Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Journal of Energy
Volume 2013, Article ID 305207, 8 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/305207

Review Article
Solar Radiation: Models and Measurement Techniques

C. K. Pandey and A. K. Katiyar

Department of Applied Sciences, Institute of Engineering & Technology, Gautam Buddh Technical University, Lucknow 226021, India

Correspondence should be addressed to C. K. Pandey; [email protected]

Received 19 December 2012; Revised 11 April 2013; Accepted 12 April 2013

Academic Editor: Mattheos Santamouris

Copyright © 2013 C. K. Pandey and A. K. Katiyar. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.

In order to grasp the significance of the work accomplished by the author, it is necessary to keep abreast of the present developments
in this field. The research work reported in the paper is an attempt to get knowledge to assess the solar energy potential for practical
and efficient utilization in India. Our work is centered on estimating realistic values of solar (global and diffuse) radiation on
horizontal and tilted surfaces using measured meteorological data and geographical and geometrical parameters for India.

1. Introduction assist in global warming and many more factors which drive
the planet towards dark future.
The sun is the driving force for all atmospheric processes. To overcome the dependency on conventional fuels,
Solar radiant intensity is the expression of that input of energy researchers and many organizations are working on alterna-
upon the planet. Therefore, the ability to understand and tive fuels, which should be commercially viable, easy to use,
quantify its value and distribution accurately is important in less pollutant, and must be abundant in nature. In this direc-
the initial understanding and modeling of any other thermo- tion, renewable energies, like solar energy, tidal energy, wind
dynamic or dynamic process in the earth-ocean-atmosphere energy, biofuels, and so forth, are more suitable than conven-
system. Unfortunately, however, too little is known about tional sources of energy. These nonconventional forms are
the spatial and temporal distribution of incoming solar not only renewable but also maintain ecology and environ-
radiation. A more complete and precise description of that ment as they are ecofriendly and do not contribute to global
distribution will prove usefulness to many fields of study warming and production of green house gases and so forth.
that rely on atmospheric energy input, such as agricultural In context of India and developing countries, it is awful
[1], architectural [2], and engineering [3] planning. For these condition, because most of the Indian families exploit forest
reasons, analysis of the solar radiation distribution in India— and fossil fuels for their domestic uses, which directly and
a state with a relatively high loading of input radiation indirectly not only affect growth of country but also health of
and relatively high spatial and temporal variability—is both user. Quest for energy security and sustainable development
important and relevant. depend on the ability to get energy from renewable sources,
and to use it optimistically to meet growing and diverse needs
2. Renewable Energy of India.
India is blessed with an abundance of nondepleting and
From the beginning of 19th century, dwelling of fossil fuels environment friendly renewable energy resources such as
is increasing continually toward the development of indus- solar, wind, biomass and hydro, and so forth. The Uttar-
trialization and modern life style. The fossil fuels are being Pradesh, where solar energy and wind energy are profusely
used from domestic to industrial applications on the cost available throughout the year in comparison to the rest of
of pollution, health hazards, and ecology of earth. Excessive India, has higher potential to exploit renewable energies for
exploitation of conventional fuels directly and indirectly domestic and industrial applications.
2 Journal of Energy

