010- Duplicate records removed
2022) (n =334)
Databases (n =687) Records marked as ineligible
by automation tools (n =00)
Records removed for other

Records screened Records excluded**

(n =162) (n =46)
Screening

Reports sought for retrieval Reports not retrieved

(n =116) (n = 25)

Reports excluded:
Reports assessed for eligibility Reason 1 (n =17)
(n = 91) Reason 2 (n = 08)
Reason 3 (n = 04)
Include

Studies included in review

(n =62)

Fig. 3. PRISMA flow diagram for literature review.

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Table 2
Summarized the literature review in tabular form.
S. Objective Category Wireless Types of Sensors Implemented Limitation Reference
No. Technology (Yes/No)

1 Development of an automatic IoT Platform Wi-Fi Temperature, humidity, Yes This study can be extended by [43]
environment control system to and carbon dioxide taking more sensors and cloud
provide optimum conditions to computing-based systems.
mushroom production house.
2 Demonstrates optimization by IoT Platform Wi-Fi NPK, pH, Temperature, Yes Other sensors can be used in the (A.[44])
implementing an IoT (Internet Humidity, GPS, and system instead of
of Things) based model for soil Moisture sensors electrochemical sensors to make
productivity. it affordable for the end-users.
3 To monitor the information on STMS Wi-Fi Soil Moisture, Yes Further parameters such as soil [45]
moisture, humidity, and Environmental properties, pest detectors, and
temperature. Temperature, Humidity plant health monitoring can be
Sensors taken.
4 Present the decision support DSS Wi-Fi Humidity, Temperature Yes Weather detectors and plant [46]
system for smart viticulture sensor health parameters can be taken
farming. for future study.
5 Introduce a connected, DSS – Soil and water sensors No This work can be implemented [47]
cooperative ecosystem along in field conditions to secure crop
with the applications of AI and health parameters.
the Internet
connected devices.
6 Proposed a generic reference STMS LoRaWAN Temperature, Humidity, No The proposed model can be [48]
architecture model for the Raindrop sensor, Light studied deeply in real-time
energy consumption restriction. sensor, Leaf wetness farming.
sensor, and Speed/
direction sensors
7 To propose a system for DSS Wi-Fi pH, Temperature, No Big data analysis can be taken in [49]
environment assessment for Electrical Conductivity, hydroponic farming.
hydroponic farming. Water flow rate
8 To present a crop management STMS 6LowPAN Temperature and Yes This system can be implemented [50]
system with current IoT Humidity Sensors in real farming conditions to
technologies supported by improve the crop cycle.
FIWARE.
9 Present a smart radiation STMS LTE Radiation sensor Yes Moreover, this study can be [51]
monitoring system for farming stretched with Zigbee
technology with the remote-
control system.
10 Propose a two-level privacy DSS – Soil acidity level, No The proposed framework can ([52])
engine, ToN-IoT and IoT Botnet. temperature, and water improve the ability of the overall
levels sensors framework in future work.
11 IoT system for smart STMS LoRa Soil Temperature and Yes More IoT sensors can be used for [53]
greenhouse control parameters. Humidity sensors controlling greenhouse
parameters.
12 Development of smart image DSS – Webcam and Ultrasonic Yes High-tech IoT sensors can be [54]
reorganization among tomato Sensor used for more accurate results.
harvesting.
13 To propose an Intelligent Voice IoT Platform Wi-Fi Waterproof temperature Yes The proposed system can extend (S.-C.
Control System (IVCS) system sensor, Light sensor, Water to a different field by improving [55])
for improving agriculture level sensor system efficiency.
production
14 Design to assess the differential STMS Wi-Fi Water level sensor Yes This study can be stretched for [56]
benefits of applying the in-depth analysis of other crop
technology with sensors in production systems.
wetting and drying rice
cultivation practices.
15 To develop the IoT-based smart IoT Platform Wi-Fi soil moisture, humidity, Yes Further, machine learning and [57]
irrigation system. and temperature reinforcement learning, game
theory, and fuzzy logic can be
used in future agriculture
practices.
16 To propose a low-cost digital DSS AgriLoRa pH, NPK, and H2O sensors No The proposed system can be [58]
twin framework AgriLoRa for implemented in actual field
smart agriculture. conditions by interpreting the
security of LoRa and cloud-based
systems.
17 To introduce low-cost UAVs for UAVs LoRa and Temperature, Humidity, Yes Machine learning models can be [59]
monitoring environmental 4G Rain gauge, Solar implemented to predict
parameters. radiation, and Moisture environmental conditions.
sensors
18 To develop an IoT-based STMS Wi-Fi Temperature, Humidity, Yes More sensors such as humidity, [60]
reliable data collection focusing Light, and Moisture temperature, and light can be
on outlier detection and sensors used to improve the failure
treatment. detection of events for future
interest.
(continued on next page)

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Table 2 (continued )
S. Objective Category Wireless Types of Sensors Implemented Limitation Reference
No. Technology (Yes/No)

19 To implement an IoT-based IoT Platform Wi-Fi Pressure, Humidity, Yes To monitor soil quality and [61]
system using a machine Temperature sensors smart irrigation systems can be
learning algorithm in smart extended with the proposed
farming. technology.
20 Development of secure and IoT Platform IEEE Temperature, Humidity, Yes A mobile-based IoT network and [62]
energy-efficient IoT-based 802.11b and Irrigation sensors intelligent transportation system
framework in smart agriculture. can be extended as future work.
21 Upgradation in the form of an IoT platform ZigBee Tracking Sensors Yes Machine learning algorithms can [63]
Edge-IoT platform for live detect other animal stress and
monitoring in dairy farming. illness in dairy farming.
22 To propose a smart irrigation IoT platform ZigBee UV, Temperature, Yes ESP8266 and DHT11 can be [64]
system by using IoT in smart Humidity, and Moisture used for the future irrigation
farming. Sensors system due to their high
accuracy rate.
23 Presented a conventional neural DSS – – No Further, the presented model [65]
network-based model for the can implement to diagnose
detection of rice plant diseases. diseases in different plants.
24 Improvement in higher spectral STMS RTK Irradiance sensor Y Further, it can develop reliable [66]
resolution for precision farming error propagation for all process
using UAV phases to enable quantitative
applications.
25 Development of a cloud-based STMS CC Temperature and N The proposed technology can be [67]
operating system that can Humidity Sensors served different stakeholders,
merge different applications supply chain systems, and other
and services. areas.
26 Development of UAV platform UAVs RS Thermal, multispectral, Y A new smart model can [68]
using RGB, thermal, and and RGB Sensors implement for minimum growth
multispectral sensors to of unwanted plants.
enhance precision viticulture.
27 Development of an aerial robot UAVs RTK Ultrasonic, Pressure, Y The Graphical User Interface can [69]
equipped with advanced Electrochemical be designed for multi-robot
sensors to fulfill various conductivity, Airflow systems for different
demands using a controlled and Sensors applications.
improved decision algorithm.
28 To monitor the crop condition IoT Platform CC Temperature, humidity, Y An HYDROLEAF system can take [70]
with IoT sensors. Humidity, Moisture, NPK place for urban farming.
29 To determine the control over IoT Platform CC Water level sensors Y Soil humidity variation can take [71]
the irrigation system based on place for the futuristic.
an event-based predictive
control system.
30 To develop a scalable platform IoT Platform RS Soil depth, humidity, N The proposed model can be [33]
based on RDF semantics and temperature, moisture implemented in real-time
IoT. sensors agriculture conditions.
31 To ensure efficient crop IoT Platform – Temperature, radiation, Y The evolution of pests and [72]
production with quick and CO2, and humidity sensors diseases in horticultural crops
effective decisions. can be studied.
32 Suggestions determined by DSS LoRA Temperature, weather, Y A safe and secure mobile system (U. J. L.
ANN from the different sensor humidity, sensors can be adopted for future [73])
nodes via LORA communication agriculture.
technology
33 REST-based AgroDSS system for DSS – – N Additional predictive models [74]
detection of pests using data such as naive Bayes, decision
mining in orchards and farm trees, and neural networks can
fields. be used for future study.
34 To obtain agricultural and STMS WSNs Soil temperature and Y Issues relating to the interactive [75]
metrological data using the moisture, Air temperature map interface should be
WSN technique and to develop and humidity sensors addressed in the future.
cartographic visualization
context-based conceptual
approach.
35 To develop a smart irrigation STMS RS Irrigation, water, Y Wireless managing GIS systems [76]
system to reduce water wastage. moisture, and salinity can help to improve water
sensors management.
36 To develop and implement a STMS WSNs Rain storms and soil Y More environment sensors can [77]
system for monitoring moisture sensors be adopted for future studies.
environmental and soil
parameters.
37 To introduce self-realization of STMS RS Weather and solar sensors Y The PF area’s SDI sensor data [78]
sensor data Infrastructure. distribution, processing, and
analysis can be developed.
38 Monitor and control the STMS WSNs Temperature, Light, and Y Advancement in wireless sensor [79]
greenhouse parameters. Humidity sensors networks was useful for smart
farming in the future.
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Table 2 (continued )
S. Objective Category Wireless Types of Sensors Implemented Limitation Reference
No. Technology (Yes/No)

