CH 4
CH 4
CH 4
A map projection is a method of representing a portion One common characteristic applies to all United States
of the Earth’s round surface on a flat surface. Because military maps: they are all based on a conformal
this procedure causes distortions of different types, projection. A conformal map projection is one that at
many different projections have been developed. any point, the scale is the same in any direction and the
Each projection is dictated by the size of the area angle between any two lines on the ellipsoid is the
being mapped, the map scale, and the intended use of same when projected onto a plane.
the maps. See table 4-2 at the end of this section.
areas produced by other nations may not always from the point of tangency. In a projection where the
conform to the following standards. U.S. maps of projected surface is secant to an ellipsoid, the scale
foreign areas may be based on other projections due to factor decreases toward the central meridian or origin
treaty agreements. and increases away from the points of secancy.
Topographic maps at scales of 1: 500,000 or larger True ground distance can be converted to a map
that lie between 80°S latitude and 84°N latitude are distance by multiplying the ground distance by the
based on the TM Projection. scale factor.
Mercator Projection
The Gauss-Kruger (GK) Projection can be described as The Polar Stereographic Projection is used for
the TM Projection derived by mapping directly from an mapping the Earth’s polar regions and identifies those
ellipsoid that is tangent to the cylinder. It is a conformal regions as north and south zones. The north zone
projection with many similarities to the TM Projection.
extends from the North Pole to 83° 30’ N latitude; the
The tangent point is the meridian of longitude chosen as
south zone extends from the South Pole to 79° 30’ S
the central meridian for the projection. As with TM, the
GK Projection depicts 60 zones. Many geodesists latitude. It is a conformal azimuthal projection that is
consider the GK and TM Projections to be the same developed by projecting a polar region onto a plane
except for scale factor. See figure 4-8. that is tangent to an ellipsoid at the pole or secant to
the ellipsoid at a specific latitude. The plane is
perpendicular to the polar axis. The origin of the
projection is the opposite pole. Meridians are straight
lines and parallels are concentric circles.
When the cone of projection is flattened into a plane, The Oblique Mercator Projection is actually many
meridians appear as straight lines radiating from a point different projections using variations of the TM. All are
beyond the mapped areas. Parallels appear as arcs of cylindrical and conformal. But instead of the cylinder
concentric circles centered at the point from where the being transverse 90° from the Mercator Projection, it is
meridians radiate. None of the parallels appears in exactly transverse at an angle that places the long axis of the
the projected positions. They are mathematically adjusted cylinder 90° from the long axis of the area being mapped.
to produce the property of conformality. This projection is If the general direction of an area that is to be mapped lies
also called the Lambert Conformal Orthomorphic in a northeast/southwest attitude, the cylinder of projection
Projection. See figure 4-11. would be transverse 45° west of north. The cylinder is
usually secant to the ellipsoid to lessen the effects of
distortion. The location of the lines of secancy varies
between projections. Many Oblique Mercator Projections
exist. This publication discusses the Laborde Projection
and the West Malaysia Rectified Skew Orthomorphic
(RSO) Projection only.
A grid system is a two-dimensional plane-rectangular Grid convergence is the angular difference between
coordinate system that is usually based on and true north and grid north. The direction and the value
mathematically adjusted to a map projection. This of the angle are computed differently depending on the
allows for the transformation from geodetic positions grid system. In some systems, grid convergence can be
(latitude and longitude) to plane coordinates (easting the same as convergence of the meridians.
and northing) and for the computations relating to
those coordinates to be made by ordinary methods of
plane surveying.
Universal Transverse Mercator Grid System
Many grid systems are in use. Most of the local systems
will eventually be converted to one of the universal grid
systems. Some areas will continue to be mapped in a The Universe TM (UTM) Grid System is referenced to
local system such as the British National Grid (BNG), the TM Projection. The ellipsoid is divided into 60
the Irish Transverse Mercator Grid (ITMG), and the grid zones, each 6° wide, extending from 84° N
Madagascar Grid (MG). There are two universal grids latitude to 80° S latitude. Zones are numbered from 1
used by the United States military and its allies: UTM to 60. Zone 1 starts at 180° − 174° west longitude,
and Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS). zone 2 at 174° west − 168° west longitude, continuing
east to zone 60 at 174° E − 180° longitude. The prime
Grids consist of a system of evenly spaced parallel meridian (0° longitude) separates zones 30 and 31. See
lines lying perpendicular to another system of evenly figure 4-13.
