Other QB Click

1- a) FIFO replacement
b) LRU replacement
c)Optimal Page Replacement.-10

1. First In First Out (FIFO): This is the simplest page replacement algorithm. In
this algorithm, the operating system keeps track of all pages in the memory in a
queue, the oldest page is in the front of the queue. When a page needs to be replaced
page in the front of the queue is selected for removal.
Example 1: Consider page reference string 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6, 3 with 3 page
frames.Find the number of page faults.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 1, 3, 0 came they are allocated to the empty
slots —> 3 Page Faults.
when 3 comes, it is already in memory so —> 0 Page Faults. Then 5 comes, it is not
available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 1. —>1 Page Fault. 6
comes, it is also not available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 3 —
>1 Page Fault. Finally, when 3 come it is not available so it replaces 0 1 page
fault.

2. Optimal Page replacement: In this algorithm, pages are replaced which would
not be used for the longest duration of time in the future.
Example-2: Consider the page references 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3 with 4
page frame. Find number of page fault.
Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots —> 4
Page faults
0 is already there so —> 0 Page fault. when 3 came it will take the place of 7
because it is not used for the longest duration of time in the future.—>1 Page
fault. 0 is already there so —> 0 Page fault. 4 will takes place of 1 —> 1 Page
Fault.
Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault because they are already
available in the memory.
Optimal page replacement is perfect, but not possible in practice as the operating
system cannot know future requests. The use of Optimal Page replacement is to set
up a benchmark so that other replacement algorithms can be analyzed against it.
3. Least Recently Used: In this algorithm, page will be replaced which is least
recently used.
Example-3: Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3
with 4 page frames. Find number of page faults.
Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots —> 4
Page faults
0 is already their so —> 0 Page fault. when 3 came it will take the place of 7
because it is least recently used —>1 Page fault
0 is already in memory so —> 0 Page fault.
4 will takes place of 1 —> 1 Page Fault
Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault because they are already
available in the memory.

2- FCFS, SJF, RR-15

First Come First Serve (FCFS)

 Jobs are executed on first come, first serve basis.
 It is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
 Easy to understand and implement.
 Its implementation is based on FIFO queue.
 Poor in performance as average wait time is high.

Wait time of each process is as follows −

Process Wait Time : Service Time - Arrival Time

P0 0-0=0

P1 5-1=4

P2 8-2=6

P3 16 - 3 = 13

Average Wait Time: (0+4+6+13) / 4 = 5.75

Shortest Job Next (SJN)
 This is also known as shortest job first, or SJF
 This is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
 Best approach to minimize waiting time.
  Easy to implement in Batch systems where required CPU time is known
in advance.
 Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU
time is not known.
 The processer should know in advance how much time process will
take.
Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time

Proces Arrival Execution Service

s Time Time Time

P0 0 5 0

P1 1 3 5

P2 2 8 14

P3 3 6 8

Waiting time of each process is as follows −

Process Waiting Time

P0 0-0=0

P1 5-1=4

P2 14 - 2 = 12

P3 8-3=5

Average Wait Time: (0 + 4 + 12 + 5)/4 = 21 / 4 = 5.25

Priority Based Scheduling
 Priority scheduling is a non-preemptive algorithm and one of the most
common scheduling algorithms in batch systems.
  Each process is assigned a priority. Process with highest priority is to
be executed first and so on.
 Processes with same priority are executed on first come first served
basis.
 Priority can be decided based on memory requirements, time
requirements or any other resource requirement.
Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time, and priority. Here
we are considering 1 is the lowest priority.

Process Arrival Execution Priorit Service

Time Time y Time

P0 0 5 1 0

P1 1 3 2 11

P2 2 8 1 14

P3 3 6 3 5

Waiting time of each process is as follows −

Process Waiting Time

P0 0-0=0

P1 11 - 1 = 10

P2 14 - 2 = 12

P3 5-3=2

Average Wait Time: (0 + 10 + 12 + 2)/4 = 24 / 4 = 6

Shortest Remaining Time
  Shortest remaining time (SRT) is the preemptive version of the SJN
algorithm.
 The processor is allocated to the job closest to completion but it can be
preempted by a newer ready job with shorter time to completion.
 Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU
time is not known.
 It is often used in batch environments where short jobs need to give
preference.
Round Robin Scheduling
 Round Robin is the preemptive process scheduling algorithm.
 Each process is provided a fix time to execute, it is called a quantum.
 Once a process is executed for a given time period, it is preempted and
other process executes for a given time period.
 Context switching is used to save states of preempted processes.