3. Need for Renewable Energy water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous
oxide, all greenhouse gases that help to trap heat near
Increasing rate of energy consumption is essential for Earth’s surface.
progress of our civilization and therefore main problem is
(ix) Humans are pouring carbon dioxide into the atmo-
how we produce energy. Extensive use of fossil fuels and
sphere much faster rate than absorbing rate of plants
nuclear energy has created bad impact on environmental,
and oceans.
social, and sustainability problems. So we need such energy
sources that will forever and can be used without pollu- (x) These gases persist in the atmosphere for years, mean-
tion. Furthermore, conventional energy systems using fossil ing that even if such emissions were eliminated today,
resources, especially old ones in numerous and small scale, it would not immediately stop the global warming.
are found to be major contributors to atmosphere pollution (xi) Some experts point out that the natural cycles in
and greenhouse effect. In this sense the earth is already Earth’s orbit can alter the planet’s exposure to sun-
showing many signs of worldwide climate change (http:// light, which may explain the current trend. Earth
www.geosunnrg.com/) as follows. has indeed experienced warming and cooling cycles
roughly every hundred thousand years due to these
(i) Average temperatures have climbed 1.4 degrees orbital shifts, but such changes have occurred over the
Fahrenheit (0.8 degree Celsius) around the world span of several centuries. Today’s changes have taken
since 1880, much of this in recent decades, according place over the past 100 years or less.
to NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
(ii) The rate of warming is increasing. According to 4. Renewable Energy Future
a number of climate studies, the last two decades
of 20th century were the hottest in 400 years and Clearly, human kind has to set a different course in its need
possibly the warmest for several millennia. The UN’S for energy, one that involves less intrusive sources such as
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) solar, wind, and geothermal energy. There are energy sources
reports that 11 of the past 12 years are among the dozen that do not harm the planet and will never run out. The
warmest since 1850. clock is ticking down but there is still time. Humankind
(iii) The Arctic is feeling atmosphere pollution and has proven to be resourceful and prudent in the past. It
greenhouse effect the most. Average temperatures needs to be again in the crucial areas of energy and the
in Alaska, western Canada, and eastern Russia have environment in order to assure sustainability for future
risen twice the global average, according to the multi- generations (http://www.geosunnrg.com/).
national Arctic Climate Impact Assessment report
compiled between 2000 and 2004. 5. Renewable Energy in India
(iv) Arctic ice is rapidly disappearing, and the region may
India in 2006 had a population of 1.1 billion with a
have its first completely ice-free summer by 2040
Gross Domestic Product of Rupees 33 trillion (728 bil-
or earlier. Polar bears and indigenous cultures are
lion US$) (http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/esmain.htm;
already suffering from the sea-ice loss.
2006-2007). A breakup of India’s primary commercial energy
(v) Glaciers and mountain snows are rapidly melting; for shows that more than 80% is supplied from fossil fuels. If
example, Montana’s Glacier National Park now has we also consider traditional fuels and biomass, India’s total
only 27 glaciers versus 150 in 1910. In the Northern primary energy consumption was about 20 EJ in 2004-2005
Hemisphere, thaws also come a week earlier in spring (an average of 18 GJ/capita/year). Figure 1 shows the share
and freezes begin a week later. of different kind of energy sources in total India’s primary
(vi) Coral reefs, which are highly sensitive to small energy supply (Government of India, Planning Commission;
changes in water temperature, suffered the worst 2006). Fossil fuels account for about 64% of the total primary
bleaching—or die off in response to stress—ever energy while traditional biomass accounts for about 33%.
recorded in 1998, with some areas seeing bleach rates The India’s population accounts for 17% of the world’s total
of 70 percent. Experts expect these sorts of events population; however, energy consumption is only 4% of
to increase in frequency and intensity in the next 50 the total world’s primary energy consumption. The modern
years as sea temperatures rise. renewable energy accounts for only small portion of the total
energy mix. India is the only country in the world that has
(vii) The IPPC, in a 2007 report, claims that humans a separate Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE),
are “very likely” behind global warming. The report, earlier known as the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
based on the work of some 2,500 scientists in more Sources.
than 130 countries, concluded that humans have In view of the scarce fossil fuel reserves, energy security,
caused all or most of the current planetary warming. and climate change concerns, it is expected that renewable
Human-caused global warming is often called anthro- energy will play a significant role in India’s future energy
pogenic climate change. mix. Figure 2 provides an overview of the different renewable
(viii) Industrialization, deforestation, and pollution have energy sources. Renewable energy can be used for the entire
greatly increased atmospheric concentrations of spectrum of end-uses as given in Figure 3 [4].
Journal of Energy 3

End-uses
Wind Total 19800 PJ
0.2%

Biomass
32.9%
Cooking Transport Electricity Cooling Heating

Coal
36.8% Cooling Motive Lighting Heating
Hydro power
1.7%
Figure 3: Energy end.
Nuclear
1.3%
Nat gas Oil
6.5% 20.7%
of these two methods nowadays empirically method [13–15]
Figure 1: Primary energy production in India. and the artificial neural network method (which constitutes
a widely accepted novel approach offering an alternative way
to synthesize complex problems) can also be used for the
Renewable
determination of global and diffuse components of solar
radiation [16, 17].