39 To monitor irrigation STMS WUSNs Soil moisture and Y Need to be an advanced system [80]
parameters using the WUSNs temperature sensors to maintain the network
technique. connectivity and reduce energy
consumption.
40 To study the WNS in precision STMS WSN Light Intensity, soil Y The proposed technology can be [81]
farming. moisture, pH value, and implemented in a different
temperature sensors region with the same or another
crop.
41 Sensor-based detection of the STMS WSN Soil, Moisture, Humidity, N Additionally, Chromaticity- [82]
unusual status of leaves using and Temperature sensors based approaches can be applied
WSN technology. to include illumination
compensations and correct the
brightness changes.
42 Real-time monitoring and UAVs Wi-Fi Ultrasonic, Moisture, and N More sensors can be mounted in [83]
detection of rice plant diseases. Humidity Sensors this system to get more
information about crop health.
43 To propose a cloud-based IoT IoT Platform Wi-Fi Temperature, Humidity, N AI and WSN can be used to [84]
platform to monitor the pH, CO2, Moisture Sensors enhance smart soilless
greenhouse microclimate. greenhouse cultivation.
44 To introduce a framework of a DSS WSNs Temperature, Humidity, Y Furthermore, Reliability related [85]
cloud-based IoT integrated Pressure, Wind sensors issues can be analyzed.
system.
45 To study the effect of adopting STMS Zigbee M, T, Environmental T & H Y Different wireless technology [86]
IoT-enabled smart irrigation sensing device, C, daylight can be adopted for future work.
systems in different weather intensity device sensors
conditions.
46 Fabrication of IoT-based fog STMS Wi-Fi Video camera, soil No Scalability can be analyzed due [87]
computed system. moisture, soil to key latency and response time
temperature, and soil NPK issues in the fog-based
sensors agriculture system.
47 Establish a smart blockchain- STMS LoRa Temperature, Water level, Yes Advanced embedded system [88]
based IoT system for fish oxygen, and PH sensors hardware such as Raspberry Pi
farming. and Arduino can be used for
communication and legacy in
the farm system.
48 To propose a model that STMS Wi-Fi Photoresistor, T and H Yes The conversation between [89]
interacts with plant cultivation Sensors chatbots and orchids can be
systems based on IoT and Fuzzy analyzed using the voice instead
logic. command line.
49 To present the design of an IoT- DSS – Soil salinity, soil Yes WSN technology can be used in [90]
based system for cotton crops composition, and moisture the proposed system.
cultivation, irrigation, and sensors
harvesting of yields.
50 To propose a real-time STMS LoRa T, pH, identification Yes Machine learning and statistical [91]
monitoring system for the sensors analysis can determine animals’
voluntary weighing of cattle. exact weight.
51 Development of autonomous DSS – Spectral, thermal, and No In the future, real-time farming [92]
robots embedded with sensors LiDAR sensors with live data capturing can be
in agriculture. addressed.
52 Demonstrate WSN and IoT are STMS Wi-Fi Pest detector, soil pH, Yes In the proposed study, WSN can [93]
extensive technologies to boost nutrient level sensors be used for futurism.
PA.
53 To develop a novel routing DSS – – No The proposed study can be [94]
algorithm extending the well- extended with implementation
known IPv6-RPL, also used for in actual or real farming
IPv6 over LoWPAN. conditions.
54 To propose a scalable IoT Platform WiLD T, P, H, Luminosity sensors Yes A WiLD node can be installed in [95]
architecture network in rural the proposed model.
agriculture areas.
55 To develop an IoT-based health Lab Study with Standing ECG, Temperature, pulse No The scheduling approach, such [96]
monitoring system by using LoRA human rate, and oxygen and as LTE-A Femtocell networks,
LoRa wireless technology. communication glucose sensors will be extended and modified in
technology future technology.
56 Propose an IoT-based ECG Indoor Zigbee ECG prototype sensors Yes More health-related parameters [97]
monitoring system. can be taken for future work.
57 Design and development of a Indoor study Wi-Fi ECG Sensor No The effect of the proposed [98]
lightweight ECG SQA method SQAw-IoT framework on
into the real-time resource efficiency can be
implementation of the proposed extended in further study.
IoT-enabled ECG monitoring
framework.
58 To propose a remote monitoring Indoor (Hospital) Wi-Fi Heart activity sensor Yes Further study can be extended (Y.[99])
system for hospital patient by implementing more
physiological parameters. physiological parameters on the
farmer.
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Table 2 (continued )
S. Objective Category Wireless Types of Sensors Implemented Limitation Reference
No. Technology (Yes/No)

59 To develop an algorithm to Indoor Wi-Fi and Medical sensor No Zigbee and IEEE wireless [100]
control the wifi networks and Zigbee technology can be used for the
reduce delay in physiological IoT system to monitor health
signals. parameters.
60 To propose a secure IoT system Indoor Bluetooth Medical sensor No Clinical studies will be required (J. Y.
for monitoring patients’ daily to evaluate the effectiveness of [101])
activity. delivering comprehensive data
to farmers and doctors.
61 Develop an IoT-based hybrid Indoor LoRA UV and CO2 sensors No A smart gateway system can be (F.[102])
and wearable network system developed with wireless sensors
for safety monitoring industrial and technology. That reduces
applications. the latency and improves the
efficiency of the network system.
62 Design and development of Indoor & Outdoor Wi-Fi Pulse, body temperature, Yes Further study can be extended [103]
Smart clothing to monitor electrocortical, by taking more health
various physiological myocardial, and blood assessment parameters among
parameters of the human body. oxygen sensors the farmers.

STMS- Sensing Technique and Management System; UAVs- Unmanned Aerial Vehicles; IoT Platform- Internet of Things Platform; DSS- Decision Support System; RTK-
Real-Time Kinetics; CC- Cloud Computing; WSNs- Wireless Sensor Networks; RS- Remote Sensing; RFID- Radio Frequency Identification; LoRA- Long Range (Wireless
Data Communication); AgroDSS- Agriculture Decision Support System; WUSNs- Wireless Underground Sensor Networks; WSANs- Wireless Sensor Actuator Networks;
Wi-Fi- Wireless Fidelity; AgriLoRA- Agriculture Long Range (Wireless Data Communication); 4 G- 4th Generation; WiLD- Wifi based Long Distance; LoRAWAN- Long
Range Wide Area Networks; ECG- Electrocardiography; UV- Ultraviolet; CO2- Carbon Dioxide; GIS- Geographic Information System; SDI- Serial Data Interface; pH-
Potential of Hydrogen; T- Temperature; H-Humidity; M- Moisture; C- Carbon Dioxide; NPK-Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium; P-Pressure

scope and comprehensive and demonstrate substantial improvements major performance of the farm activities. Although the monitoring
due to changes in the many technologies employed, issues to be processes of the farm are possible with human involvement, the smart
resolved, and crucial elements that must be addressed [116]. Most of the and effective elements in these circumstances would be quite lacking,
research has concentrated on certain agricultural practices, suggesting and thus more emphatic solutions are needed. The existing monitoring
that the volume of studies carried out in the domain was substantial. and sensor-based solutions are required for the farmers to monitor
Sankpal & Warhade [117] elaborates that the Monitoring, sensing, and critical levels accurately [118]. The detection of weeds and the water
decision-making integral based on big data-based are three important level of soil by sensors as well as picture processing issues result in
areas in which the making fundamental to smart farming was carried extensive monitoring of agricultural activities [119].
out: one of the main aspects of systems installation is to measure the Some of the main advantages of these monitoring systems include

Fig. 4. Representation among countries and technologies in chord diagram.