Wait time of each process is as follows −

Process Wait Time : Service Time - Arrival Time

P0 (0 - 0) + (12 - 3) = 9

P1 (3 - 1) = 2

P2 (6 - 2) + (14 - 9) + (20 - 17) = 12

P3 (9 - 3) + (17 - 12) = 11

Average Wait Time: (9+2+12+11) / 4 = 8.5

3- FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN, LOOK, C-LOOK-15

Disk Scheduling Algorithms

1. FCFS: FCFS is the simplest of all the Disk Scheduling Algorithms. In
FCFS, the requests are addressed in the order they arrive in the disk
queue.Let us understand this with the help of an example.
Example:
Suppose the order of request is- (82,170,43,140,24,16,190)
And current position of Read/Write head is: 50
So, total overhead movement (total distance covered by the disk arm) : =(82-
50)+(170-82)+(170-43)+(140-43)+(140-24)+(24-16)+(190-16) =642
Advantages:
 Every request gets a fair chance
 No indefinite postponement
Disadvantages:
 Does not try to optimize seek time
 May not provide the best possible service
1. SSTF: In SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First), requests having shortest seek
time are executed first. So, the seek time of every request is calculated in
advance in the queue and then they are scheduled according to their
calculated seek time. As a result, the request near the disk arm will get
executed first. SSTF is certainly an improvement over FCFS as it
decreases the average response time and increases the throughput of
system.Let us understand this with the help of an example.
Example:
1. Suppose the order of request is- (82,170,43,140,24,16,190)
And current position of Read/Write head is :
 50

So,
total overhead movement (total distance covered by the disk arm)
=(50-43)+(43-24)+(24-16)+(82-16)+(140-82)+(170-140)+(190-170) =208
Advantages:
 Average Response Time decreases
 Throughput increases
Disadvantages:
 Overhead to calculate seek time in advance
 Can cause Starvation for a request if it has a higher seek time as compared
to incoming requests
 High variance of response time as SSTF favors only some requests
SCAN: In SCAN algorithm the disk arm moves in a particular direction and services
the requests coming in its path and after reaching the end of the disk, it reverses its
direction and again services the request arriving in its path. So, this algorithm works
as an elevator and is hence also known as an elevator algorithm. As a result, the
requests at the midrange are serviced more and those arriving behind the disk arm
will have to wait.
Example:
1. Suppose the requests to be addressed are-82,170,43,140,24,16,190. And
the Read/Write arm is at 50, and it is also given that the disk arm should
move “towards the larger
 value”.

Therefore, the total overhead movement (total distance covered by the disk arm) is
calculated as:
1. =(199-50)+(199-16) =332

Advantages:
 High throughput
 Low variance of response time
 Average response time
Disadvantages:
 Long waiting time for requests for locations just visited by disk arm
1. CSCAN: In SCAN algorithm, the disk arm again scans the path that has
been scanned, after reversing its direction. So, it may be possible that too
many requests are waiting at the other end or there may be zero or few
requests pending at the scanned area.
These situations are avoided in CSCAN algorithm in which the disk arm instead of
reversing its direction goes to the other end of the disk and starts servicing the
requests from there. So, the disk arm moves in a circular fashion and this algorithm
is also similar to SCAN algorithm and hence it is known as C-SCAN (Circular
SCAN).
Example:
Suppose the requests to be addressed are-82,170,43,140,24,16,190. And the
Read/Write arm is at 50, and it is also given that the disk arm should move “towards
the larger
value”.

so, the total overhead movement (total distance covered by the disk arm) is
calculated as:
=(199-50)+(199-0)+(43-0) =391 Advantages:
 Provides more uniform wait time compared to SCAN
1. LOOK: It is similar to the SCAN disk scheduling algorithm except for the
difference that the disk arm in spite of going to the end of the disk goes
only to the last request to be serviced in front of the head and then reverses
its direction from there only. Thus it prevents the extra delay which
occurred due to unnecessary traversal to the end of the disk.

Example:
1. Suppose the requests to be addressed are-82,170,43,140,24,16,190. And
the Read/Write arm is at 50, and it is also given that the disk arm should
move “towards the larger value”.
So, the total overhead movement (total distance covered by the disk arm) is
calculated as:
1. =(190-50)+(190-16) =314

2. CLOOK: As LOOK is similar to SCAN algorithm, in similar way,

CLOOK is similar to CSCAN disk scheduling algorithm. In CLOOK, the
disk arm in spite of going to the end goes only to the last request to be
serviced in front of the head and then from there goes to the other end’s
last request. Thus, it also prevents the extra delay which occurred due to
unnecessary traversal to the end of the disk.

4- Mutual-exclusion implementation with test and set() instruction.-15

The test-and-set instruction is a synchronization primitive that can be used to implement

mutual exclusion in multi-threaded or multi-process environments. It provides an atomic
read-modify-write operation that sets a flag while returning its previous value. Here's a simple
implementation of mutual exclusion using the test-and-set instruction:
 In the above example, the acquire_lock() function is called by a thread or process when it
wants to enter the critical section. It repeatedly calls the test_and_set() function until it
successfully sets the flag to True, indicating that the lock has been acquired.

The release_lock() function is called by the thread or process when it wants to exit the critical
section. It simply sets the flag to False, releasing the lock for other threads or processes to
acquire.

The test_and_set() function implements the test-and-set instruction. It atomically sets the
target variable to True and returns its previous value. This ensures that only one thread or
process can set the flag to True at a time, allowing mutual exclusion.