spaced parallel lines forming squares. The ground
distance between the lines depends on the scale of the The location of any point in the UTM grid system can
map and the type of grid system. Most systems use be designated by coordinates by giving its distance east-
meters as a basis for grid line spacing. Others use west (easting) and its distance north-south (northing)
yards or feet. Standard scale military maps generally from the origin of the grid zone. This origin (for each
adhere to grid lines on— UTM grid zone) is the intersection of the Equator and
the central meridian of the zone. Each UTM zone has a
l Large-scale maps spaced at 1,000 meters. central meridian corresponding to the central meridian
l Medium-scale maps at 1:250,000 spaced at 10,000 of each TM Projection zone. The grid is oriented by
meters. placing the east-west axis of the grid in coincidence
with the Equator and the north-south axis of the grid in
For scales smaller than 1:250,000, the grid lines may or coincidence with the central meridian of the zone.
may not be depicted, depending on the map’s purpose.
Once the grid is oriented, the origin for easting and
North-south lines in a grid system are called eastings northing are assigned false values. The central
and increase in value from west to east. East-west lines meridian (origin for easting) of each zone is assigned
in a grid system are called northings and increase in an easting value of 500,000 meters. The easting
values from south to north. (These rules do not apply increases east of the central meridian and decreases
to grid systems that cover the polar regions such as the west. The Equator (origin for northing) is assigned two
UPS.) The numerical value of an easting and northing false values. If operating in the Northern Nemisphere,
are referenced to a specific origin. A false value is the northing of the Equator is 0 meters and increases
applied to the easting or northing grid line that falls at north. If operating in the Southern Hemisphere, the
a particular reference line or point. Usually, that line northing of the Equator is 10,000,000 meters and
or point is a meridian of longitude; e.g., central decreases south. Grid lines that run north and south are
meridian of a zone or a parallel of latitude (like the easting lines. They are parallel to the central meridian
Equator, but it can have other references). The origin of the grid zone. Grid lines that run east and west are
for the false easting and false northing are normally northing lines. They are parallel to the Equator. See
different lines or points. figure 4-14 on page 4-14.
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4-14 MCWP 3-16.7
Grid convergence at a point in the UTM system is the listed in the declination diagram of a map. Grid
angle measured, east or west, from true north to grid convergence should be computed for use in fifth order
north. At any point along the central meridian of a or higher surveys because the information on the map
UTM grid zone, true north and grid north are the same. is generally computed for the center of the map sheet.
At any point not located on the central meridian, grid For example, the Lawton map sheet (6353III) lists the
north departs from true north because of convergence grid convergence at 6 mils, the Cache map sheet
of the meridians. Grid convergence within the UTM (6253II) lists it at 4 mils. There are two mils difference
system is a function of both latitude and longitude. It between the centers of these two adjoining sheets. See
will rarely exceed 3° (53.333 mils) and is normally figure 4-15.
Marine Artillery Survey Operations ______________________________________________________________________ 4-15
greater than ten million meters), you must subtract ten A grid zone designator is a one-letter code specifying
million meters from your northing to obtain a northing a particular portion of a UTM/UPS grid zone. The grid
that can be used in the Northern Hemisphere. zone designator is usually listed in the marginal data
of a military map. See figure 4-18.
100,000-Meter Square Identifier for every position within the UTM grid using the
MGRS.
Each UTM/UPS grid zone is divided into 100,000-
meter squares. Squares are identified by two letters UPS
called a 100,000-meter square identifier. The first
letter is columnar. It is the same for all squares in a The 100,000-meter square identifiers are the same for
north-south column. The second letter is linear. It is both UPS grid zones. The difference between two UPS
the same for all squares in an east-west row in a grid grid MGRS coordinates with the same 100,000-meter
zone. This identifier is usually listed as part of the square identifiers is the grid zone designator. A/B in
marginal information on a military map. The lettering the south, Y/Z in the north. Designators A and Y
convention used depends on the reference ellipsoid. (Western Hemisphere) are lettered the same, as are
This text discusses the UTM lettering convention used designators B and Z (Eastern Hemisphere). The north
with the WGS 84 and GRS 80 ellipsoids and the UPS zone only includes that portion of the lettering
lettering convention used with the International convention that falls inside of 84° latitude.
ellipsoid. Other ellipsoid lettering conventions are
detailed in DMA TM 8358.1, Datums, Ellipsoids, In the Western Hemisphere the first letter of the
Grids, and Grid Reference Systems. 100,000-meter square identifier originates at the
intersection of the 80° latitude and 90° W longitude
lines. It is lettered alphabetically along the east-west
UTM
axis from J to Z. M, N, O, V, and W are omitted.