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

fast reaction warnings to farmers, and safety surveillance, even in the Technology drives system progress, but wireless technologies also
absence of farmers in the field. Many options were available based on play a significant part in IoT systems due to their applicability. The se­
wired networks or wireless networking technologies. Given the cir­ lection of these wireless technologies completely depends on the agri­
cumstances that cause developments, the teams must be able to take the culture activity application. The purpose is to represent the adoption of
required response measures to manage crop-level skills [43]. different technologies among the various countries in Fig. 4. At the same
time, the different advanced technologies of UAVs (Unmanned Aerial
4.1. Country-wise contribution of technology in agriculture Vehicles) are enabled with different wireless technologies such as RS
(Remote Sensing), RTK (Real-Time Kinetic), and Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidel­
The smart IoT system promises a new agricultural sector revolution ity). Although RS, CC (Cloud Computing), Zigbee, RFID (Radio Fre­
to increase productivity with emerging technologies such as IoT plat­ quency Identification), Wi-Fi, WiLD (Wi-Fi-based Long Distance), and
forms, UAVs, STMS, and DSS [2]. Fig. 4 depicts the technologies used by WSNs (Wireless Sensor Networks), wireless technology is followed by
different nations across the world. The chord diagram (Fig. 4) shows the IoT-P (Internet of Things Platform). Likewise, DSS (Decision Support
graphical relationship among the countries and technologies used. System) follows wireless technology such as LoRA (Long Range),
The thickness of the string shows the volume of research done by a AgroDSS (Agriculture Decision Support System), WSNs, and AgriLoRA
country using a specific technology. About the first instance, the dia­ (Agriculture Long Range). In the end, STMS following the RS, WSNs,
gram shows that almost all the mentioned countries used STMS tech­ 6LoWPAN (6-Long Range Wide Area Network), WSNs, Wi-Fi, Zigbee,
nology. It is worth noting that India and Spain are the biggest users of WUSNs (Wireless Underground Sensor Networks), LoRAWAN (Long
this technology among all the countries. As previously mentioned, the Range Wide Area Network), LoRA wireless technology. The most used
IoT-P is another prominent technology in the IoT system in which wireless technology is RS, WSNs, and Wi-Fi in the different agriculture
certain nations work. Among all nations, India and Spain are the most aspects during farming, as demonstrated in Fig. 5.
reliant on this technology. Q 1. : What is the distribution of published articles (year, top 10 au­
Furthermore, a contributor to this technology also includes Spain, thors, top 10 countries, top 10 institute, and funding sponsors) interre­
Australia, and Egypt countries. DSS is another technology in the smart lated to agriculture IoT?
IoT agriculture system in which some countries are interested, such as
India, Turkey, Greece, Brazil, and Slovenia. At last, UAVs are advanced This study has been explained from the recent literature on the
technology using which the involvement of humans can be eliminated or evolution of agriculture systems in smart behavior. The systematic
reduced to a bare minimum. It has been observed that this technology is search was conducted in August 2022 and utilized in the Scopus data­
less utilized than other popular technologies across various areas. base. The keywords "IoT" or "smart farming" And "precision farming"

Italy

UAVs
RS

Spain
RKT
CC
RFID

IoT-P LoRA
India

AgroDSS

Australia
WSNs
Brazil
DSS
Slorenia
Czehia WUSNs
Germany
USA

Egypt

Saudi
Arabia

Greece
Wi-Fi
Turkey
Colombia
Pakistan
South Korea STMS
Thailand
Kazakhstan
Malaysia

China
Zigbee
Portugal
Canada AgriLoRA
WiLD
Taiwan
LoRAWAN
Vietnam 6LoWPAN

Country Technology Wireless Technology

Fig. 5. Representation of the relationship between countries, technologies, and wireless technologies in an alluvial diagram.

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

from the year 2010 to August 2022 are searched within the Article title, 4.4. Top relevant authors and institute
abstract, and Keyword. After that, 196 documents included conference
papers, articles, review papers, book chapters, and conference reviews, The contribution of the top 10 authors and top 10 institutes is
but this study was only focused on the full-length articles and review mentioned in Table 5. Based on scientific productivity in the agriculture
papers. Further, excluding the articles in which the publication stage in technology area. The university of technology in Jaipur is at the top.
the press only considers fully published papers and excluded the trade
journals in source type. In conclusion, only 62 articles are relevant to 4.5. Role of IoT w.r.t agriculture sector
this study; these selected articles covered our outlined questions.
Fig. 6 (line graph) represents the publication of articles from 2010 to IoT in different areas plays a significant role with a positive result. In
August 2022. The number of publications has been increasing since Fig. 9, the pie chart illustrates the percentage of documents published in
2016, and it can be seen that 85% of paper has been published in the last the different subject areas. Here, our study focused on agriculture, 9% of
3 years. the total publications.
It implies that the focus of researchers is taking place in the up­ Besides, the maximum number of percentages of publications in
coming years. Recent trends in tackling agriculture challenges have computer science is 27.3%, followed by the engineering sector at 25.1%.
boosted research efforts in these areas. The geographic graph shows the Furthermore, the percentage contribution in total publications was
importance of IoT in smart farming literature in various countries such Physical and Astronomy 5.9%, Material Science 5.3%, Environment
as India, Greece, China, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Taiwan, etc. Science 4.3%, Energy 3.7%, Bio-Chemistry 3.2%, Business 3.2%,
(Fig. 7). From the analysis, it can be concluded that India has the highest Chemistry 3.2%, Mathematics 3.2%, Social Science 2.7%, Chemicals
number of international publications in this domain. 2.1%, Art and Humanities 0.5%, Economical 0.5%, Medical 0.5%, and
Pharmacology 0.5% subject areas.
4.2. SWOT analysis The number of publications shows the adoption of IoT technology in
a different area. In Fig. 9, it can be analyzed that the publication
The SWOT analysis helps to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, contributed 8.2% to the agriculture field. Recent studies show the sig­
opportunities, and threats. SWOT analysis helps gain perspective on the nificant result of adopting IoT technology, which is necessary for the
past and brainstorm potential solutions to current or future issues (Nouri agro-industry because food demand is increasing continuously. It must
et al., 2008). SWOT analysis is a technique that divides data from an be taken seriously to overcome the public demand and to serve the
environmental study into internal (strengths and weaknesses) and population.
external problems (opportunities and threats). SWOT analysis is done Q 2. : What are the most popular Wireless Communication Technolo­
for India to gauge the possibility of leading the revolution of IoT ap­ gies, Sensors, Hardware, Modern Analytical Tools, and Secure Internal
plications, and the outcome is shown in Table 3. Systems related to IoT in smart farming applications?

4.3. Most relevant journals 4.6. Wireless communication technologies

Some journals are directly linked to IoT systems in agriculture. The Connectivity is the basic and most important requirement for the IoT
most relevant journal was Computer and Electronics in Agriculture, system. The connections must be reliable and strong enough in the worst
followed by IEEE Access. This multidisciplinary publications approach climate conditions. The following sections discuss the overview of
has contributed to their excellent publishing record in advanced infor­ different hardware, software, and gateways used in the IoT system.
mation and communication technology, sensors, wireless technology, Communication protocols allow network connection and act as the IoT
and electronic instrumentation in agriculture. The contribution of the system’s backbone. Protocols define data encoding, interchange for­
top 10 journals in the form of J1-J10 is given in Fig. 8. Furthermore, J1- mats, device addressing, and packet routing. There are some common
J10 journals detail and published articles in respective years are given in wireless technologies adopted for the IoT system as given below:
Table 4.
Detailed information about the journals is mentioned on respective a) Wi-Fi
sites. What is the impact factor, citation score, journal indexing, and
area of the journal? All these journals are published in communication, IEEE 802.11 is based on Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
broadcast technologies, networking, robotics, signal processing and communication standards, enabling data rates from 1 Mb/s to 6.75 Gb/s
analysis, control systems, etc., which are directly related to agriculture and Wi-Fi ranges of 20 m indoors and 100 m outdoors. Some other IEEE
practices. wireless technologies with data rates are mentioned in Table 6.

25
22
20
17
15
No. of Articles

15

10
5
5
2
1
0 0 0 0
0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Year

Fig. 6. Published articles w.r.t year.

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Fig. 7. Geographical representation of selected literature regions.

a) WiMax
Table 3 The IEEE 802.16 Widely used WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability
SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis Indian
for Microwave Access) standard is a built-in set of wireless broad­
scenario.
band standards. The latest upgrade delivers 100 Mb/s mobile and
S. Strength Weaknesses Opportunities Challenges 1 Gb/s fixed data rates.
No.
b) 802.15.4-LR-WPAN
1 Availability of Educational and Training programs Lack of IEEE 802.15.4 is based on Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Net­
agricultural research for the farmers. improper land
works (LR-WPAN) standards. These standards offer the fundamental
arable land. facilities are use planning.
completely definition for high-level communications protocols like ZigBee,
dependent on ranging from 40 Kb/s to 250 Kb/s. In limited devices, standards
the operate at 868/915 MHz at low and 2.4 GHz at high data rates.
government’s c) 2 G/3 G/4 G/5 G-Mobile Communication
financial system.
2 Availability of Lack of Smart farming Maintenance
Second-generation mobile communication includes GSM and
natural knowledge technological cost is high. CDMA, third-generation includes UMTS and CDMA2000, and fourth-
resources in about smart concepts can generation includes LTE. These three generations’ standards inter­
abundance. agriculture enhance crop connect over the cellular networks in the IoT devices. And provides
policies/ yield.
data ranges of 9.6 Kb/s for 2 G; 100 Mb/s for 4 G on the 3GPP
initiatives.
3 Easy Research Implementation of Insufficient websites.
availability of findings are smart farming may support from d) 802.15.1 – Bluetooth
field labor. quite difficult to reduce field labor the Bluetooth is a device that transmits data over a short range
implement on or human government (8–10 m); it is the basis of the IEEE 802.15.1 standard, low energy
the ground level. dependency tasks. and sponsored
companies.
consumption, and cost-favorable wireless communication technol­
4 Availability of Limited Crop health Scarcity of ogy. The Bluetooth standard communication device was the personal
agriculture government/ issues/diseases modern area network (PAN) with an operating band of 2.4 GHz. Bluetooth
research private funding can be prejudged. agriculture Low Energy is known for its range of data rates from 1 mb/s to
facilities and sources. tools.
24 mb/s, and all are made possible due to Bluetooth Low Energy’s
educational
institutes. ultra-low-power and low-cost standards (BLE or Bluetooth Smart).
5 Flexible Smart The usage of water Lack of smart e) LoRaWAN R1.0 – LoRa
government equipment’s are and fertilization research The LoRaTM Alliance created a recently established long-range
policies and costlier and can be reduced. laboratories for communication that outlines a wide area network (WAN) standard
financial unaffordable for farming.
for Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN). It defines the Low
support to small
farmers. landholding Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) standard to ensure interoper­
farmers who ability between diverse operations. LoRaWAN data rates range are
cannot afford it. 0.3 kilobits per second (kbps) to 50 kilobits per second (kbps) and
6 Over 70% of Lack of trained Reduce resource –
operated on 868-to-900-megahertz (MHz) ISM bands. LoRa can
rural technicians for consumption
households implications which leads to a communicate with nodes under a distance of 20 miles in different
depend on lower situations. The working battery life is up to 10 years.
agriculture. environmental f) Zigbee
footprint

Zigbee is one of the most prominent technologies for accurate

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Top 10 Journals Contribution

No. of Articals
5

J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9 J10
Journals
Fig. 8. Top 10 journals contribution in IoT agriculture.

Table 4
Top 10 journals published literature in respective years.
Source Publication Year

S. No. Journal Name 2012 2018 2019 2020 2021

J1 Computer and Electronics in Agriculture 1 1 1 3 1
J2 IEEE Access – – – 4 2
J3 International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering – – 6 – –
J4 Sensors (Switzerland) – 1 – 3 1
J5 Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems – – 1 – 1
J6 Agronomy – – – 1 1
J7 Applied Science (Switzerland) – – – 2 –
J8 Information (Switzerland) – – 2 – –
J9 International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications – 1 – – 1
J10 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology – 1 – 1 –

detection. IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-power, low-data-rate, and wireless and devices are interconnected. This technology can be widely used to
network within a 10–100 m range in different environmental condi­ increase crop quality and quantity by monitoring and optimizing farm
tions. The data transfer rate is 250 kbps, and Zigbee is suitable for conditions. In an IoT system, sensors play an important role in moni­
intermittent data transmission into the various IoT sensors. The low- toring the temperature [72], humidity [50], wind flow rate/direction
duty cycle provided low latency with low battery power. Moreover, [121], plant health [122,123], NPK [38,124], smart irrigation system
various wireless technologies used in IoT systems are illustrated in [76], PTO dynamometer [125], fuel flow rate [126], gas analyzer [127],
Table 7. light intensity [81], soil moisture [82], pH level [128], weather detec­
Wireless communications technologies play an important role in the tion [78], etc. Various types of IoT sensors in agriculture are mentioned
connectivity among the IoT system without any physical cable. Through in Fig. 10. Also, different types of agriculture sensors and their proper­
the transmission of electromagnetic signals, these technologies enable ties are mentioned in Table 8.
mobile communication, remote sensing, and other applications. At the These sensors acquire live data in required forms during different
same time, massive Machine Type Communications" (mMTC) is specif­ field operations. Sensor data can be analyzed with a smartphone and
ically designed for the intercommunication between several IoT devices. web-based application, which were generally developed for this pur­
Because it has unique characteristics such as it handles several massive pose. The major goal of these sensors is to determine the environmental
devices easily, the transmission of data with minimum power con­ conditions, plant health, and soil conditions in the agriculture sector.
sumption, optimizing the signal resources and reducing the overall Moreover, the function of the sensor is to monitor, control, secure, warn,
network load, narrow frequency transmission data, and efficient and analyze realistic and non-realistic data [130]. Sensors make agri­
communication delay. In addition, (mMTC) emerges as a crucial culture operations simple, smarter, and efficient due to self-dependent
enabler, boasting unique characteristics facilitating efficient intercom­ monitoring systems with less human involvement. The smart irriga­
munication among many IoT devices with minimal power consumption tion system is one example of a smart agriculture system that contains
and optimized network resources. several water sensors in the field. Then the system optimizes the exact
amount of water for particular crop production [131].
This section focuses on the various sensors for smart farming. In this
4.7. Types of sensors direction, the sensor’s quality must be checked or verified regularly
before collecting the data in field operations.
The IoT is a huge network in which things are connected that gather Types of agriculture sensors:
data within storage memory about the surrounding environment and
make a system smart. Apart from this, one thing is essential to make the
entire IoT system smarter. IoT is a smart ecosystem in which machines

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Table 5 a) Optical Sensors: In recent years, optical sensors have been used for
Top 10 authors and institute’s contribution. capturing images and distances. In agriculture, these sensors monitor
Top 10 University and Top 10 Institution State and soil properties such as organic matter, clay, and moisture content.
Author Country Contribution Country Moreover, there are other optical sensor applications in automated
Contribution manufacturing, transportation, holography, and health application.
Badarla, Anil University of University of Technology Jaipur, India Besides this, these sensors have several uses due to their intensive
Technology, properties such as small size, ease of use, reliability in the actual
Jaipur, India field, lightweight, immunity to electromagnetic interference, short
Mahajan, University of Pune, Manhattan College New York,
Hemant B. India United States
wavelength, and remote and multi-position measurement func­
Abdelsalam, Manhattan Menoufia University Shibin El tioning. There are some other examples of optical sensor applications
Mahmoud College, New York, Kom, (i) Physical quantities measurement such as acceleration, velocity,
United States Monufia, strain, pressure, temperature, and shape of the object; (ii) Health-
Egypt
related composite material monitoring in the form of positioning,
Bibi, Stamatia Aristotle Chaoyang University of Taichung,
University of Technology Taiwan deformation, crack detection, and measuring vibration; (iii) various
Thessaloniki, chemical properties; (iv) Biomedical measurement, i.e., blood flow
Thessaloniki, rate, monitoring skin irritants, testing of stomach and duodenum
Greece blood perfusion, health assessment and fingerprint image; (v) In­
Gupta, Tennessee University of North Wilmington,
Maanak Technological Carolina Wilmington NC, United
dustrial applications such as characterization of product, real-time
University, States image monitoring, surface inspection, crack detection, etc. Several
Cookeville, United commercially available sensors vary slightly in construction and
States properties [132].
Hsieh, National Taichung Tennessee Technological Cookeville,
b) Electromagnetic Sensors: These types of sensors are required for the
Chunhung University of University TN, United
Science and States data recording on the various components such as water level,
Technology, drainage, level of organic matter, soil pH and cation exchange ca­
Taichung, Taiwan pacity, etc. An important advantage is that electromagnetic sensors
Lin, Weiling National Taichung Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Chennai, TN, can be easily used with antennas and wireless devices [133]. The
University of Sagunthala R&D Institute India
radiofrequency identification (RFID) approach has been used in
Science and of Science and
Technology, Technology electromagnetic sensors, consisting of the reader and tags [134].
Taichung, Taiwan Each tag contains a unique identification code, and the reader’s
Mittal, Sudip University of National Taichung Taichung, function is to interrogate the tags located within the range, and tags
North Carolina University of Science and Taiwan
reply to the reader with some identification codes. And most of the
Wilmington, Technology
Wilmington, tags contain two types of elements: an antenna and an RFID chip.
United States Over the last decade, RFID chips have been used to increase their
Wang, Chaoyang Chitkara University, Rajpura, monitoring success [135,136]. As a result, chipless sensors are
Shuching University of Punjab Punjab, India cheaper and simple to use and the best alternate solution for
Technology,
single-use sensors. These sensors can be easily implemented in direct
Taichung, Taiwan
Abid, Universität Passau, National Institute of MG, Brazil
Mohamed Passau, Germany Telecommunications
Amine Intel Table 6
The top institutes with advanced agriculture technology outside India are the IEEE wireless technology and its data rates.
United States of America (USA), Egypt, Taiwan, and Brazil. While on the other 802.11a 5 GHz
side, the author’s contributions are from the USA, Greece, Taiwan, and 802.11b 2.4 GHz
Germany. 802.11g 2.4 GHz
802.11n 2.4/5 GHz
802.11ac 5 GHz
802.11ad 60 GHz

Fig. 9. Literature w.r.t different subject areas.