It's worth noting that this implementation assumes that the test-and-set instruction itself is
atomic. In practice, atomic instructions are typically provided by the underlying hardware or
operating system. The above code demonstrates the basic idea, but the actual implementation
may vary depending on the specific programming language or platform being used.

5- Critical Section problem. Illustrate the software-based solution to the Critical Section
problem.15
The critical section is a code segment where the shared variables can be accessed. An atomic
action is required in a critical section i.e. only one process can execute in its critical section
at a time. All the other processes have to wait to execute in their critical sections.
A diagram that demonstrates the critical section is as follows −

In the above diagram, the entry section handles the entry into the critical section. It acquires
the resources needed for execution by the process. The exit section handles the exit from the
critical section. It releases the resources and also informs the other processes that the critical
section is free.

Solution to the Critical Section Problem

The critical section problem needs a solution to synchronize the different processes. The
solution to the critical section problem must satisfy the following conditions −

 Mutual Exclusion
Mutual exclusion implies that only one process can be inside the critical
section at any time. If any other processes require the critical section, they
must wait until it is free.
 Progress
Progress means that if a process is not using the critical section, then it should
not stop any other process from accessing it. In other words, any process can
enter a critical section if it is free.
 Bounded Waiting
Bounded waiting means that each process must have a limited waiting time. Itt
should not wait endlessly to access the critical section.

6- The concept of Thrashing. What is the cause of Thrashing? How does the system detect
Thrashing.-15
 Thrashing is a phenomenon that occurs in computer systems when the system's performance
drastically decreases due to excessive and inefficient use of system resources, particularly
virtual memory. It typically happens when a system is overwhelmed with a high demand for
memory but cannot efficiently allocate it to meet the demand. Instead, the system spends a
significant amount of time and resources swapping data between physical memory (RAM)
and the disk, resulting in a severe degradation of performance.

The primary cause of thrashing is an excessive number of page faults. A page fault happens
when a program requests data that is not currently in physical memory and must be loaded
from the disk. If a system is constantly experiencing page faults and continuously swapping
pages in and out of the disk, it leads to thrashing.

Thrashing can occur due to several reasons:

Insufficient memory: When a system does not have enough physical memory to hold all the
actively used data and programs, it relies heavily on swapping pages between the disk and
RAM, leading to thrashing.

Overloaded system: If the system is running too many processes simultaneously, each
requiring a significant amount of memory, it can cause excessive demand for memory
resources and result in thrashing.

Poor memory management: Inefficient memory management algorithms or policies can

contribute to thrashing. For example, if the system is using a paging algorithm that does not
effectively prioritize frequently accessed pages, it may waste resources on unnecessary disk
swaps, exacerbating thrashing.

Detecting thrashing can be challenging, but some common indicators include:

High page fault rate: Monitoring the number of page faults per unit of time can provide
insights into thrashing. A significant increase in page faults might indicate that the system is
struggling to keep up with memory demands.

Low CPU utilization: In a thrashing system, the CPU may be mostly idle because it spends
most of its time waiting for page swaps to complete. If the CPU utilization remains
consistently low despite the system being busy, it can be a sign of thrashing.

Excessive disk activity: Thrashing involves frequent swapping of pages between RAM and
disk. Therefore, monitoring disk activity can reveal high disk usage due to constant page
swapping.
Slow response time: If the system becomes unresponsive or experiences significant delays in
executing tasks, it can be an indication of thrashing. This slowdown occurs because the
system spends excessive time on disk I/O operations rather than processing tasks.

7- File Directories and their operation types.-10

File directories are a fundamental component of file systems that organize and
manage files and folders within a storage system. They provide a hierarchical
structure that allows users to locate and access files efficiently.
Here are some common directory operations:
 Creating Directories:
mkdir: Creates a new directory in the file system.
mkdir -p: Creates parent directories recursively if they don't exist.

Listing Directory Contents:

ls: Lists the files and directories in a given directory.
ls -l: Provides a detailed listing, including file permissions, sizes, and timestamps.

Changing Directories:
cd: Changes the current working directory to the specified directory.
cd ..: Moves up one level in the directory hierarchy.
cd ~: Moves to the user's home directory.

Removing Directories:
rmdir: Deletes an empty directory.
rm -r: Removes a directory and its contents recursively.

Navigating Directories:
pwd: Prints the current working directory.

Renaming or Moving Directories:

mv: Renames or moves a directory to a new location.

Copying Directories:
cp -r: Copies a directory and its contents recursively to a new location.

Checking Directory Information:

stat: Displays detailed information about a directory, including size, permissions, and
timestamps.

Changing Directory Permissions:

chmod: Modifies the permissions of a directory.
These operations help users manage and organize files and directories within a file
system, enabling efficient storage and retrieval of data. The specific commands and
syntax may vary depending on the operating system or file system being used.

8- similarities and dissimilarities (differences) between process and thread.10

Difference between Process and Thread

The following table highlights the major differences between a process and a thread −

Comparison Basis Process Thread

Definition A process is a program under execution A thread is a lightweight process that can
i.e. an active program. be managed independently by a scheduler

Context switching Processes require more time for context Threads require less time for context
time switching as they are heavier. switching as they are lighter than
processes.

Memory Sharing Processes are totally independent and A thread may share some memory with its
don’t share memory. peer threads.

Communication Communication between processes Communication between threads requires

requires more time than between less time than between processes.
threads.

Blocked If a process gets blocked, remaining If a user level thread gets blocked, all of
processes can continue execution. its peer threads also get blocked.

Resource Processes require more resources than Threads generally need less resources
Consumption threads. than processes.

Dependency Individual processes are independent of Threads are parts of a process and so are
each other. dependent.

Data and Code Processes have independent data and A thread shares the data segment, code
sharing code segments. segment, files etc. with its peer threads.

Treatment by OS All the different processes are treated All user level peer threads are treated as a
separately by the operating system. single task by the operating system.

Time for creation Processes require more time for Threads require less time for creation.
creation.

Time for Processes require more time for Threads require less time for termination.
termination termination.

9- types of thread and their advantages, and disadvantages-10

Threads are lightweight units of execution within a process that enable concurrent execution of
multiple tasks. They provide several advantages and disadvantages based on their types and usage.
Here are some common types of threads along with their advantages and disadvantages:

Kernel Threads:

Advantages:

Kernel threads are managed and scheduled by the operating system.

They can run in parallel on multiple processors or processor cores.

Kernel threads provide strong isolation between threads, ensuring that one thread's issues do not
affect others.

They can take advantage of the full range of operating system features and services.

Disadvantages:

Creation and management of kernel threads typically involve system calls, which can be more time-
consuming than user-level threads.

Switching between kernel threads often incurs higher overhead due to the involvement of the
operating system.

The number of kernel threads that can be created is typically limited by the operating system.

User-Level Threads:

Advantages:

User-level threads are managed by a user-level thread library or runtime system, which provides
flexibility and control over scheduling and thread management.

Context switching between user-level threads is typically faster than kernel threads since it doesn't
involve the operating system.

User-level threads can be customized to meet specific application requirements.

They can run on any operating system that supports the execution of a single thread.

Disadvantages:

User-level threads are typically not well-suited for parallel execution on multiple processors or
processor cores since the operating system schedules them on a single kernel thread.
Blocking system calls made by one user-level thread can block the entire process and all its threads.

User-level threads do not provide strong isolation, and issues in one thread can affect the entire
process.

They cannot take full advantage of operating system features or services.

Hybrid Threads:

Advantages:

Hybrid threads combine the advantages of both kernel threads and user-level threads.

They allow multiple user-level threads to be associated with a single kernel thread, enabling parallel
execution on multiple processors or cores.

Hybrid threads provide a balance between control and efficiency by utilizing both user-level and
kernel-level mechanisms.

Disadvantages:

Hybrid thread implementations may require more complex programming models and management
strategies.

Context switching between hybrid threads can involve both user-level and kernel-level operations,
which may introduce additional overhead.

The effectiveness of hybrid threads depends on the underlying thread library and the level of
integration with the operating system.

10- Multithreading and Multitasking.10

 11- Multi-Programming and Multi-tasking systems.-10
Sr.no Multiprogramming Multi-tasking

It includes the single CPU to execute It uses multiple tasks for the task
1.
the program. allocation.

Concept of Context Switching and Time

2. Concept of Context Switching is used.
Sharing is used.

The processor is typically used in time

In multiprogrammed system, the
sharing mode. Switching happens when
operating system simply switches to,
3. either allowed time expires or where there
and executes, another job when current
other reason for current process needs to
job needs to wait.
wait (example process needs to do IO).

In multi-tasking also increases CPU

Multi-programming increases CPU
4. utilization, it also increases
utilization by organizing jobs .
responsiveness.

The idea is to further extend the CPU

The idea is to reduce the CPU idle time
5. Utilization concept by increasing
for as long as possible.
responsiveness Time Sharing.

It uses job scheduling algorithms so

Time sharing mechanism is used so that
6. that more than one program can run at
multiple tasks can run at the same time.
the same time.

Promotions, personalized shopping

In community edition, personalized
7. experiences can be displayed in enterprise
shopping experiences is not created.
edition products.

8. Execution of process takes more time. Execution of process takes less time.

12- If there are 100 units of resource R in the system and each process in the system requires 4
units of resource R, then test how many processes can be present at maximum so that no
deadlock will occur.-10

To calculate the maximum number of processes that can be present without causing a deadlock, we
divide the total number of units of resource R by the resource requirement of each process:
Maximum number of processes = Total units of resource R / Resource requirement per process

= 100 units / 4 units per process

= 25 processes

Therefore, a maximum of 25 processes can be present in the system without causing a deadlock,
given the available 100 units of resource R and the resource requirement of 4 units per process.

13- Consider a reference string: 4, 7, 6, 1, 7, 6, 1, 2, 7, 2. The number of frames in the memory is

3. Find out the number of page faults respective to:
1. Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm
2. LRU Page Replacement Algorithm
Which algorithm is better, according to you.-15
14- first fit, best fit and worst fit algorithms.-10
15- a) File attributes
b) File operations
c) File types
d) Internal file structure.-10

a) File attributes: File attributes refer to the characteristics or properties associated

with a file. These attributes provide information about the file's type, permissions,
size, creation/modification timestamps, ownership, and other metadata. Common file
attributes include:

 File name: The name of the file, which identifies it within the file system.
 File extension: A part of the file name that indicates the file's type or format.
 File size: The size of the file in bytes or another appropriate unit.
 File permissions: Access permissions that determine who can read, write, or
execute the file.
 File timestamps: Creation, modification, and access timestamps that record
when the file was created, last modified, and last accessed.
 File ownership: The user and group ownership of the file.
 File attributes may also include additional information specific to the file
system or operating system, such as file flags, encryption status, and file
versioning.

b) File operations: File operations refer to the actions or tasks that can be performed
on files within a file system. Common file operations include:

 Create: Create a new file in the file system.

 Open: Open an existing file for reading, writing, or both.
 Read: Retrieve the content of a file.
 Write: Modify or append data to a file.
 Close: Release the resources associated with an open file.
 Delete: Remove a file from the file system.
  Rename: Change the name of a file.
 Copy: Create a duplicate of a file in a different location.
 Move: Move a file from one location to another.
 Seek: Change the position within a file for reading or writing.
 Truncate: Resize a file to a specified length.
 Lock: Apply locks to a file to prevent concurrent access.
 Unlock: Release locks applied to a file.

c) File types: File types refer to the categorization or classification of files based on
their content, format, or purpose. Some common file types include:

 Text files: Files containing plain text without any specific formatting or binary
data.
 Binary files: Files containing non-textual data, such as executable programs or
multimedia files.
 Document files: Files created and used by word processors or document
editing software.
 Spreadsheet files: Files containing tabular data used by spreadsheet
applications.
 Image files: Files storing graphical images in various formats (e.g., JPEG, PNG,
GIF).
 Audio files: Files containing audio data (e.g., MP3, WAV).
 Video files: Files containing video data (e.g., MP4, AVI).
 Archive files: Files that contain compressed or multiple files bundled together
(e.g., ZIP, TAR).
 Configuration files: Files containing settings and configurations for
applications or systems (e.g., XML, INI).
 Database files: Files used to store structured data in a database format (e.g.,
SQLite, MySQL).

d) Internal file structure: The internal file structure refers to how the contents of a file
are organized and stored within the file system. The internal structure can vary based
on the file system implementation and file type. Some common internal file
structures include:

 Sequential file structure: Data is stored sequentially in the order it is written. It

allows efficient reading of data in a sequential manner.
 Random access file structure: Data is organized in a way that allows direct
access to any part of the file. Random access enables efficient reading and
writing of data at specific positions within the file.
 Indexed file structure: A separate index or lookup table is maintained
alongside the file, allowing efficient access to data based on a key or identifier.
This structure is commonly used in database systems.
 Linked file structure: Data is stored in linked blocks or nodes, forming a linked
list-like structure. It

16- Process Control Block.-10

Process Control Block is a data structure that contains information of the process related to it.
The process control block is also known as a task control block, entry of the process table,
etc.

It is very important for process management as the data structuring for processes is done in
terms of the PCB. It also defines the current state of the operating system.

Structure of the Process Control Block

The process control stores many data items that are needed for efficient process management.
Some of these data items are explained with the help of the given diagram –

Process Control Block in Operating System

The following are the data items −

Process State
This specifies the process state i.e. new, ready, running, waiting or terminated.

Process Number
This shows the number of the particular process.
 Program Counter
This contains the address of the next instruction that needs to be executed in the process.

Registers
This specifies the registers that are used by the process. They may include accumulators,
index registers, stack pointers, general purpose registers etc.

List of Open Files

These are the different files that are associated with the process

CPU Scheduling Information

The process priority, pointers to scheduling queues etc. is the CPU scheduling information
that is contained in the PCB. This may also include any other scheduling parameters.

Memory Management Information

The memory management information includes the page tables or the segment tables
depending on the memory system used. It also contains the value of the base registers, limit
registers etc.

I/O Status Information

This information includes the list of I/O devices used by the process, the list of files etc.

Accounting information
The time limits, account numbers, amount of CPU used, process numbers etc. are all a part of
the PCB accounting information.

Location of the Process Control Block

The process control block is kept in a memory area that is protected from the normal user
access. This is done because it contains important process information. Some of the operating
systems place the PCB at the beginning of the kernel stack for the process as it is a safe
location.

17- System Components.-10

There are various components of an Operating System to perform well defined tasks. Though most
of the Operating Systems differ in structure but logically they have similar components. Each
component must be a well-defined portion of a system that appropriately describes the functions,
inputs, and outputs.
There are following 8-components of an Operating System:

1. Process Management
2. I/O Device Management
3. File Management
4. Network Management
5. Main Memory Management
6. Secondary Storage Management
7. Security Management
8. Command Interpreter System
Following section explains all the above components in more detail:
Process Management
A process is program or a fraction of a program that is loaded in main memory. A process needs
certain resources including CPU time, Memory, Files, and I/O devices to accomplish its task. The
process management component manages the multiple processes running simultaneously on the
Operating System.
A program in running state is called a process.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management:

 Create, load, execute, suspend, resume, and terminate processes.

 Switch system among multiple processes in main memory.
 Provides communication mechanisms so that processes can communicate with each others
 Provides synchronization mechanisms to control concurrent access to shared data to keep
shared data consistent.
 Allocate/de-allocate resources properly to prevent or avoid deadlock situation.

I/O Device Management

One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices
from the user. I/O Device Management provides an abstract level of H/W devices and keep the
details from applications to ensure proper use of devices, to prevent errors, and to provide users
with convenient and efficient programming environment.
Following are the tasks of I/O Device Management component:

 Hide the details of H/W devices

 Manage main memory for the devices using cache, buffer, and spooling
 Maintain and provide custom drivers for each device.

File Management
File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system. Computers can store
information in several different physical forms; magnetic tape, disk, and drum are the most common
forms.
A file is defined as a set of correlated information and it is defined by the creator of the file. Mostly
files represent data, source and object forms, and programs. Data files can be of any type like
alphabetic, numeric, and alphanumeric.
A files is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its creator and user.
The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by managing mass storage device,
such as types and disks. Also files are normally organized into directories to ease their use. These
directories may contain files and other directories and so on.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:

 File creation and deletion

 Directory creation and deletion
 The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
  File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

Network Management
The definition of network management is often broad, as network management involves several
different components. Network management is the process of managing and administering a
computer network. A computer network is a collection of various types of computers connected
with each other.
Network management comprises fault analysis, maintaining the quality of service, provisioning of
networks, and performance management.
Network management is the process of keeping your network healthy for an efficient
communication between different computers.
Following are the features of network management:

 Network administration
 Network maintenance
 Network operation
 Network provisioning
 Network security

Main Memory Management

Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository of quickly
accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices.
Main memory is a volatile storage device which means it loses its contents in the case of system
failure or as soon as system power goes down.
The main motivation behind Memory Management is to maximize memory utilization on the
computer system.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with memory
management:

 Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
 Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
 Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.

Secondary Storage Management

The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together with the
data they access, must be in main memory during execution. Since the main memory is too small to
permanently accommodate all data and program, the computer system must provide secondary
storage to backup main memory.
Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium, for both
programs and data. Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines, editors, formatters,
and so on, are stored on the disk until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source
and destination of their processing.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management:

 Free space management

  Storage allocation

Disk scheduling
Security Management
The operating system is primarily responsible for all task and activities happen in the computer
system. The various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s activities.
For that purpose, various mechanisms which can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment,
cpu and other resources can be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper
authorization from the operating system.
Security Management refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or
users to the resources defined by a computer controls to be imposed, together with some means of
enforcement.
For example, memory addressing hardware ensure that a process can only execute within its own
address space. The timer ensure that no process can gain control of the CPU without relinquishing it.
Finally, no process is allowed to do it’s own I/O, to protect the integrity of the various peripheral
devices.
Command Interpreter System
One of the most important component of an operating system is its command interpreter. The
command interpreter is the primary interface between the user and the rest of the system.
Command Interpreter System executes a user command by calling one or more number of
underlying system programs or system calls.
Command Interpreter System allows human users to interact with the Operating System and
provides convenient programming environment to the users.
Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. A program which reads
and interprets control statements is automatically executed. This program is called the shell and few
examples are Windows DOS command window, Bash of Unix/Linux or C-Shell of Unix/Linux.

18- Banker’s algorithm for deadlock avoidance.-10

19- process state. Explain the state transition diagram.-10

shows the state transition diagram for the process states defined above:
Logically, the first two state are similar. In both case the process is willing to run, but in the
ready state there is no CPU temporarily available for it.
(I) Running to ready state:

 A process in the running state has all of the resources that it needs for further
execution, including a processor.
 The long term scheduler picks up a new process from second memory and loads it
into the main memory when there are sufficient resources available.
 The process is now in ready state, waiting for its execution.

(II) waiting to ready:

 Process waiting for some event such as completion of I/O operation,
synchronization signal, etc.
 A process moves from waiting state to ready state if the event the
process has been waiting for, occurs.
 The process is now ready for execution.
(III) Running to waiting:
 The process in the main memory that is waiting for some event.
 A process is put in the waiting state if it must wait for some event. For example, the
process may request some resources or memory which might not be available.
 The process may be waiting for an I/O operation or it may be waiting for some
other process to finish before it can continue execution.
(IV) blocked to ready:
 The process is in secondary memory but not yet ready for execution.
  The process moves from Blocked to Ready state if the event, the process has been
waiting for occurs.
(v) Running to terminated:
 The process has finished execution.
 The OS moves a process from running state to terminated state if the process
finishes execution or if it aborts.
 Whenever the execution of a process is completed in running state, it will exit to
terminate state, which is the completion of process.