7. Measurement Techniques of Radiation

Solar Wind Biomass Small Geothermal
hydro
To asses the availability of solar radiation at different loca-
tions, measurements of global radiation, diffuse radiation,
beam radiation, sun shine hours, bright sun shine hours,
maximum and minimum temperature, humidity, pressure,
Solar Solar Tidal Wave Ocean visibility, wind speed and direction, gust speed, water precip-
thermal photovoltaic thermal
itation, and air mass are very important parameters.
Figure 2: Schematic of renewable energy options. To measure the abovementioned parameters we require
a big laboratory and group of skilled fellows. Although it is
a difficult task to maintain and run such a laboratory but
6. Modeling Techniques the quality and reliability of data of the site then can only be
ensured. However there is a wide network of Indian meteoro-
In the literature, there exist several methods for modeling logical department which provides wide variety of data that
solar radiation components (global, beam, and diffuse) on includes radiation and meteorological and pollution data. But
the ground of parametric models and decomposition mod- the radiation data are scared. World Radiation Centre also
els. Parametric models like Iqbal, Gueymard and ASHRAE provides data of global, beam, and diffuse radiation of cities
models [5–7], require detailed information of atmospheric of the world.
conditions. Meteorological parameters frequently used as The direct measurement of solar radiation and its com-
predictors include the type, amount, and distribution of ponents (direct and diffuse) is done in two basic ways
clouds or other observations, such as the fractional sunshine, as well. The values are measured either by using ground-
atmospheric turbidity, and perceptible water content [8]. On based instrumentation as pyranometers, or remotely with
other hand, decomposition models usually use information satellites. These methods are often used in combination to
only on global radiation to predict the beam and sky compo- validate one another [18–20]. In general, pyranometer data
nents. These relationships are usually expressed in terms of from adequately maintained instruments provide an accurate
the irradiations which are the time integrals of the radiant description of the solar radiation values in the immediate
flux or irradiance. Decomposition models which are based area. It has been suggested that extrapolation of daily values
on the correlations between the clearness index 𝑘𝑡 (it is the beyond the discrete point represented by the location of
ratio of global to the extraterrestrial solar radiation) and the the pyranometer can result in the misrepresentation of the
diffuse fraction 𝑘𝑑 (it is the ratio of diffuse to the global solar extrapolated areas. Suckling [21] found that, for areas in the
radiation), diffuse coefficient 𝑘𝐷 (it is the ratio of diffuse to the Tennessee Valley Authority region, permissible extrapolation
extraterrestrial solar radiation) or the direct transmittance 𝑘𝑏 distances of daily solar radiation values were ∼200 km, but
(it is the ratio of beam to the extraterrestrial solar radiation) that these distances may vary by season. However, Younes
as an example Orgill and Hollands, Erbs et al., Reindle et and Muneer [22] claimed that “. . .for a given location that is,
al. and Liu and Jordan models [9–12] developed to estimate farther than 50 km from the measurement station the use of
direct and diffuse radiations from global radiation. Instead the respective measurement station’s data is obsolete in the
4 Journal of Energy