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Table 7
Other wireless communication technologies used in IoT systems [120].
Wireless Technology Standard Year of discovery Download speed Range (meter) Operating frequency (in MHz)

RFID Wireless 1973 10 kbps 2 0.125–5876

M2M For all protocol 1973 50–150 Mbps 5–20 1–20
LTE 3GPP, LTE and 4 G 1991 100 Mbps 35 400–1900
IEEE 802.15.4 6loWPAN 2003 250 Kbps 30 826 & 915
NFC ISO 18092 2004 106, 212 or 424 Kbits < 0.2 13.56
LoRA Wireless 2012 0.3–37.5 kb/s 3000–5000 169, 433 & 868 (Europe) & 915 (North America)
Z-Wave Wireless 2013 100 kbit/s 30 868.42 & 908.42

Ultrasound/ Radio
7% Accelerometer/ Tilt
REIF/NFC 8%
8%
Vibration
4%
Position/Proximity
3%
Magnetic
10% Chemical/Gas
12%

Acoustic/Sound
Electric Sensor (s) 1%
4% Application
for Smart
World
Leaks/ Levels
2% Flow
3%

Force/ Load/ Pressure Ambient Light/

6% Machine Vision/
Optical 6%
Temprature
11%
Humidity/ Moisture/
Motion/ Velocity/ Water 12%
Displacement 3%

Fig. 10. IoT sensor for smart agriculture system.

contact and non-contact with the soil. Also used for the tractor and
Table 8
other mounted machinery for tracking the GPS. The principle of
Different types of sensors and their properties [129].
these sensors is based on electromagnetic properties, they do not
Monitoring Sensor Accuracy Range Power directly contact objects, but the data helps to determine the essential
parameter (Unit) Supply
detail of soil properties.
Photosynthesis CI-340 <±2% 0–2000 ppm 7.2 VDC c) Electrochemical Sensors: An electrochemical sensor comprises an ion-
(ppm) GPro 500 2% 0–200000 ppm NA selective membrane that responds to a target ion and a transducer
PAR ±5% 0–2000 µmol NA
S-LIA- ±5 µmol 0–2500 µmol 0–50VDC
that detects electric impulses. For the soil nutrients detections, ion-
M003 selective field-effect transistor (ISFET) [137] and ion-selective elec­
Irrigation Irrometer- 0–100 cb ±3–2–3% NA trode (ISE) [138,139] are two types of an electrochemical sensor. But
(centibars) SR most ISE-based sensors are used in the actual conditions due to flow
Soil Moisture (VSW MP406 0–100 VSW ±5 VSW% 9–18 VDC
injection systems and vehicle-based soil sensing. However, under
%) %
Hydra 1–80 ±1.5% 30 mA real-world settings, this is not an adequate period since, most of the
Probe II active time, a response is delayed. On the other hand, ISFET-based sensors
Temperature (◦ C) T/H -50–140◦ F ±1◦ F NA have several advantages over ISE-based sensors, such as low di­
pH100 -10–120 ◦ C ±0.3 ◦ C 30 VDC mensions, high signal speed, low output impedance, fast response,
Salinity PS-2195 1–55 ppt NA
and integration of multi-function on the single chip. Among these
±1%
SAL-BTA 0–50 ppt ±1% 5 VDC
Humidity (RH) T/H Sensor 0–100% RH ±3% NA sensors, concentration level calculation of the ions, i.e., H+ , K+ ,
HUM-M2 0–100% RH < 3% RH 4.5–5.5 V NO3- etc. It was necessary to have electrodes closely touching the
HMT330 0–100% RH ±3% RH 10–35 soil while measuring the voltage. These sensors can analyze impor­
VDC
tant soil properties such as nutrients, pH levels, nitrogen, potassium,
WT 0–100% RH ±3% RH 5 V USB
Cable and phosphorus values.
Wind WMT50 0–60 m/s ±3% 5–32 VDC d) Location Sensors: These types of sensors are accurately used for the
OMC-160 0.3–75 m/s 2% FRO 30. DC farm map using GPS. Farmers estimate how and where fertilizers and
Sensors must be calibrated by following a suitable manual before utilizing the pesticides can be used with optimum quantity from these tracking
experimentation purposes. Below are some suitable sensors for agriculture devices. This can detect the farm level, uneven land, and any other
practices that make the system smarter. object that traveled from one place to another.

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

e) Airflow sensors: To monitor air permeability in the soil and the sur­ requirement was a 2 W and 5 V separate power supply and ran
rounding environment in the field. These sensors have integrated without any cooling and sinks [144,145].
with the silicon chip for sensing the humidity, temperature, and • BANANA PI
other gases in real farm conditions. These types of sensors help to
reduce the micro-climate heterogeneity in the greenhouse environ­ This single-board computer, the size of a credit card produced by the
ment, which is one of the important factors of uniform production. Chinese business Shenzhen SINOVOIP Co. Ltd. Raspberry Pi, greatly
f) Acoustic sensors: Advancements in acoustic sensing offer vast op­ impacts hardware design. It also works with Raspberry Pi boards and is
portunities to explore agriculture activities in different farm appli­ compatible with Android and Linux [8].
cations. In which sensors detect sound and are used for pest detection Table 9 presents lists of various IoT hardware platforms and their
in agriculture. Whenever the pests pass through the sensors, their functional specifications, which are commonly used for different agri­
sound is detected, and after that, the sensor report to the connected cultural activities.
IoT device.
4.9. Modern analytical tools
The design is crucial for linking agriculture to the IoT, and sensor
networks built the gap between cyberspace and the real world. During Sensors are required tools to evaluate data by using machine learning
the design of the agriculture IoT network, some requirements must be algorithms to get predictive insights. Young farmers are likelier to adopt
considered: 1) Sensor network’s function must be reliable in a realistic modern equipment because they use new smart tools to back up their
environment for a long time without changing a battery. 2) Also, the limited on-the-field expertise. This contains computer-based tools (or
sensor network must be managed remotely so that actions like up- data platforms) enables storage, analysis, manipulation, and mapping,
gradation in software, diagnosis, and reconfiguration can proceed including almost every georeferenced data. The most advanced tech­
easily. 3) Moreover, there is a need that allows universal sensor net­ nologies assist in monitoring finances and equipment, provide alerts,
works required to enable future integration. 4) The design should be and even offer management advice. These software programmers
cost-effective and commercialized for future users. frequently target additional agricultural stakeholders such as input
suppliers, service providers, food distributors, and farmers for smart
farming. Some management systems have patented Climate Corp.’s
4.8. Types of hardware software to produce agriculture prescriptions which partnered with
AGCO Corporation in 2017 [146]. Decisive Farming Corp or AgVerdict
The main components of the IoT system are wireless devices, sensors, Inc patents these commercial solutions. In a nutshell, it is stated that new
machine language, programs, protocols, processors, etc. In the IoT, advanced technologies are the backbone of smart agriculture.
system Hardware plays an important role in running certain software. In
hardware, the processor determines how fast the system will work. 4.10. Secure internal systems
There are various hardware platforms to design convinced with new
methodology are mentioned below: The entire system should be secure enough to avoid data theft. The
program should be simple to use and accessible to farmers. The adoption
• RASPBERRY PI of sensor-based technology and cloud-based smart agriculture applica­
Raspberry Pi is a line of single-board computers created by the tion has opened the door for cyber-attacks before addressing particular
Raspberry Pi Foundation in the United Kingdom. There are various cyber-attacks to keep fundamental security and privacy concerns in
families in the Raspberry with different models, i.e., Pi 4, Pi Zero, Pi smart farming. Various sensors, gadgets, and equipment produce so­
3, Pi 2, and Pi 1. Mostly the boards have a Broadcom processor. It phisticated, dynamic, and geographical data in a smart farm. It is
performs like a computer system, generally called a microcomputer possible to have risks created by the leakage of such information, either
and multitasking microcomputer [140]. via illegal access or by an insider. Data security and privacy are critical
• ARDUINO UNO requirements in a smart agricultural environment.
This is a microcontroller board based on the ATMega32 processor Autonomous tractors, drones, and on-field sensors provide auto­
developed by Arduino. cc. Adding a USB connector to the Arduino mated and efficient commands and control operations. For further
Uno microcontrollers is a very helpful improvement to the micro­ communication, messages can be sent between machines either via a
controller family. The Arduino Uno, Arduino Due, Arduino Leo­ cloud-based network or via machine-to-machine communications
nardo, and Arduino Mega are just a few variants in the market. enabled by an edge or edge-enabled network that supports Message
Regarding Arduino boards, Uno and Mega are the most often used Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT21), Constrained Application Pro­
models [141]. tocol (CoAP22) or other IoT communication protocols. Connected to a
• ESPRESSIF SYSTEMS smart farming system, devices must first be verified. Because they often
The ESP is a flexible and widely-used IoT module that is enabled have minimal processing power, memory, and storage, traditional
with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth capabilities, supports multiple communi­ public-key infrastructure (PKI) authentication methods are not good
cation protocols, and consumes minimum power. The various pur­ alternatives. Secure communication devices in a smart farming envi­
poses in agriculture practices adopt this module. It provides better ronment necessitate protecting specific layers and inter-layer commu­
scalability, is easy to implement in actual field conditions, reduces nication [147]. For secure investigation, quantum-based cryptography
resource waste, and is a better decision-making module with cost- was investigated [148]. But, its practicality in real-world situations has
effective solutions (L. [142]). not been tested yet.
• NODE MCU Farmers who invest in smart systems worry that their data may be
It is an open-source platform mostly used to develop firmware stolen or leaked. So, data security is critical, and contracts with tech­
rather than IoT systems. The ESP8266 Wi-Fi chip was used in this nology providers contain particular provisions. A critical compliance
open-source kit/module. Created with the Arduino Software Devel­ issue is to acquiring data in smart farming activities. This is particularly
opment Kit (IDE)[143]. critical given that data privacy regulations cannot resolve this problem.
• BEAGLEBONE However, copyright laws may provide high-level protections within the
This single-board computer was developed in Texas Instruments, present regulatory framework. Most farmers include IP protection pro­
which was low in cost and open source. The measurement size was visions in contracts with smart agricultural technology suppliers [149].
75 × 75 mm, and processed as the basic computer. The power Several nations worldwide have numerous laws, rules, and regulatory