20- MFT and MVT.-5

1)MFT or fixed partitioning Scheme:

 In fixed scheme, the OS will be divided into fixed sized blocks. It takes place at the time of
installation.
 At compile time, we can bind only addresses
 Degree of multiprogramming is not flexible. This is because the number of blocks is fixed
resulting in memory wastage due to fragmentation.

2)MVT OR variable partitioning Scheme:

 In variable partitioning scheme there are no partitions at the beginning.

 There is only the OS area and the rest of the available RAM.
 The memory is allocated to the processes as they enter.
 This method is more flexible as there is no internal fragmentation and there is no size
limitation.
 Compile time address binding is impossible because of external fragmentation.
 21- features of the Time-Sharing System.-5

 Every user gets a dedicated time for the operation.

 Simultaneous tasks are carried out at once.
 Tasks no longer have to wait for the previous task to finish to get the processor.
 Quick processing of multiple tasks.
 Equal time given to all the processes so that they operate smoothly without any
significant delay.

Advantages
Some of the advantages of the time-sharing system are as follows:

 Quick response to the users.

 No duplication of data.
 No duplication of software applications.
 Reduces CPU idle time.

22- The difference between Process and programme.-5

Program Process
 It is a set of instructions that has been designed It is an instance of a program that is being currently
to complete a certain task. executed.

It is a passive entity. It is an active entity.

It resides in the secondary memory of the It is created when a program is in execution and is
system. being loaded into the main memory.

It exists in a single place and continues to exist It exists for a limited amount of time and it gets
until it has been explicitly deleted. terminated once the task has been completed.

It is considered as a static entity. It is considered as a dynamic entity.

It doesn't have a resource requirement. It has a high resource requirement.

It requires memory space to store instructions. It requires resources such as CPU, memory address,
I/O during its working.

It doesn't have a control block. It has its own control block, which is known as Process
Control Block.

23- generations of operating system detail.-5

 First Generation (1951-1959): These were the earliest operating systems, and
they were mainly used to manage batch processing systems.
 Second Generation (1959-1965): This generation of operating systems added
support for time-sharing, which allowed multiple users to access the system
simultaneously.
 Third Generation (1965-1971): This generation of operating systems
introduced the concept of virtual memory, which allowed programs to run
larger and more complex applications.
 Fourth Generation (1971-1980): This generation saw the emergence of
personal computers and the development of the first personal computer
operating systems, such as CP/M.
 Fifth Generation (1980-present): This generation of operating systems
includes modern operating systems, such as Windows, macOS, and various
distributions of Linux, which provide a graphical user interface, support for
multi-tasking, and a wide range of advanced features.

24- Real-Time Operating System.-5

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system specifically designed for

applications that require precise and deterministic timing and responsiveness. It is
used in systems where the execution of tasks must meet strict deadlines and where
failure to meet these deadlines can have serious consequences, such as in industrial
control systems, medical devices, aerospace systems, and automotive applications.

Key features of a real-time operating system include:

1. Deterministic scheduling: RTOSs provide deterministic scheduling algorithms
that guarantee a task will run within a specified time frame or deadline. This
ensures that critical tasks are executed in a timely manner.
2. Priority-based scheduling: RTOSs typically use priority-based scheduling to
determine the order in which tasks are executed. Higher-priority tasks
preempt lower-priority tasks, ensuring that critical tasks receive immediate
attention.
3. Fast context switching: RTOSs have efficient context switching mechanisms
that allow tasks to quickly transition from one task to another. This enables
the system to respond rapidly to real-time events.
4. Interrupt handling: RTOSs have efficient interrupt handling mechanisms to
respond to external events or interrupts in a timely manner. Interrupt service
routines (ISRs) can preempt the currently executing task to handle the urgent
event.
5. Resource management: RTOSs provide mechanisms for managing system
resources, such as memory, CPU time, and I/O devices. These mechanisms
ensure that tasks are allocated the necessary resources and prevent resource
contention.
6. Deterministic I/O operations: RTOSs often provide specialized I/O mechanisms
that allow for predictable and time-bound communication with external
devices. This is crucial for real-time systems that require precise control over
I/O operations.
7. Minimal latency: RTOSs strive to minimize interrupt and task switching latency
to ensure that critical tasks can meet their deadlines. This involves reducing
the time between an event occurring and the system responding to it.
8. Small footprint: RTOSs are typically designed to have a small memory
footprint and low overhead to maximize the available resources for
application tasks.

25- context switching with a diagram.-5

The Context switching is a technique or method used by the operating system to

switch a process from one state to another to execute its function using CPUs in the
system. When switching perform in the system, it stores the old running process's
 status in the form of registers and assigns the CPU to a new process to execute its
tasks. While a new process is running in the system, the previous process must wait in
a ready queue. The execution of the old process starts at that point where another
process stopped it. It defines the characteristics of a multitasking operating system in
which multiple processes shared the same CPU to perform multiple tasks without the
need for additional processors in the system.
A context switching helps to share a single CPU across all processes to complete its
execution and store the system's tasks status. When the process reloads in the
system, the execution of the process starts at the same point where there is
conflicting.

