Independent and dependent sources

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or

current that is completely independent of other circuit elements. In other words, an ideal
independent voltage source delivers the current which is necessary to maintain its terminal
voltage. Physical sources such as batteries and generators are ideal voltage sources. Figure 1.1
shows the symbols for independent voltage sources. Notice that both symbols in Fig. 1.1(a)
and (b) can be used to represent a DC voltage source, but only the symbol in Fig. 1.1(a) can be
used for a time-varying voltage source.

Fig. 1.1. Symbols for independent voltage sources: (a) used for constant or time-varying
voltage, (b) used for constant voltage (dc).

Fig.1.2. Symbol for independent current source.

Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an active element that provides a

specified current completely independent of the voltage across the source. That is, the current
source delivers to the circuit whatever voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current.
The symbol for an independent current source is displayed in Fig. 1.2, where the arrow
indicates the direction of current i.
An ideal dependent or controlled source is an active element in which the source is controlled
by another voltage or current. Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped
symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3. Symbols for (a) dependent voltage source, (b) dependent current source

An example of the independent and dependent source is given in Fig. 1.4. Since the
control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in
the circuit, and the source can be voltage or current. There are four possible types of dependent
sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)

3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)

4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS)

 Fig. 1.4. Example circuit for dependent and independent sources

S1 – Independent source

S2 – Independent source

S3 – Dependent source

S4 – Dependent source

For reference,

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational

amplifiers, and integrated circuits. An example of a current-controlled voltage source is shown
in Fig. 1.5, where the voltage of the voltage source depends on the current 𝑖 through element
C. The key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage source comes with polarities in its symbol,
while a current source comes with an arrow, irrespective of what it depends on.
 Fig. 1.5. The source on the right-hand side is a current-controlled voltage source

For reference,

Problem:

1) Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element for the below circuit.
Solution:

We apply the sign convention for power 𝑃1 , the 5A current is out of the positive terminal (or
into the negative terminal);

hence,

P1 = 20(−5) = 100𝑊

For 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 , the current flows into the positive terminal of the element in each case.

P2 = 12(5) = 60𝑊

P3 = 8(6) = 48𝑊

For 𝑃4 , we should note that the voltage is 8 V (positive at the top), the same as the voltage.
since both the passive element and the dependent source are connected to the same terminals.
(Remember that voltage is always measured across an element in a circuit.) Since the current
flows out of the positive terminal,

P4 = 8(−0.2𝐼)

= 8(−0.2 × 5) = −8𝑊

We should observe that the 20-V independent voltage source and dependent current source
are supplying power to the rest of the network, while the two passive elements are absorbing
power. Also,

P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 = −100 + 60 + 48 − 8 = 0

Hence, the total power supplied equals the total power absorbed.

Practice problem:

1) Find 𝑖1 and 𝑉 for the below circuit.

2.4k
Answer: 𝑖1 = 50𝜇𝐴, 𝑉 = 4.175𝑉

For reference,

Nodal analysis with independent sources (Steady state)

Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages
as the circuit variables. Nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage method. Choosing
node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the
number of equations one must solve simultaneously.

Node: The common point where two or more elements are connected.

Procedure: 1. Identify the total number of nodes.

2. Assign the voltage at each node. One node is taken as a reference node (datum).

3. Develop the KCL equation for each non-reference node.

4. Solve the KCL equation to get the node voltage.

The number of equations required to solve an electrical network is

𝑒 =𝑁−1

𝑁 denotes the number of nodes

Problem:

1) Compute 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 for the following circuit.

Solution:

The supernode contains the 2V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10 ohm resistor. Applying
KCL to the supernode gives,

2 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 7

Expressing 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 in terms of the node voltages,

𝑣1 − 0 𝑣2 − 0
2= + +7
2 4

8 = 2𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 28

or

𝑣2 = −20 − 2𝑣1 (1)

To get the relationship between 𝑣1 and 𝑣2, apply KVL to the circuit

−𝑣1 − 2 + 𝑣2 = 0
 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 2 (2)

From Eqs. (1) and (2)

𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 2 = −20 − 2𝑣1
or
3𝑣1 = −22

𝑣1 = 7.33𝑉

𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 2

𝑣2 = 5.33𝑉

Hence, 𝑣1 = 7.33𝑉 𝑣2 = 5.33𝑉

Note that the 10 ohm does not make any difference because it is connected across the
supernode.