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Table 9
Hardware platforms of IoT and their functional specifications.
IoT Platform Processor Voltage Speed of Bus A Memory Supportive Developing Programing Input/
Clock Width of the Communication Environment Language Output
(MHz) System

Raspberry Pi Broadcom 5V 700 32 512 MB IEEE 802.15.4, NOOBS Java, Python, C, SDIO, CSI,
BCM2835 SoC- IEEE 802.11 b/g/n, C+ +, Ruby, SPI, DSI,
based ARM11 BLE 4.0, 433RF, Scratch UART,
76JZF Ethernet, Serial GPIO
Arduino Uno ATMega32 8 P 5V 16 8 2 KB IEEE 202.15.4, IEEE Arduino IDE Wiring 12 C,
802.11, UART, SPI,
b/g/n, Ethernet, Serial GPIO
Arduino Yun ATMega32 5 v, 3 V 16,400 8 5. KB, IEEE 802.15.4, 433RF, Arduino IDE Wiring 12 C,
µ4 and Atheros 64 MB IEEE 802.11 b/g/n, BLE UART, SPI,
AR9331 4.0, Ethernet, Serial GPIO
ESP8266 L106 RISC 3.3 V, 80 - 32 KB IEEE 802.11 b/g/n Wi-Fi Open-RTOS, ESP8266 Lua and AT SPI, UART,
3.6 V BASIC, ESP- commands GPIO
MircoPython,
PlatformIO
Intel Edison Intel® 3.3 V 100 32 I GB IEEE 802.15.4, 433RF, Eclipse, Arduino IDE, C+ +, NodeJS, 12 C,
QuarkTMS ◦ C IEEE 802.11 b/g/n, Intel XDK Wiring, C, UART, SPI,
X1000 BLE4.0, Ethernet, Serial HTML5 GPIO
Intel Galileo Inter® 5V 400 32 256 MB IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE Arduino IDE Wiring, 12 C, SPI,
QuarkTMS 802.11 b/g/n, 433RF, Wyliodrin UART,
◦
C X1000 Serial, BLE4.0, Ethernet GPIO
Beagle Bone Sitara AM3358B 3.3 V 1 GHz 32 512 MB IEEE 802.15.4, 433RF, Android, Ubuntu, Perl, UART,
Black ZCZ100 IEEE 802.11 b/g/n, BLE Debian, Cloud9 IDE Ruby, C, C+ +, GPIO, SPI,
4.0, Ethernet, Serial Python, 12 C,
Jave McASP
Banana Pi A20 ARM 5V 1.2 GHz - 512 MB IEEE 802.11 b/g/n Android, Debian, FreeBSD GPIO,
Cortex-A7 Dual- Linux UART, 12 C
Core BUS, SPI
BUS
NodeMCU ESP8266, LX106 5V 80 MHz 4 128 KB IEEE 802.11 b/g/n Arduino IDE Wiring GPIO
Electric Imp ARM Cortex 3.3 V 320 32 120 KB IEEE 802.15.4, 433RF, Electric Imp IDE Squirrel 12 C,
003 M4F IEEE 802.11 b/g/n, BLE UART, SPI,
4.0, Ethernet, Serial GPIO
ARMmbed ARM Cortex M3 5V 96 32 32 KB IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE C/C+ + SDK, Online C, C+ + 12 C, SPI,
NXP 802.11 b/g/n, 433RF, Compiler CAN, GPIO
LPC1768 BLE 4.0, Ethernet, Serial

agencies. These revolve around the criteria associated with the selling network range nodes can also be proposed for monitoring the large
and manufacturing of goods. Smart farming technology may facilitate farm area. Various IoT platform architecture decisions have been
compliance, enabling farmers and regulators to monitor, audit, and shown to impact system scalability [150]. Because there are several
inspect each stage of the production process. errors occurred while monitoring the same data from multiple sen­
sors. The sensors’ results still have a higher error rate, which varies
Q 3. : Major Challenges and Components of IoT Systems during
from sensor to sensor. Standardizing the results output from the
Farming?
multiple sensors into one database should be required. It helps
The application of IoT in farming has various advantages for the minimize the barrier between the manufacturer and active uses and
farmers and ecosystem, but still, such technologies in conventional can be easily implemented into farming conditions.
farming methods have some challenges during farming, as below: 5. Energy Consumption: Basically, an IoT system containing three units
that are sensing unit, processing unit, and communication unit. The
1. Connectivity: The realistic mechanism is required some strong con­ sensors detect the input differently: weather conditions, heat, pres­
nectivity throughout the real farming conditions. The primary sure, water level, etc., and respond to the optimum results. This
challenge is that the IoT-based system contains various connectivity process takes lots of calculation time and power consumption [151],
and communication modes. which consumes lots of energy. A full energy model based on LoR­
2. Durability: Along with the connectivity challenges, the durability of a/LoRaWAN technologies can be proposed to estimate and optimize
the IoT system should be able to deal with real-time farming the consumed energy by the sensor node because it contains higher
conditions. receiver sensitivity and working transmission distance (up to 20 km).
3. Reliability: Reliability is another problem for real-time farm moni­ 6. Context Awareness: By enabling precise insights, context awareness in
toring because there is no provision to recover the data in the field of an IoAT ecosystem offers increased food production and reduced
nodes and sensors after they stop working. There can be several waste. This aid in increasing agricultural output by identifying early
problems in a real-time working environment, such as extreme disease and recommending appropriate steps to farmers based on
weather change conditions, bird or insect attacks, and other tech­ historical data. Sometimes, appropriate action cannot be taken
nical problems. So, the IoT system should be more reliable in the because of the low sample rate. From this perspective, Artificial in­
upgraded versions. telligence (AI), Machine learning (ML), and Data analytics (DA) can
4. Scalability: In the real-time farm monitoring using WSNs, gateways, be integrated into the upgraded IoT system so that accurate and
web portals, and actuators are used for the current solution. But these precise decisions can be made at the right time.
are designed and implemented only for the short area, such as 100 m 7. Lack of Security: IoT devices interact with internet connections and
x 100 m or 200 m x 200 m with limited nodes. Moreover, the actual are open communication systems. IoT agriculture equipment
need can be fulfilled by adding many sensors and nodes, or higher