The first (columnar) letter of the 100,000 meter square
In the Eastern Hemisphere, the first letter of the
identification originates at the 180° meridian with the
100,000 meter square identifier originates at the 0° and
letter A and increases alphabetically eastward along
180° meridians. It is lettered alphabetically along the
the Equator for three grid zones to cover an area of
east-west axis from A to R but D, E, I, M, N and O are
18°. The 100,000-meter columns, including partial
omitted.
columns at grid zone junctions, are lettered from A to
Z but omit I and O. This alphabet is repeated every 18° The second letter of the 100,000-meter square
eastward around the Earth. identifier originates at the intersection of the 80°
latitude/180° longitude lines. It is lettered
The second (linear) letter of the 100,000 meter square alphabetically from A to Z. I and O are omitted.
identification is lettered from A to V but omit I and O,
from south to north covering an area of 2,000,000
meters and is then repeated northward. In odd- MGRS Grid Coordinates
numbered grid zones, it originates at the Equator Easting and northing coordinates used are the same as
increasing alphabetically north. In even-numbered the grid coordinates used with UTM/UPS with the
grid zones, the second letter originates 500,000 meters following modifications.
south of the Equator increasing alphabetically north.
Thererefore, in odd-numbered grid zones the second For UTM MGRS grid coordinates, delete the first digit
letter of the 100,000-meter square identification is A (100,000 meters) from the easting and the first two
along the Equator. In even-numbered grid zones the digits (1,100,000 meters) from the northing of the
second letter is F along the Equator. UTM grid coordinates. Add the grid zone number, the
zone designator, and the 100,000-meter square
Each 6° by 8° square is broken up into 100,000-meter identifier at the front of the coordinates.
squares that occur only once. For example, there is
only one square identified by the letters WA inside of For UPS MGRS grid coordinates delete the first two
the 6° x 8° square of grid zone designation 3N. The digits (1,100,000 meters) from both the easting and
only other square in this figure identified by the letters northing UPS grid coordinates. Add the zone
WA is in grid zone designation 3Q. It can be seen in designator and the 100,000-meter square identifier at
figure 4-18 that unique coordinates can be established the front of the coordinates.
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The entire MGRS grid coordinate is written as one reference system that can be used with any map or
entity without parentheses, dashes, or decimals. chart graduated in latitude and longitude, regardless of
Examples: the map projection. The primary use of the GEOREF
is for inter-service and inter-allied positioning and
3Q location within a 6° × 8° square reporting of aircraft and air targets.
3QXV location to within 100,000 meter
3QXV41 location to within 10,000 meters
3QXV4312 location to within 1,000 meters
3QXV432123 location to within 100 meters User-Defined Grid Systems
3QXV43211234 location to within 10 meters
3QXY4321012345 location to within 1 meter
When operating in an area that is mapped in a grid
system other than UTM and UPS, it may be necessary
to define the grid system. Defining the grid system is
Nonstandard Grids basically orienting a fire support system or survey
system to measure or establish azimuths, distances,
Many grid systems have been developed by individual and elevations from a different origin than it is
nations that cover only that nation or a region programmed for. Most current software versions do
surrounding that nation. Usually, no direct relationship not allow this option. If the option is available, the
exists between local grid systems (the same as no following information is necessary:
direct relationship exists between the state plane grid
systems of the U.S.). Nonstandard grids are generally l Operational ellipsoid.
named for the nation or region they cover and contain
l Ellipsoid parameters (a, b, 1/f).
the term grid, zone or belt; i.e., Ceylon Belt, MG, and
India Zone I. l Scale factor (at the origin) for the projection.
l Latitude of the origin.
A grid covers a relatively small area. Its limits consist
of combinations of meridians, parallels, rhumb lines, l Longitude of the origin.
or grid lines. A zone is usually wide in longitude and l Unit (meters, feet, yards, chains or rods).
narrow in latitude. Its limits consist of meridians and
l False easting of the origin.
parallels. A belt is usually wide in latitude and narrow
in longitude. l False northing of the origin.
The World Geodetic Reference System (GEOREF) is Figure 4-20 lists the needed information for several
an alphanumeric system for reporting positions based common nonstandard grids not published in DMA TM
on geodetic coordinates. It is a worldwide position 8358.1, table 6. See page 4-21.
4-20
Figure 4-20. Specifications for Secondary Grids not Listed in DMA TM 8358.1.
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