Computer Networks – Unit -1

What is a Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to
share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
A computer network is a system that connects two or more
computing devices to transmit and share information.
A computer network is a system that connects two or more
computing devices for transmitting and sharing information.
Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a
server. These devices are connected using physical wires such as fiber
optics, but they can also be wireless.

A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on

or provided by network nodes. Computers use common communication
protocols over digital interconnections to communicate with each other.
These interconnections are made up of telecommunication network
technologies based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency
methods that may be arranged in a variety of network topologies.
The nodes of a computer network can include personal computers,
servers, networking hardware, or other specialized or general-purpose hosts.
They are identified by network addresses and may have hostnames. Hostnames
serve as memorable labels for the nodes and are rarely changed after initial
assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by
communication protocols such as the Internet Protocol.

Uses of Computer Network:

o It allows you to share resources such as printers, scanners, etc.

o You can share expensive software and database among network users.
o It facilitates communications from one computer to another computer.
o It allows the exchange of data and information among users through a
network
 Uses of Computer Network
There are multiple uses of computer network including:
• Communication: Computer networks enable individuals and organizations to
communicate with each other using various methods such as email, messaging,
and video conferencing.
• Resource sharing: Networks allow users to share resources such as printers,
scanners, and files, which can improve efficiency and reduce costs.
• Remote access: Networks enable users to access information and resources
from anywhere in the world, providing greater flexibility and convenience.
• Collaboration: Networks facilitate collaboration by enabling users to work
together on projects, share ideas, and provide feedback in real time.
• E-commerce: Computer networks are used extensively in e-commerce,
enabling businesses to Buy / sell products and services online and process
payments securely.
• Education: Networks are used in educational institutions to facilitate distance
learning, provide access to educational resources, and enable collaboration
among students and teachers.
• Entertainment: Networks are used for entertainment purposes such as online
gaming, streaming movies and music, and social media.
Applications of Computer Network
There are multiple applications of computer networks including:

• Business applications: Computer networks are widely used in businesses

to improve communication, share resources, and enable remote access.

• Educational applications: to facilitate distance learning, provide access

to educational resources, and enable collaboration among students and
teachers.

• Healthcare applications: to store and share patient information, enabling

healthcare professionals to provide more personalized care.

• Entertainment applications: online gaming, streaming movies and music,

and social media.
• Military applications: to provide secure communication and information
sharing among military personnel.

• Scientific applications: to facilitate collaboration among researchers and

share data and information.

• Transportation applications: to manage traffic, track vehicles, and

improve transportation efficiency.

• Banking and finance applications: to process transactions, share

information, and provide secure access to financial services.

Advantages of Uses of Computer Networks

Here are the advantages uses of a computer network:

• Improved communication and collaboration,

• Cost savings through resource sharing. Better data management and
security.
• Increased flexibility with remote access.
• Enhanced productivity and efficiency,
• Access to remote information, Person to person communication

Basic Computer Networks Architecture

The design and setup of a computer network is called Computer Network
Architecture. It is the organization and arrangement of different network
devices such as PCs, desktops, laptops, mobiles etc.
Or
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical
design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the
transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are
organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two most well-known Computer Network Architectures are:

• Peer-to-peer Architecture
• Client-Server Architecture

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked
together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the
resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource
is down.
Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

• No centralized system, thus difficult to keep a backup of the data in case
of any fault.
• It has a security flaw because the computers are self-managed.
• Security is less.

2. Client-Server Architecture:
client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which
many clients (remote processors) request and receive service from a
centralized server (host computer).
Client computers provide an interface to allow a computer user to request
services of the server and to display the results the server returns.

Client: A client is a program that runs on the local machine requesting service
from the server.

Server: A server is a program that runs on the remote machine providing

services to the clients. When the client requests for a service, then the server
provide the services based upon Clients requests.
Any number of Clients can be added to the server. Based upon the client’s
requests the server provides the services.

• This is also known as centralized architecture. In which one powerful

central computer is in charge of serving all the requests from the client
computers. This central computer is a server.
• The client computers connect to the server .
• as and when they require the use of shared resources or shared data. All
of the shared data is stored solely in the server, and not on any other
computer.
• A server handles all of the key tasks, such as security and network
administration.
• All of the clients interact with one another via a server.