assessment of solar energy applications.” In his study of solar of the strip. The constant of the instrument is actually
radiation variability in San Diego County, California, Aguado determined by comparison with other standard instrument
[23] suggested that the relative proximity of two points with constant traceable to the group of standards maintained
to the coast further complicates the abilities of researchers at the World Radiation Centre in Switzerland.
to extrapolate beyond the discrete points at which solar For a study of the intensity of solar radiation in different
radiation was measured. regions, Scott glass filter OG1, RG2, and RG8 are used. The
Global and diffuse solar radiation can be measured with transmission of the filters is given below:
the help of a thermoelectric pyranometer. Basically pyra- OG1 transmits from 0.525 𝜇 to 2.800 𝜇
nometer is consisting of a thin-blackened surface supported
inside a relatively massive well-polished case. When solar RG2 transmits from 0.630 𝜇 to 2.800 𝜇
radiation falls on this surface, the temperature of the surface RG8 transmits from 0.700 𝜇 to 2.800 𝜇.
rises until its rate of loss of the heat by all causes is equal to
the rate of gain of heat by radiation. This rise in temperature 8. Estimation of Radiation
sets up a thermal e.m.f. which is measured on a recording
millivoltmeter or recorder. Each pyranometer is calibrated It is generally accepted that models for solar radiation pre-
and a certificate is provided by the manufacturer. For quality diction are necessary, because in most cases the density and
data of solar radiation pyranometer have to be calibrated at number of solar radiation measuring stations cannot describe
regular intervals and required proper maintenance. the necessary variability [24]. It is then understandable
Instrument used for measuring the intensity of direct that new models and improvements to existing modeling
solar radiation, that is, beam radiation is called pyrheliometer. techniques are continually proposed which intend to improve
The Ångstrom ̈ compensation pyrheliometer is a standard estimates of solar radiation values with the use of more readily
instrument for the measurement of direct solar radiation, in available meteorological variables [22, 25, 26].
which the sensor is fixed at the lower end of a tube provided
with a diaphragm so that when the tube is directed towards 8.1. Estimation of Solar Radiation on Horizontal Surface.
the sun, the sensing surface is normal to the line joining the Ångstrom̈ [27] proposed first theoretical model for estimat-
sun to the receiver, and only radiation from the sun and a ing global solar radiation based on sunshine duration. Page
narrow annulus of the sky is received by the sensor. The align- [28] and Prescott [29] reconsidered this model in order to
ment is done by means of a sighting device called the diopter. make it possible to calculate monthly average of the daily
In pyrheliometer the absorption of the radiant energy by a global radiation 𝐻 (MJ/m2 day) on a horizontal surface from
blackened metal strip, exposed to the sun’s ray, is determined monthly average daily total insolation on an extraterrestrial
by measuring the electric current necessary to heat an horizontal surface as per the following relation:
identical shielded strip to the same temperature. Since both
strips are mounted similarly and are at the same temperature 𝐻 𝑠
and the heat exchange of the strips with surroundings is = 𝑎 + 𝑏( ), (1)
𝐻0 𝑠0
identical, the rate of generation of heats in shielded strip due
to electric current is equal to the rate of absorption of radiant where 𝐻0 is the monthly average daily extraterrestrial radi-
energy by the exposed strip. The equivalence or otherwise of ation (MJ/m2 day), 𝑠 is the monthly average daily bright
the temperature of the two strips is determined by two fine sunshine hours, 𝑠0 is the maximum possible monthly average
thermocouples attached to the back of the strips, connected daily sunshine hours or the day length, and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
in series with a sensitive galvanometer. The current through constants.
the shielded strip is determined with an accurate digital Although a number of correlations included more param-
milliammeter. The advantage of the instrument is that the eters and have been developed by different workers [12, 30–
equilibrium current through the shielded strip is not affected 32], one has been found to be very convenient, applicable
by change in the rate of heat loss from the strips, provided to a large number of locations, and is the most widely used
that the changes affect both the strips equally. correlation [15, 33–37].
Such an instrument in theory is an absolute instrument Solar radiation coming through the atmosphere is par-
as all the relevant factors required for the calculation of the tially absorbed or reflected by its constituents (aerosol par-
radiation intensity can be measured: ticles cause diffuse radiation) which actually reduces the
let 𝐼 = the intensity of direct solar radiation in watts/cm2 beam component and affects the performance of energy
systems. Therefore, knowledge of diffuse irradiation on a
𝐴 = area of the strip
horizontal surface is also important in designing the various
𝛼 = absorption of the strip energy utilization systems. Many researchers have presented
𝑖 = heating current in amperes. empirical correlations to estimate daily diffuse radiation. Two
of the most widely used correlations are due to Liu and Jordan
Then we have 𝐼 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝛼 = 𝑅 ⋅ 𝑖2 [12] and Page [28] to which the irradiation data fitted are
𝐼 = (𝑅 ⋅ 𝑖2 )/(𝐴⋅ ∝) = 𝐾 ⋅ 𝑖2 watts/cm2 , given as

where 𝐾 = 𝑅/(𝐴⋅ ∝) is a constant for the instrument and 𝐻𝑑 𝐻

= 𝑎 + 𝑏( ), (2)
depends upon resistance, length, breath, and absorptance 𝐻 𝐻0
Journal of Energy 5