The following steps are taken when switching Process P1 to Process 2:

1. First, thes context switching needs to save the state of process P1 in the form
of the program counter and the registers to the PCB (Program Counter Block),
which is in the running state.
2. Now update PCB1 to process P1 and moves the process to the appropriate
queue, such as the ready queue, I/O queue and waiting queue.
3. After that, another process gets into the running state, or we can select a new
process from the ready state, which is to be executed, or the process has a
high priority to execute its task.
4. Now, we have to update the PCB (Process Control Block) for the selected
process P2. It includes switching the process state from ready to running state
or from another state like blocked, exit, or suspend.
5. If the CPU already executes process P2, we need to get the status of process
P2 to resume its execution at the same time point where the system interrupt
occurs.

26- Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithm.-5

Disc scheduling is an important process in operating systems that determines the order in
which disk access requests are serviced. The objective of disc scheduling is to minimize
the time it takes to access data on the disk and to minimize the time it takes to complete a
disk access request. Disk access time is determined by two factors: seek time and
rotational latency. Seek time is the time it takes for the disk head to move to the desired
location on the disk, while rotational latency is the time taken by the disk to rotate the
desired data sector under the disk head. Disk scheduling algorithms are an essential
component of modern operating systems and are responsible for determining the order in
which disk access requests are serviced. The primary goal of these algorithms is to
minimize disk access time and improve overall system performance.

First-Come-First-Serve
The First-Come-First-Served (FCFS) disk scheduling algorithm is one of the simplest and
most straightforward disk scheduling algorithms used in modern operating systems. It
operates on the principle of servicing disk access requests in the order in which they are
received. In the FCFS algorithm, the disk head is positioned at the first request in the
queue and the request is serviced. The disk head then moves to the next request in the
queue and services that request. This process continues until all requests have been
serviced.

Example
Suppose we have an order of disk access requests: 20 150 90 70 30 60. The disk head is −

currently located at track 50.

The total seek time = (50-20) + (150-20) + (150-90) + (90-70) + (70-30) + (60-30) = 310

Shortest-Seek-Time-First
Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF) is a disk scheduling algorithm used in operating systems
to efficiently manage disk I/O operations. The goal of SSTF is to minimize the total seek
time required to service all the disk access requests. In SSTF, the disk head moves to the
request with the shortest seek time from its current position, services it, and then repeats
this process until all requests have been serviced. The algorithm prioritizes disk access
requests based on their proximity to the current position of the disk head, ensuring that
the disk head moves the shortest possible distance to service each request.
Example

In this case, for the same order of success request, the total seek time = (60-50) + (70-60)
+ (90-70) + (90-30) + (30-20) + (150-20) = 240

SCAN
SCAN (Scanning) is a disk scheduling algorithm used in operating systems to manage
disk I/O operations. The SCAN algorithm moves the disk head in a single direction and
services all requests until it reaches the end of the disk, and then it reverses direction and
services all the remaining requests. In SCAN, the disk head starts at one end of the disk,
moves toward the other end, and services all requests that lie in its path. Once the disk
head reaches the other end, it reverses direction and services all requests that it missed on
the way. This continues until all requests have been serviced.

Example

If we consider that the head direction is left in case of SCAN, the total seek time = (50-
30) + (30-20) + (20-0) + (60-0) + (60-70) + (90-70) + (90-150) = 200
C-SCAN
The C-SCAN (Circular SCAN) algorithm operates similarly to the SCAN algorithm, but
it does not reverse direction at the end of the disk. Instead, the disk head wraps around to
the other end of the disk and continues to service requests. This algorithm can reduce the
total distance the disk head must travel, improving disk access time. However, this
algorithm can lead to long wait times for requests that are made near the end of the disk,
as they must wait for the disk head to wrap around to the other end of the disk before they
can be serviced. The C-SCAN algorithm is often used in modern operating systems due
to its ability to reduce disk access time and improve overall system performance.

Example
For C-SCAN, the total seek time = (60-50) + (70-60) + (90-70) + (150-90) + (199-150) +
(199-0) + (20-0) + (30-20) = 378

LOOK
The LOOK algorithm is similar to the SCAN algorithm but stops servicing requests as
soon as it reaches the end of the disk. This algorithm can reduce the total distance the
disk head must travel, improving disk access time. However, this algorithm can lead to
long wait times for requests that are made near the end of the disk, as they must wait for
the disk head to wrap around to the other end of the disk before they can be serviced. The
LOOK algorithm is often used in modern operating systems due to its ability to reduce
disk access time and improve overall system performance.

Example
Considering the head direction is right, in this case, the total seek time = (60-50) + (70-
60) + (90-70) + (150-90) + (150-30) + (30-20) = 230
C-LOOK
C-LOOK is similar to the C-SCAN disk scheduling algorithm. In this algorithm, goes
only to the last request to be serviced in front of the head in spite of the disc arm going to
the end, and then from there it goes to the other end’s last request. Thus, it also prevents
the extra delay which might occur due to unnecessary traversal to the end of the disk.

Example

For the C-LOOK algorithm, the total seek time = (60-50) + (70-60) + (90-70) + (150-90)
+ (150-20) + (30-20) = 240