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

captures a huge quantity of data that is challenging to secure. sensing of agricultural parameters, the identification of sensing location
Someone unauthorized might steal or modify the data. and data collection, the routing of data from crop field to control station
8. Maintenance: There are still certain fundamental problems, even for decision-making based on sensed data, and the visualization of re­
though hardware, software, and support choices vary depending on sults in an application for the farmer. These techniques define the
the agriculture application. Usability, maintenance, and security agriculture smart model in four fundamental agricultural layers, as
over the long term are essential to success and must be carefully shown in Fig. 11.
considered. Maintenance will involve physical access to all devices in The first layer is the sensing layer, including different types of smart
the field, whether to execute software upgrades, gather data, or sensors to collect ground data. Some smart sensors are mounted on the
remount hardware. Advanced software can help you automate pro­ ground surface to monitor and control different parameters related to
cedures and do tasks remotely, minimizing time spent in the field. the environment, soil, and crop properties directly or indirectly depen­
9. User knowledge: IoT systems are capable of monitoring different dent on smart farming. Furthermore, most developed countries use
agriculture conditions. But user knowledge plays an important role special types of UAV thermal cameras in the field to detect the heat level
during implemented the smart system into agriculture activities. and disease on the object and represent the same in image form.
Young farmers are adopting these technologies easily, but the Different types of sensors can be used for measuring the field data, such
existing old farmers hesitate to adopt these smart technologies due to as., soil moisture and temperature (10-HS, FC-28, SY-HS-220, MP101A),
a lack of knowledge. soil NPK nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium (JXBX-3001), (Environment
humidity and temperature (LM35, SHT15, DHT22, DHT11), leaf
In this context, there is a serious need for the system in the future to wetness (RS185), electrical conductivity (DFR0300), thermal conduc­
exclude the flaws mentioned above, but the system should also be tivity, wind speed & direction (SEN0170, BMP388), gases (CDM4162A,
working in real-time or uncontrolled conditions. So, the system can be MHZ16, MQ135), pH level (MCP1525), solar radiation (6450 TSR).
implemented in actual farm conditions. However, most thermal sensors are placed on the UAVs to visualize with
imaging cameras.
4.11. Various components for smart farming The Second is the network layer referring to the connection between
sensors and routing technologies. To make efficient systems, WSNs are
In smart farming, IoT promises farming productivity, crop moni­ used for crop and field management. Applying WSN in intelligent agri­
toring with data, lowering the cost with minimum resources, and data- cultural systems allows for the simultaneous monitoring and optimiza­
driven methods. Such advantages do not ensure improvements in agri­ tion of crop quality and the possibility of large-scale surveillance with
culture but promise solutions to current industries-related problems in high sample density. The continuous monitoring of many environmental
current days. The basic advantages of the IoT in smart farming are as factors via sensor nodes scattered over the field enables the producer to
follows: supervise and maintain ideal conditions for maximum yield and energy
savings. In the smart agriculture scenario, various types of networks
1. Farming Efficiency: Nowadays, farmers are pressurizing to increase technologies are utilized, such as Zigbee [53] [63]; IEEE 802.11b [62];
the productivity of crops with the decreasing availability of agri­ GPS(A. [44]) [54], LoRA (S.-C. [154]) [58,73]; LoRAWAN [48,58]; Wifi
cultural land, weather condition variation, extreme uses of fertil­ [49,56]; LTE [51,60,76]; and Bluetooth [102,155]. Wireless technolo­
izers, and deteriorating soil properties. The application of the IoT gies are essential to contemporary communication and networking due
domain is led toward enabling monitor and collecting real-time data to their several features. Wireless solutions enable seamless data trans­
and warning the farmer of any harmful effect on the crop. In addi­ mission without the need for physical cables by their portability, scal­
tion, the IoT enables automatic decision-making and subsequent ability, simplicity of deployment, and ubiquitous connectivity.
operations such as irrigation, fertilizer, and harvesting. Interoperability and power efficiency guarantee seamless integration
2. Optimization of Resources: There is another advantage of resource and optimized device performance, whereas real-time communication
optimization, such as optimum uses of water, power, fertilizers, and and dependable connectivity facilitate instant data transfer and
a very important task, island preparation, before crop production, responsive interactions. In addition, wireless technologies offer a broad
which is necessary for higher productivity. In these tasks, IoT enables spectrum of coverage, from short-range PANs to long-range WANs,
the optimum uses and requirement of the resources as needed. cost-effectiveness, simplicity of integration, and simultaneous support
3. Product Quality Improvement: Enable the IoT system in farming helps for multiple devices. Wireless technologies are indispensable enablers in
to enhance product quality and quantity. Using the different sensor’s numerous domains, such as telecommunications, the Internet of Things
optimum moisture and temperature levels during the land prepara­ (IoT), smart residences, industrial automation, healthcare, and agricul­
tion and irrigation system during the plant’s growth, the product’s ture. Their flexibility drives innovation, changing communication, and
nutrition value can be analyzed, and proper nutrient products can be engagement with our linked environment.
grown. Third is the service layer involved in collecting data and predicting
4. Controlled use of Fertilizers and Pesticides: The IoT significantly re­ accurate responses regarding the field operation. Decision Support
duces pesticides and fertilizers. An automated fertilizer system can Systems (DSS) assist with data processing by managing accessible field-
also reduce the farmer’s energy, time, and money and prevent the collected data to improve agricultural output, preserve quality, and save
wastage of resources [152]. Besides, the control over the pesticide resources. Farmers suffer large economic losses due to inaccurate
alert and assistance the preventing the pants remotely is promoted to weather forecasts and improper irrigation techniques. Data analysis is
increase the productivity and quality of the crop [153]. IoT in the most crucial aspect of IoT agricultural systems, resulting in effective
farming allows for delivering a cleaner and more organic product pesticide application and disease prevention by utilizing the micro­
than the conventional method. computer, i.e., Arduino Uno [45], [58,47,73,76,49,48]; Arduino Mega
5. Agility: Due to the uncontrol weather condition and real-time data 2560 [44,70]; Raspberry pi [51,54,56,61,89]; Microcontroller Unit
monitoring, farmers can easily predict the weather circumstances (MCU) [53]; ESP8266 [43,46,89] [89]. Microcontrollers (MCUs) are the
that will help protect the crops. core of Internet of Things (IoT) systems and are adorned with several
attractive characteristics. Their low power consumption, analogous to a
5. Key discussion magician’s enchantment, prolongs the life of IoT devices, allowing them
to endure like timeless treasures. With the processing prowess of a
The smart systems monitor the agriculture parameters and collect savant, they manage data acquisition and sensor fusion seamlessly,
crop information data. A smart farming system consists primarily of the transforming data into valuable insights. Integrated peripherals

17
C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Application
Layer

Service Layer
Management Logic
(Data analysis; Data
Processing;
Information System;
Alert System)

Network
Layer

Gateway

UAV with camera Sensor

and sensor
Layer

Different types of Sensors: Temperature, Humidity, Co2, Light, Radiation, Moisture,

Electricity Conductivity, Wetness, Raindrop, Speed and Direction sensors

Fig. 11. Illustrates the overview of smart farming [48].

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

orchestrate seamless connection, and Real-time operating system analysis, and ubiquitous computing are new ground-breaking applica­
(RTOS) support constructs multitasking enchantment. Like an enchan­ tions anticipated in recent years. The IoT applications enabled by cloud
ted portal, the memory contains firmware and data with powers of computing are referred to as a new concept in the advancement of the
enchantment. Security features protect against theft and keep data safe system to make agriculture tasks smart nature [156](X. [157]). There
and private. A fairy tale of connectivity options, from Wi-Fi and Blue­ are some open future directions have been given below from the present
tooth to LoRa and NB-IoT, unfolds, bridging the gaps between realms. study:
The ability to get software updates wirelessly is a stroke of genius that
ensures devices are always improving. Their small size and low cost 6.1. Crop health-based
entice both intrepid tinkerers and large-scale creators, beckoning them
to bring their visions to life. MCUs lead the route to IoT success like a • A cloud computing-based monitoring and storage system can be
guide through an enchanted forest, flawlessly interweaving with adopted for measuring soil characteristics, crop, environmental and
different IoT platforms and cloud services. MCUs can weave the magical other parameters during in-field operations (A. [44]).
tapestry, bringing IoT to life and opening the door to a world of limitless • A system can be developed to predict the futuristic yield of crops and
possibilities. weather variations [43,45].
The Application Layer provides the sensor network’s data visuali­ • The system can also be used for crop health monitoring and pre­
zation. The farmer can take the appropriate action after reviewing the vention from insects [158].
generated response by the system’s services. The application software • A smart irrigation system can be developed, which will be controlled
delivers information in a user-friendly manner. It may relate to various by the autonomous cloud-sensor system for the large field size [56,
field optimization deployments, including irrigation, pesticide drift 57].
control, cultivation process, crop disease prediction, mushroom pro­ • For Greenhouses, A cloud-controlled IoT-based system can be
duction [43], and crop protection. In this study, the IoT system is used developed for monitoring and enhancing the yield of off-season
for different fields of applications is soil properties monitoring [58], [64, production of vegetables and fruits under a controlled environment
64]; environment conditions monitoring [45,46], greenhouse farming [53].
[50,53], aquaponic system (S.-C. [55]), floriculture [48], hydroponic • An autonomous farming system that uses remote-controlled field
[49], disease detection [58], dairy farming [63], fishery system [89], crop planting machines must be developed to eliminate or deplete
crop health monitoring, crop disease detection [64]; smart irrigation the need for humans during farming [58].
system [64], and other smart agriculture applications [62,69]. • A cloud-based horticulture management system can help produce
Energy consumption must be addressed to support the efficiency and fruits throughout the year in different seasons [58].
effectiveness of a smart agricultural monitoring system. Due to the short • Smart farming actuators, drones, unmanned vehicles, and autono­
battery life and restricted resources of sensor nodes, energy-saving mous robots can be employed for smart farming [145].
strategies must be implemented throughout the sensor and network • The data processing system that includes data management, visual­
layers. Active and inactive operating time in each sensor node, the ization, and analysis can be implemented in IoT systems [159].
scheduling of information transmission, and the routing of data packets • A cloud-based IoT system should be developed for floriculture to
are addressed via energy-saving approaches. For immediate response keep flowers fresh and fragrant for longer [68].
and crop optimization, the system needs large sample nodes for the large • Cloud services may enable farmers to use a real-time livestock
area to detect the optimum conditions. Table 10 mentions various sen­ monitoring system that automatically increases their economic sta­
sors and their utilization in the smart farming purpose with the tus [48].
respective model number. • A cloud-enabled agrological system to monitor and control the
Despite this, several online analytics platforms, such as ThinkSpeak, quality of Agri products during shipment is required.
AI Thinker, Amazon web service (AWS), and Microsoft Azure, can • Key insights may be uncovered through big data analytics, like the
visualize and analyze live data in the cloud. These applications integrate likelihood of certain catastrophes that can be averted by taking
wireless products and solutions, antennas, modules, and RF lab services. timely actions.
• Big data analysis can be used for disease management in different
6. Future scopes crops [65].
• A cloud-based web-enabled information system backed by big data
Advanced emerging technologies, smart sensor clouds, big data may be developed to enlighten farmers about agriculture.