where 𝐻𝑑 is daily mean diffuse radiation and 𝐻/𝐻0 = 𝐾𝑡 , 9. Present Trends in Correlation
the clearness index.
A third type approach has been proposed by Iqbal [38] to ̈
Ångstrom-Prescott correlation has served as a basic approach
find a correlation between 𝐻𝑑 and the ratio of bright sunshine to estimate global radiation for long time. Simplicity of
(𝑆) to the day length (𝑆0 ) given as ̈
Ångstrom-Prescott equation has dominated over its several
̈
demerits. Coefficients in Ångstrom-Prescott equation are site
𝐻𝑑 S dependent. Yeboah-Amankwah and Agyeman [64] believed
= 𝑐 + 𝑑( ), (3)
𝐻 𝑆0 that “𝑎1 ” and “𝑏1 ” are time dependent and so developed a
differential Ångstrom ̈ model with a set of coefficients which
where 𝑐 and 𝑑 are the constants. vary with time. Sahin and Sen [65] proposed a method
Gopinathan [30] used the above models, estimated the to dynamically estimate the coefficients. These works do
radiation, and suggested that the applicability of the correla- not include radiation damping process when solar rays
tions to locations in various parts of the word is to be tested. pass through the atmosphere. Some researchers [66, 67]
Therefore, an extensive work has to be done in this area are employing a damping structure to calculate global solar
[25, 39–41]. Recently some others researchers [13, 14, 42–51] radiation in clear sky. Their models consider physical process
have also reported new developments in solar energy. in detail, so the effect of latitude, elevation, and other factors
Orgill and Holland [9], Erbs et al. [10], and Collars- are taken into account automatically. However damping
Pareira and Rabl [31] have all related the diffuse fraction spectrums are very irregular and hence numerical integration
of global radiation to an index of the atmospheric clarity is indispensable. To overcome all these difficulties Yang et al.
on hourly basis. Elminir [47] examined the correlations of [68] proposed a “Hybrid model” which considers the physical
Orgill and Hollands [9] and Erbs et al. [10] and recommended process but still maintains the simplicity of the Ångstrom ̈
then later for computing hourly diffuse fraction. Ahmad equation. The author tested their hybrid model with data of
and Tiwari [52] presented modified version of ASHRAE [7] Japan and found that it needs greater turbidity when applied
model for New Delhi station. Katiyar [53], Gueymard [54], to urban areas due to air pollution; otherwise, global radiation
Jacovides et al. [55], Katiyar et al. 2010 [36, 37], and Chen et may be estimated. Also, the estimation under completely
al. [56] have also reported new developments in solar energy, cloudy sky is still difficult. Hybrid model assumed that global
which could be used to estimate long-term global, direct, and radiation has linear relationship with effective beam radiation
diffuse radiation. and diffuse radiation as well as fractional sunshine time.
Yang and Koike [69] also proposed a model to calculate solar
8.2. Estimation of Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces. Most radiation from upper air humidity. This could be used to
of the solar energy systems of interest redesigned with predict numerical weather prediction (NWP).
tilted collected surfaces. Therefore, it is necessary to have Lingamgunta and Veziroglu [70] proposed a universal
knowledge about the availability of solar radiation on tilted relationship for estimating clear sky insolation. This relation
surfaces. predicts annual mean daily clear sky insolation and is a
The total amount of radiation incident on an inclined function of latitude and altitude only. The author claimed that
plane (𝐻𝑡 ) is composed of beam (𝐻𝑏 ), sky-diffuse (𝐻𝑠 ), and relation (the author called it as Lingamgunta-Veziroglu rela-
ground reflected (𝐻𝑟 ) components: tion) predicts radiation that fairly accurate over conventional
methods.
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑏 + 𝐻𝑠 + 𝐻𝑟 . (4) Suehrcke [71] proposed an entirely new relation between
The daily beam radiation received on the tilted surface can be relative sunshine duration and global radiation. This relation,
expressed as ̈
unlikely Ångstrom-Prescott equation, is nonlinear and it does
not require any empirical constants. The local atmospheric
𝐻𝑏 = (𝐻 − 𝐻𝑑 ) 𝑟𝑏 . (5) conditions are considered through the value of the average
daily clear index. Further fractional sunshine can be calcu-
Under isotropic conditions, the global radiation on inclined lated from Suehrcke relation, and Suehrcke’s sunshine radia-
surface can be written as tion relationship has been verified by Driesse and Thevenard
1 [72] using a global data sheet.
𝐻𝑡 = (𝐻 − 𝐻𝑑 ) 𝑟𝑏 + 𝐻𝑑 (1 + cos 𝛽)
2 Recently there have been emphases [73–76] on empirical
(6) correlation using satellite images. Most estimation of daily
1
+ 𝐻𝜌 (1 − cos 𝛽) , global radiation values from satellite images requires the
2 useof models which allow us to calculate these values from
where 𝜌 is the ground albedo, 𝛽 is the surface slope from the a small number of images per day (usually three). Different
horizontal (degree), and 𝐻 and 𝐻𝑑 are monthly mean daily methodologies have been developed in this regard.
total and diffuse radiation on horizontal surface, respectively. Atmospheric pollutants and aerosols absorb and scatter
The estimation of solar radiation on tilted surfaces has shortwave solar radiations. The interactions have resultant
been made by different authors. Recently, Mefti et al. [57] gave impacts on atmospheric radiative energy transfer and bal-
the hourly solar radiation model for inclined surfaces using ance. If the pollution increases, then diffuse component of
sunshine duration data. An extensive work has to done in this global solar radiation will also increase. Spectral and diffuse
area [13, 14, 58–63]. radiation study of global solar radiation has now gained
6 Journal of Energy

importance as reflected in recent literature [77–79]. There has [16] A. Sözen, E. Arcaklioglu, and M. Özalp, “Estimation of solar
been another area of modeling gaining importance which is potential in Turkey by artificial neural networks using meteo-
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