Introduction to Research Methodology

INTRODUCTION TO
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

AUTHORS

Jyotikumarie Juggernath: African Vision Research Institute (AVRI), Durban, South Africa
Kovin S Naidoo: Brien Holden Vision Institute (BHVI), African Vision Research Institute (AVRI), Durban, South Africa
Urmilla Bob: University of KwaZulu Natal (UKZN), Durban, South Africa
Vadivelu Moodley: African Vision Research Institute (AVRI), Durban, South Africa

PEER REVIEWER

James Loughman: Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), Dublin, Ireland

INTRODUCTION
The research methodology module provides an overview of the different approaches to knowledge and has been
tailored to suit the needs of optometry students. Students will be able to broaden their understanding of quantitative
and qualitative research approaches and their related methodologies. The module essentially presents the
philosophical approaches to knowledge that have been applied in research over the past and modern period.
The value of a good research design and appropriate choice of research methods cannot be underestimated, as it
provides knowledge which has been rigorously investigated to influence critical decisions. The module therefore gives
an overview of the different research methodologies that can be used, and focuses on developing the understanding
of optometry students by taking them through the steps / stages in public health research, which essentially aims to
eliminate avoidable blindness and visual impairment.
The module sets out to briefly guide students throughout the research process based on the
following four principles behind the need for public health research:
1. Excellence: Public health research contributes to ensuring that programs meet the mission
of eliminating avoidable blindness and impaired vision, and also sets the standard of practice
in the eye health field. This includes identifying and developing effective interventions; the
efficient use of time and resources; and strategies that are relevant and responsive to the
needs of local people.
PRINCIPLES 2. Innovation: Research serves as a critical support base to develop and provide evidence for
new strategies by findings answers to critical research questions such as “What is the best
thing to do?” and “What is the best way to do it?”
3. Reputation: Research that is innovative, creates excellence, and provides evidence for
building new strategies as well as facilitates change, can attract funding from donors,
granting agencies and partners by disseminating the research findings.
4. Leadership and global impact: Public health research helps address gaps in knowledge in
order to make Vision 2020: The Right to Sight a reality.
As a student, future researcher, or practitioner:
• Need to be able to read and understand the empirical literature related to your research field
• Need to be able to design and implement your research from the initial protocol to the thesis
NEED or dissertation stage – ready for submission
• Need to be able to actively participate in research projects, evaluations, and research
workshops in the future
• Need to understand the difference between knowledge, data and information.
 Introduction to Research Methodology

RESEARCH

RESEARCH OVERVIEW

Research can be regarded as an investigation or exploration of a question or problem. It is the production of

knowledge through the use of research tools, e.g. surveys, or a combination of tools and techniques, such as focus
groups, interviews, eye screening, and observation. The process of investigation and exploration of a particular
question, problem or phenomenon, directly leads to the discovery of new information, outcomes, and solutions.
Findings can be integrated with information that already exists and used to build on theories and theoretical
frameworks.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Research is conducted to test theories (hypotheses) and find explanations for observed phenomena. Research
encourages objectivity and diversity in knowledge gathering. For example, social and behavioural patterns of subjects
and how they react with each other can be investigated to help understand their influence on, or the relationship
between, the phenomena under investigation. In addition, research information that has been shared and
disseminated can provide the background knowledge needed for other similar research. This can also allow for
retesting of the hypothesis, for example in a different locality or with a different group of subjects. The data collected is
analysed and interpreted to produce summaries of the main research findings and should allow the researcher to
confirm or reject the original hypothesis. An important characteristic of any research project is the way in which data is
collected and analysed. It is therefore important to provide guidelines, which sets out rules on the do’s and don’ts of
collecting data as well as the procedures that need to be followed. The analysis of the data is dependent on the
variables and the information collected. Different types of data need very different methods of analysis.

COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH
Collaborative research refers to an equal partnership between two or more organisations, entities, faculties who are
pursuing mutually interesting and beneficial research. Much collaboration involve researchers of differing stature,
funding status, and types of organisations that come together to conduct the following types of research:

• Cross-disciplinary: Research that examines a subject outside the scope of its own discipline without integration
from other relevant disciplines.

• Multidisciplinary: In the context of health, workers from different professions, such as optometrist, nurses and
ophthalmologists, work together to collaboratively provide diagnoses, assessments and treatment, within their
areas of competence.

• Interdisciplinary: Integrates and combines several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies in
the pursuit of a common task.

• Transdisciplinary: Crosses over many disciplinary boundaries and can refer to concepts or methods that were
originally developed by one discipline, but are now used by several other disciplines. For example, ethnography is
a branch of anthropology that is now widely used by other disciplines.
 Introduction to Research Methodology

PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH

Public health, according to the Institute of Medicine (IOM) (2003), is what we do collectively
to ensure that conditions are healthy for people. Public health research supports this mission
and as such, is the generation of knowledge that will have benefits for a particular
individual / community as well as on other individuals and communities. Public health
research helps identify problems with individuals and communities with regard to their
health. The information gained from research helps to inform strategies that are aimed at
addressing the identified problems.
DEFINITION OF
PUBLIC HEALTH
Public health research evaluates public health interventions by establishing the
RESEARCH
appropriateness, benefits, cost effectiveness, relevance and acceptability of interventions.
Research provides the information on communities and individuals that can be utilised to
improve the health of communities and address the inequalities in current health care
systems. Public health research is multi-disciplinary and extends beyond health to include
socio-economic factors - due to the recognition that the individual and communities health
can only be improved through medical as well as social, political and economic
interventions.

• Individuals with good health and quality of life

• Communities with good health and quality of life

• Strategies that can be applied to ensure that other individuals and communities enjoy
good health and quality of life

Hodge and Gostin (2004) distinguish between public health practice and public health
research / human subjects research. While much information is collected in the course of
public health programs by public health authorities, this must not be confused with
scientifically rigorous public health research which:

• Strives to be evidence-based

• Utilises randomised placebo-controlled double-blind trials - which in general is regarded

as one of the strongest forms of evidence, as in all health research. Trials may be done
at the community level
THE AIM OF PUBLIC
HEALTH RESEARCH However, public health practice occurs in the “real world”, where multiple quantifiable and
intangible factors are at play.

Example: The impact of poverty upon health and the impact of poor health on poverty

Thus, Hodge and Gostin (2004) define public health practice and public health research /
human subjects research as:

• Public health practice: the collection and analysis of identifiable health data by a
public health authority for the purpose of protecting the health of a particular
community, where the benefits and risks are primarily designed to accrue to the
participating community.

• Public health research / human subjects research: the collection and analysis of
identifiable health data by a public health authority for the purpose of generating
knowledge that will benefit those beyond the participating community who bear the risks
of participation. The same definitions should apply to the activity of researchers,
academics and other non-health authority bodies.
 Introduction to Research Methodology

PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH (cont.)

The complexity of individuals and their health demands a multi-dimensional approach to

public health research. While epidemiology and some aspects of public health research
enjoy a prominent position, the following domains have to all be considered to achieve the
information to guide interventions that result in true equity in health care:

1. Epidemiology: Distribution and determinants of disease and poor health that quantifies
the problem.

2. Human resources: Study of education models as well the process of educating

personnel to ensure the appropriate human resources for health care delivery.

3. Services: Study of service development models as well as the process of providing eye
health services - includes health systems research.

4. Technology: Study of the development of alternate technologies that are affordable,

relevant and high impact as well as the use and implications of technology.

5. Health promotion and partnerships: Study of health promotion efforts to achieve

health behaviour change and the process of enabling and empowering local people.

6. Health economics and financing: Study of the efficient use of resources, cost
effectiveness of interventions, value (inputs versus outputs) and approaches to funding
of public health programs.

7. Health, social and economic outcomes: Measure the overall outcomes.

PUBLIC HEALTH
RESEARCH
DOMAINS

  Equity  
   
  Services  
 
   
   
Human  resources   Technology    
   
    Epidemiology  
Health,  social  and  economic  
   
  outcomes  
  Health  
 
    economics  
Public  health    
research   Health   p romotion   a nd  
partnership  

Figure 1.1: Public health research domains

 Introduction to Research Methodology

RESEARCH METHOD

A research method is a technique used for the gathering or collection of evidence needed
to support the research questions and objectives. The selection of one or more from a
variety of research methods influence the way in which the researcher collects data. Precise
research methods also involve different skills, assumptions and research practices.

• Qualitative methods: result in textual or narrative information that is either descriptive,

or subject to other forms of analysis. Open-ended questions with narrative answers can
be used on survey questionnaires to elicit qualitative information.

• Quantitative methods: result in numeric data, which is usually machine-readable and

can be analysed by recognised statistical tests and models. Quantitative research is
concerned with counting things to arrive at data that is statistically generalisable.
Quantitative methods can be used to draw statistical inferences such as drawing
empirical conclusions about an entire population based on a sample, such as survey
RESEARCH METHOD
methods. Quantitative data is accumulated by asking the same set of questions to a
specific sample of a reference population, with answers recorded in numeric codes or
actual numbers.

• Rapid appraisal methods: are used to gather important information quickly, since
most collection methods (qualitative or quantitative) are very time-consuming. Rapid
appraisal methods can generate either quantitative or qualitative information,
particularly qualitative.

• Participatory methods: specifically draws the respondents or subjects of research into

the research process, partly through the use of a variety of techniques. For example,
people participate by answering questions asked by researchers via questionnaire
surveys or similar approaches; or people participate by providing resources, for
example labour, in return for food, cash, or other material incentives.

A methodology is the theory and analysis behind the research process. It is useful to situate
RESEARCH quantitative research methods within the broader methodological context of how
METHODOLOGY researchers, sociologists, marketers, etc. carry out the process of collecting information and
constructing theoretical explanations for action.

Refers to the theory of knowledge and is concerned with the nature, sources and limits of
knowledge. It distinguishes between true and adequate knowledge and false and inadequate
knowledge. It basically asks how one can develop theories or models that are better than
EPISTEMOLOGY
competing / existent theories? For example, guesses that are true or beliefs that are seen to
be true are not knowledge. So the question that needs to be asked is “what must be added
to true beliefs to convert them into knowledge?”

Empirical research refers to information that is gained by observation, experience or

EMPIRICAL experiment and is based on scientific evidence. Empirical in science refers to research that
RESEARCH includes a hypothesis that can be tested through observation and experimentation. Empirical
research methods help integrate research with practice.

When measuring the objectives and outcomes of research, it is important to keep in mind
that the research question(s) is the key. The outcomes are measured against each objective
and will not be of much use if it does not relate to the objective. Research objectives are
answered by using the appropriate methods or techniques required to collect the correct
information. Therefore the choice of tools, methods, or techniques used should answer the
MEASURING
research question and objective stated in the research. The research undertaken is guided
METHODS
by the methodologies used. The methodology sets out the design and processes to follow in
collecting, analysing and displaying the data. All data collected should contribute to scientific
rigour and be accurate. This means that the data should be able to be tested again to
produce similar results, should add to the existing knowledge base, should be scientifically
representative and should be accurate.
 Introduction to Research Methodology

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

Good research includes:
• Validity
• Reliability
• Rigour

How valid the research is and does it actually measure what was set out to be measured
and to approximate the truthfulness of the results. Validity forms the strength of our
conclusions, inferences or propositions.

• Internal Validity: the difference in the dependent variable is actually a result of the
independent variable
VALIDITY IN
• External Validity: the results of the study are generalisable to other groups and
RESEARCH
environments outside the experimental setting

• Conclusion Validity: we can identify a relationship between variables and observed

outcome

• Construct Validity: we can generalise our conceptualised treatment and outcomes to

broader constructs of the same concepts

The consistency of a measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the

RELIABILITY IN same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. It is the
RESEARCH repeatability of your measurement. Reliable measures are those that have similar scores
when tests are repeated on the same subject.

A measurement can be reliable, but not necessarily valid. Even so, a measurement must
VALIDITY AND first be reliable before it can be valid. Reliability is therefore essential, but not a sufficient
RELIABILITY condition of validity. In other words, a measurement may consistently assess a phenomena
or result, but it will not be valid unless that measurement tests what it is set out to test.

Good research includes:

• Is there validity and reliability in the conduct of the research

• Sufficient presentation of findings: consistency, trustworthiness

RESEARCH RIGOUR
• Disciplinary rigour: Is the most appropriate representation of a study for a particular field

• Rhetorical rigour: Representation of your research is dependent on a particular

audience