Table 10
Various models of sensors and their application in smart farming.
Sensor name Monitoring Sensor model Installation location Reference
term

Moisture, Temperature Soil S-THC-M008, 10-HS, FC-28, SY-HS-220, Ground [58,73,76,61]

MP101A
Humidity and temperature Environmental LM35, SHT15, DHT22, DHT11, EE160 Ground and UAV [47,73,70,64,43,46,
55,45,50]
Water level Leaf wetness RS185, VH400 Ground and UAV [64,71]
Gases: methane, hydrogen sulfide, Ammonia, Greenhouse MQ4, MQ136, MQ137, MQ138 Electrochemical sensor for [63],[43]
Formaldehyde, Carbon dioxide CDM4161A, MHZ16, MQ135 ground
Speed and direction Wind SEN0170, ANM-GA-01 Weather [48]
pH level Crop S21093, MCP1525 Electrochemical sensor [47,50]
Lumosity Soil TSL2561, BH1750 Ground [73]
Solar radiation Crop 6450 TSR, SP110, S-LIB-M003 Weather station and ground [58,51,50]
station
Rainfall Crop SEN0170 Weather station [48]
Thermal Sensor Leaf disease ThermoMAP UAV [68]
Crop Colour Leaf disease TCS3200 UAV and Ground [68]
Ultrasonic sensor Pest detection HC-SR04 Ground and UAV [54]
Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium Soil property JXBX-3001 Ground [58,70]

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

• An advanced centralized agricultural equipment control system may Different tasks have been performed in the smart farming system,
be developed using big data analytics, which can be utilized for such as data collection, data transmission, data analysis, and manage­
large-scale agriculture. ment automatically to enhance crop productivity with better farming
• A Decision support system based on big data analysis can help efficiency. Besides this, there are several hidden areas in which there is a
farmers make many crop-related decisions to improve crop yield [47, serious need to implement the IoT system, such as human health
54]. assessment parameters, as illustrated in Fig. 12, and machine health
• An automatic prediction system can be developed for deciding the assessment parameters.
appropriate fertilization period [89].
• It is possible to develop cost optimization methods basis on big data 6.2. Human health-based
analytics that may be used in the agriculture industry on a broad
scale. There is a need to design a smart respiratory system because many
• For farmers, a user-friendly climatic information analysis service farmers suffer from severe respiratory problems due to dusty fields,
must be developed for their benefit (R. [52]). dangerous hydrogen sulfide accumulation, pesticide vapors, inhale
• Big data analytics may be integrated into a supply chain manage­ gases from the tractor exhaust system that leads to many health-related
ment system to evaluate Agri-products’ profit margins. The analytics problems, i.e., Lungs problem; organic dust toxicity problems, and other
may provide the farmer with the previous information on the likely diseases related to silo fillers [161].
rotten period of the Agri-products, which will minimize the loss and
improve the value gain. • Designing a smart wearable system for monitoring air humidity,
• There is a need to develop cost-effective RFID-based identification temperature, wind speed, etc., as these are important determinants
modules for the early detection of crop health issues [62]. of heat stress [162].
• Real-time data on agriculture can be made available on smart mobile • A smart noise monitor should be developed with the smart indication
phones using Apps [62]. because If noise exceeds 4000 Hz frequencies, it often causes hearing
• There is a need to develop further a remote-control farm monitoring losses on an audiogram [12].
system for automated agriculture [25]. • A smart indicator with the IoT system could be developed to monitor
• An integrated approach to detecting appropriate irrigation purposes difficult working conditions (e.g., inappropriate seats, uncomfort­
for the different crops could be produced [159]. able postures, frequent handling operations, etc.), which can lead to
• Internet-based system design can be fabricated for pesticide spraying spinal disorders [163].
schedules depending on crop type, rate, and time. • A smart gas detector should be developed for monitoring the pro­
• The design of ubiquitous water flows control system is required [71]. duced hazardous fumes from agriculture machinery such as tailpipes
So that water wastage can be minimized during smart farming. of engines and other motorized agriculture machinery.
• ZigBee wireless network communication technology and ESP8266 • Development of the remote-control monitoring system for moni­
module can be used for IoT systems because its advantage is low toring energy consumption and other natural resources in the
power consumption, cost-effectiveness, and high reliability [160]. different farm activities.
• Such systems built around ubiquitous computing are always linked
and informed, regardless of whether they are operating. Computers 6.3. Machine health-based
of ubiquitous computing can carry out activities such as device
identification, communication, and interaction with the environ­ Some of the future work can also be done on the machine health
ment. This gives the ability to ensure consistency in any conceivable assessment parameters as mentioned below:
situation for control settings on the field. It is possible that ubiquitous
computing may provide a solution for many agricultural applica­ • A smart fuel consumption rate monitor can be developed for different
tions, as is evident from these quoted remarks. farming conditions [126].

Electroencephalogram
sensor Airflow sensor

Position sensor
Electrocardiogram
sensor

Body temperature
sensor Blood pressure sensor

Pulse & oxygen in

blood (SPO2) sensor Acceleration sensor
while driving
Motion sensor

Fig. 12. Human health assessment parameters to be monitored via IoT system.

20
C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

• A real-time temperature measurer for the engine and gearbox can be aspects, leveraging data analytics and AI for informed decision-making,
developed. So that wear-and-tear-related action can be taken by enhancing security and privacy measures, ensuring scalability for small-
monitoring the live status of the gearbox. scale farmers, and exploring IoT-based supply chain management to
• A live gas analyzer can monitor the exhaust gasses from the tractor streamline agricultural processes and improve overall efficiency.
tailpipe [127].
• A smart and live detector must be developed in the future due to high CRediT authorship contribution statement
amplitude noise and vibrations from the tractor and toeing ma­
chinery during different field operations [164]. Prakash C: Conceptualization, Formal and Software analysis,
• A smart hydraulic system detector must be developed so that failure Writing – original draft. Singh LP: Supervision, Writing – review &
in the hydraulic system of tractors and agricultural machinery will be editing, Validating, Formal analysis, Visualization. Gupta A: Validation,
overcome in the future [53]. Investigation, Writing, Data analysis, Supervision. Lohan SK: Editing,
Graphical Representation, Data curation, Writing – review & editing.
The agriculture sector has several future scopes to monitor the farm
operator and notify the farmer via the IoT system. Moreover, there is
always a need for the farmers to maintain the land for crop production. Declaration of Competing Interest
Furthermore, the government should develop financial policies to make
agriculture smarter. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
7. Conclusions the work reported in this paper.

The agriculture industry has experienced a significant turning point Data Availability
in recent years. Traditional agricultural practices give way to a new
"intelligent" perspective in the cultivation process. The so-called "Agri- Data will be made available on request.
Food 4.0" signifies a paradigm shift in agriculture by adding information
and communication technology. Using WSNs, IoT sensors, UAS, opti­
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Mr. Chander Prakash is a Ph.D. Research Scholar in the Department of Industrial and
[139] J. Růžička, E.H. Hansen, E.A. Zagatto, Flow injection analysis: Part VII. Use of ion-
Production Engineering at Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar.
selective electrodes for rapid analysis of soil extracts and blood serum.
He is the corresponding author of this study. He was awarded his MTech degree 2017 from
Determination of potassium, sodium and nitrate, Anal. Chim. Acta 88 (1) (1977)
the Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, Punjab. He started his Ph.D. in 2019
1–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(01)96043-X.
and pursuing a degree in Human Factors. His area of interest is Ergonomics, Human Factor,

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C. Prakash et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 362 (2023) 114605

Occupational Health, and Safety. He has a lifetime member of the Institute of Engineering Bachelor, Master, and Ph.D. degrees in Industrial Engineering from NIT Jalandhar. He has
(India). He has published 7 International journals and 9 international conference papers. guided several doctoral and PG students in the multifaceted Industrial and Production
Management fields. His research interests include a theory of constraints, service quality,
operations management, lean manufacturing, Statistics, and Data analytics. He has also
Dr. Lakhwinder Pal Singh is an Associate Professor in the Department of Industrial and
published his work in many reputed international journals and conferences.
Production Engineering at Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar.
He obtained Bachelor, Master, and Ph.D. degrees in Industrial Engineering from NIT
Jalandhar. He has more than 21-year experience in teaching and research, and he has Dr. Shiv Kumar Lohan is a distinguished Scientist at Punjab Agricultural University
published more than 60 national and international journals and conferences. His area of (PAU) in Ludhiana, India, specializing in AI and Robotics in Farm Machinery & Power
interest is Ergonomics, Human Factor, Safety at the workplace, Occupational Health and Engineering. He completed his Ph.D. from PAU Ludhiana in 2021, following research at
Safety, Supply Chain Management, and Sustainability. He has a life member of the Indian the CPAAS, Washington State University, USA. Dr. Lohan’s exceptional work is evident
Society of Ergonomics (ISE), ISTE, GIFT, IIIE, APPI, and IANG. He is a reviewer of many through two patents and the co-editing of two books. He has published over 50 research
reputed journals related to his research areas. He has guided 45 MTech and 6 Ph.D. during articles in International/National journals. Notably, he has received various accolades,
his career. including Best Paper Presentation at the Ist J&K Agricultural Science Congress (2011) in
Srinagar, the Best Paper Award at the Golden Jubilee International Conference on GIRD’
(2017) at Hisar, and the Young Scientist Award at the International Conference on Food
Dr. Ajay Gupta is an Associate Professor in the Department of Industrial and Production
and Agriculture ICFA-2018 in Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India.
Engineering at Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar. He obtained

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