Advantages of Client-server networks:

o Centralized: Centralized back-up is possible in client-server networks, i.e., all the data
is stored in a server.
o Security: These networks are more secure as all the shared resources are centrally
administered.
 o Performance: The use of the dedicated server increases the speed of sharing
resources. This increases the performance of the overall system.
o Scalability: We can increase the number of clients and servers separately, i.e., the
new element can be added, or we can add a new node in a network at any time.

Disadvantages of Client-Server model:

• Clients are prone to viruses, Trojans and worms if present in the Server or
uploaded into the Server.
• Servers are prone to Denial of Service (DOS) attacks.
• Data packets may be spoofed or modified during transmission.
• Phishing or capturing login credentials or other useful information of the
user are common and MITM(Man in the Middle) attacks are common.

Types of client-server computing

Client-server computing uses different architectures to maintain server

networks. Here are the architecture types people who work in IT use:

One-tier: A one-tier server uses a single device to run a program. It can help
eliminate network traffic, as it doesn't require network access.

Two-tier: These server systems include a client, server and program, and they
also store the graphical user interface (GUI) on the client's device while keeping
the domain logic on a server. This server type uses Java or C++ coding
languages to display the GUI.

Three-tier: Three-tier servers combine a presentation tier or user interface

layer. This application tier acts as a service layer performing detailed processing
and a data tier comprising a database server storing information.

N-tier: An N-tier server comprises different layers that separate responsibilities

and manage dependencies or physical tiers running on other machines that
enhance the scalability of a system. N-tier servers can offer open-layer
programming, where layers can communicate freely or closed-layer, when one
layer communicates only with the layer below.
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables
the computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources,
data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is
mainly of four types:

LAN(Local Area Network)

o A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral

devices which are connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory,
home, and office building. Or

o A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the
devices in a single office, building, or campus
o It is a widely useful network for sharing resources

o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a

communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
o Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology
used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's
home office or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and
video peripherals.
o Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
 o LANs are designed to allow resources like files, printers, games, and
other application to be shared between personal computers or
workstations.
o The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software
(e.g., an application program), or data.
o A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments,
links a workgroup of task-related computers, for example, engineering
workstations or accounting PCs.
o One of the computers may be given a large capacity disk drive and may
become a server to clients. Software can be stored on this central server
and used as needed by the whole group.
o In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks
by their transmission media and topology.
o In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium.
o The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
o Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps)
range. Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

Advantages of LAN

• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share

local area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware
purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer and we can easily transfer data and messages over networked
computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more
secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users.
 • It mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy
routing. LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person.

It generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant.

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,

typically within a range of 10 meters for connecting the computer devices
of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of
the Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
 o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding
of a single user.
• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is
developed by simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a
low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using
the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a
person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a
person establishes a network connection and then creates a connection
with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: A home network is designed to integrate the devices
such as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the
internet.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic
area by interconnecting a different LANs to form a larger network.
o A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a
LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay,
ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city, Airline
Reservation, A college within a city and also for military Communication.
• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can
access to the latest files.
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic
cables.
o It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater
access to WANs.
o A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network
that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.
 o Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for
cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data connection to
the Internet.
o

• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries. Or

o A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,

image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.
o A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or
as simple as a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over
a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.

Examples of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or
country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to
the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44
offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided
by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical

area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can
 connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line
through which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized.
Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server.
Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast.
The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to
communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this
gives the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer
rate which in turn increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to

LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together
that creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the
internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall
needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so
antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it
involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem
is difficult.
Topologies

• In computer networks, a topology is used to explain how a network is

physically connected and the logical flow of information in the network. A
topology mainly describes how devices are connected and interact with each
other using communication links.
• Network topology defines the layout or structure of the network, not only
physically but also logically. A network can have one physical topology and
multiple logical topologies at the same time.
In computer networks, two types of topologies are generally used , they
are:

1. Physical Topology: A physical topology describes the way in which the

computers or nodes are connected with each other in a computer
network. It is the arrangement of various elements(link, nodes, etc.),
including the device location and code installation of a computer
network. In other words, we can say that it is the physical layout of
nodes, workstations, and cables in the network.
2. Logical Topology: A logical topology describes the way, data flow
from one computer to another. It is bound to a network protocol and
defines how data is moved throughout the network and which path it
takes. In other words, it is the way in which the devices communicate
internally.
Types of Topologies
 1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology
• Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common bus or
channel is used for communication in the network.
• The bus is connected to various taps and droplines. Taps are the connectors,
while droplines are the cables connecting the bus with the computer. In other
words, there is only a single transmission line for all nodes.
• When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the
receiver accepts it(verifying the mac address attached with the data frame) and
others reject it.
• Bus technology is mainly suited for small networks like LAN, etc.

• In this topology, the bus acts as the backbone of the network, which joins every
computer and peripherals in the network.
• Both ends of the shared channel have line terminators.
• The data is sent only in one direction and as soon as it reaches the end, the
terminator removes the data from the communication line (to prevent signal
bounce and data flow disruption).
• In a bus topology, each computer communicates to another computer on the
network independently.
• Every computer can share the network's total bus capabilities. The devices share
the responsibility for the flow of data from one point to the other in the
network.

Following are the advantages of Bus topology:

 1. Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in
bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
2. Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.
3. Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.
4. Simple to use and install.
5. Less cabling is required.
6. Cost-efficient to implement.
Following are the disadvantages of Bus topology:

• Efficiency is less when nodes are more(strength of signal decreases).

• If the bus fails, the network will fail.
• A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus length.
• Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to all nodes.
• Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of communication.
Ring Topology

• Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to

exactly two other computers to form the ring.
• The message passing is unidirectional and circular in nature.
• This network topology is deterministic in nature, i.e., each computer is given
access for transmission at a fixed time interval.
• All the nodes are connected in a closed-loop. This topology mainly works
on a token-based system and the token travels in a loop in one specific
direction.
• In a ring topology, if a token is free then the node can capture the token and
attach the data and destination address to the token, and then leaves the
token for communication.
• When this token reaches the destination node, the data is removed by the
receiver and the token is made free to carry the next data.
For Example, Token Ring, etc.
 Following are the advantages of Ring topology:
1. Easy Installation.
2. Less Cabling Required.
3. Reduces chances of data collision (unidirectional).
4. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not pass the token).
5. Each node gets the same access time.
Following are the disadvantages of Ring topology:
1. If a node fails, the whole network will fail.
2. Slow data transmission speed (each message has to go through the ring
path).
3. Difficult to reconfigure (we have to break the ring).

Star Topology
• Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are
connected to a centralized hub.
• The hub or switch acts as a middleware between the nodes. Any node
requesting for service or providing service, first contact the hub for
communication.
• The central device(hub or switch) has point to point communication link(the
dedicated link between the devices which cannot be accessed by some other
computer) with the devices.
• In a star topology, hub and switch act as a server, and the other connected
devices act as clients.
• The central device then broadcast or unicast the message based on the central
device used. The hub broadcasts the message, while the switch unicasts the
messages by maintaining a switch table.
• Broadcasting increases unnecessary data traffic in the network.
• Only one input-output port and one cable are required to connect a node to
the central device.
• This topology is better in terms of security because the data does not pass
through every node.

For Example High-Speed LAN, etc.

Following are the advantages of Star topology:

1. Centralized control.
2. Less Expensive.
3. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not give response).
4. Good fault tolerance due to centralized control on nodes.
5. Easy to scale(nodes can be added or removed to the network easily).
6. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
 7. Easy to reconfigure and upgrade(configured using a central device).
Following are the disadvantages of Star topology:

1. If the central device fails, the network will fail.

2. The number of devices in the network is limited (due to limited input-
output port in a central device).

Mesh Topology
• Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are
interconnected with each other. In other words, direct communication takes
place between the nodes in the network.
Mainly two types of Mesh topologies are there, They are:
1. Full Mesh: In which each node is connected to every other node
in the network.

• In a fully connected mesh topology, each device has a point to point link
with every other device in the network.

• If there are 'n' devices in the network, then each device has exactly
(n-1) input-output ports and communication links.
 • These links are simplex links, i.e., the data moves only in one
direction. A duplex link (in which data can travel in both the
directions simultaneously) can replace two simplex links.
• If we are using simplex links, then the number of communication
links will be n (n-1) for n devices, while it is n(n-1)/2 if we are using
duplex links in the mesh topology.