Practice problem:

1) Obtain the node voltages in the circuit below.

Answer: 𝑉1 = −2𝑉, 𝑉2 = −14𝑉

For reference,

Mesh analysis with independent sources (Steady state)

Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh
currents as the circuit variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit
variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations that must be solved
simultaneously. Recall that a loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once. A mesh
is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it. Nodal analysis applies KCL to find
unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown
currents. planar circuit can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another;
otherwise, it is nonplanar.

Mesh: It is a loop that doesn’t contain any inner loop.

Procedure: 1. Identify the total number of meshes.

2. Assign the mesh currents.

3. Develop the KVL equation for each mesh.

4. Solve the KVL equation to find the mesh currents.

Problem:

1) For the circuit given below, find the branch currents 𝐼1, 𝐼2, and 𝐼3 using mesh analysis.

Mesh 1 Mesh 2

𝑖1 𝑖2

Solution:

Applying KVL to mesh 1,

−15 + 5𝑖 + 10(𝑖1 − 𝑖2) − 10 = 0
3𝑖1 − 2𝑖2 = 1 (1)

For mesh2,
6𝑖2 + 4𝑖2 + 10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1) − 10 = 0
𝑖1 = 2𝑖2 − 1 (2)

Method 1: Using the substitution method, substitute Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), and write

6𝑖2 − 3 − 2𝑖2 = 1
𝑖2 = 1𝐴
From Eq. (2),
𝑖1 = 2𝑖2 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1𝐴
Thus,
𝐼1 = 𝑖1 = 1𝐴, 𝐼2 = 𝑖2 = 1𝐴, 𝐼3 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 0

Method 2: To use Cramer’s rule, use Eqs. (1) and (2) in matrix form as
 Equations (1) and (1) can be put in matrix form as
3 −2 𝑖1 1
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−1 2 𝑖2 1
From which the obtained determinants are,
3 −2
Δ=| |=6−2 =4
−1 2
1 −2
Δ1 = | | =2+2 =4
1 2
3 1
Δ2 = | |=3+1 =4
−1 1
Hence,
Δ1
i1 = = 1𝐴
Δ
Δ2
i2 = = 1𝐴
Δ

Practice problem:

1) Use mesh analysis to determine currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 in the circuit.

𝑖1 𝑖2

Answer: 𝑖1 = 0.93𝐴, 𝑖2 = −0.21𝐴

For reference,

Introduction to AC circuits and parameters

Introduction:

The analysis conducted thus far has predominantly focused on direct current (DC)
circuits, those influenced by constant or time-invariant sources. This limitation to DC sources
was chosen for simplicity, pedagogical reasons, and to reflect historical circumstances. In the
late 1800s, the battle between direct current and alternating current emerged among electrical
engineers. DC sources were historically the primary means of providing electric power.

For the sake of historical continuity, we began with the study of DC sources. However,
we now shift the focus to circuits where the source voltage or current is time-varying. This
chapter specifically delves into the analysis of circuits subject to sinusoidally time-varying
excitation essentially, circuits influenced by sinusoidal signals. The historical progression
underscores the shift from DC to AC dominance. AC systems prevailed due to their efficiency
and economic advantages in long-distance transmission. This chapter marks the initiation of
the exploration into circuits influenced by time-varying sources, particularly sinusoidal
excitation. There are some advantages of using an AC circuit over a DC.

 A transformer can be used to increase or decrease the voltage in an AC system. It is

difficult to raise and lower voltages in a DC system.
 AC signals can be electrically transmitted at high voltage.
 AC electrical motors are less expensive, have a simpler design, and require less
maintenance.
 When needed, an AC supply can be readily changed to a DC source.

For reference,