1. Partial Mesh: In which, some nodes are not connected to every node in the
network.
For Example, the Internet (WAN), etc.

Following are the advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.

2. No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
3. Good Fault tolerance due to the dedicated path for each node.
4. Very fast communication.
5. Maintains privacy and security due to a separate channel for
communication.
6. If a node fails, other alternatives are present in the network.
Following are the disadvantages of Mesh topology:

1. Very high cabling required.

2. Cost inefficient to implement.
3. Complex to implement and takes large space to install the network.
4. Installation and maintenance are very difficult.

5. Tree Topology:
• Tree topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are
directly or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Tree topology is a
combination of Bus and Star topology.
• Tree topologies have a root node, and all other nodes ar e connected which
forming a hierarchy.
• In a tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments, which can be
easily managed and maintained.
• There is a main hub and all the other sub-hubs are connected to each other in
this topology.

Following are the advantages of Tree topology:

1. Large distance network coverage.

2. Fault finding is easy by checking each hierarchy.
3. Least or no data loss.
4. A Large number of nodes can be connected directly or indirectly.
5. Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them fails.
Following are the disadvantages of Tree topology:

1. Cabling and hardware cost is high.

2. Complex to implement.
3. Hub cabling is also required.
4. A large network using tree topology is hard to manage.
5. It requires very high maintenance.
6. If the main bus fails, the network will fail.
 Hybrid Topology:
• A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of
two or more topologies.
• Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies
• In practical use, they are the most widely used.
• In this topology, all topologies are interconnected according to the needs
to form a hybrid.

• All the good features of each topology can be used to make an efficient
hybrid topology.

Following are the advantages of Hybrid topology:

1. It can handle a large volume of nodes.

2. It provides flexibility to modify the network according to our
needs.
3. Very Reliable (if one node fails it will not affect the whole
network).

Following are the disadvantages of Hybrid topology:

1. Complex design.
2. Expensive to implement.
3. Multi-Station Access Unit (MSAL) required.
OSI Reference Model
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed
by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the
year 1984.
• It is 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform. OSI model divides the whole task into these seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
• All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual

bits from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer

defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
2. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of
bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits
must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical.
3. Data rate. The transmission rate, the number of bits transmitting in each
second is also defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical
layer defines the duration.
4. Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the
same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other
words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
5. Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection
of devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is
shared among several devices.
6. Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh
topology (every device is connected to every other device), a star
topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology
(each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology
 (every device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a
combination of two or more topologies).
7. Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive.
The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex two
devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex
(or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same
time.

2) Data-Link Layer

o The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node)
to the next
o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer
to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the
hardware destination and source address.
o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds System addresses of both
source and destination systems to the frame. Physical address is known as
system address or host address.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link
layer. It is the technique through which the constant data rate is
maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures a
balance between transmitting speed and receiving capacity between
source and destination.
o Error Control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer
by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It
also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
o Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.

3) Network Layer
 o The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of
a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link
layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the
same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets
from its point of origin to its final destination.
o If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for
a net• work layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links),
there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-
destination delivery.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Logical Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the
device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to
the destination.
 o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer
and converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing.

4) Transport Layer

o The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the

entire message. A process is an application program running on a host.
Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those
packets.
o It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a
separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other
hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order,
overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination
level..

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the

same time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery
not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process
(running program) on one computer to a specific process (running
 program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a
type of address called a service-point address (or port address).
Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number. These
numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that
were lost in transmission.
o Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment
as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before
delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
o Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible
for flow control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to
end rather than across a single link.
o Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible
for error control. However, error control at this layer is performed
process-to process rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control.
Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link.
The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination
without any error.

5) Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network)
are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog
controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
Functions of Session layer:
 o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a
dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or
full-duplex.

o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when

transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of
the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again from
the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer
o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in

the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the
data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes
the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data,
i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is
very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer
o An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
o The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to
access the net• work. It provides user interfaces and support for services
such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services..
Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files
from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.
Transmission Media:
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the
receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another.

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types: