Modern Physics Notes

Overview

Our understanding of physics grew in the 17th-19th centuries, but cracks appeared at the turn of the
20th century. Classical physics fails to explain the very small and very fast, leading to the development of
modern physics.

- 🌌 Classical physics reached its limits in the early 20th century, leading to a paradigm shift in
understanding the universe.

- The laws of classical physics do not apply to the realms of the very small and very fast, requiring the
development of new rules in modern physics.

- 🧪 Understanding classical physics and general chemistry is essential for comprehending modern physics.

- 📺 Viewers can watch the tutorials for entertainment, but may need to refer back to the classical physics
and general chemistry playlists for clarity.

- 🌌 The universe is comprehensible but also stranger than anticipated, as Einstein noted.

- Modern physics encompasses relativity, quantum mechanics, and other physics developments from
the 20th century onwards.

- 🧪 Support the channel on Patreon for more content and feel free to email for further clarification.

Lesson 1 Quantization of Energy Part 1: Blackbody Radiation and the Ultraviolet Catastrophe –
YouTube

Max Planck solved the ultraviolet catastrophe in 1901 by introducing the concept of quantization, which
states that energy can only possess specific discrete values. This idea, along with Planck's constant,
accurately predicted the distribution of blackbody radiation at all wavelengths. The discovery of
quantization marked the beginning of the quantum revolution in physics.

- 💡 Max Planck's solution to the ultraviolet catastrophe highlighted the limitations of classical physics and
paved the way for the development of quantum mechanics.

- 💡 The blackbody spectrum could not be explained by classical electromagnetism, indicating the need for
a new understanding of energy and radiation.
- 💡 Quantization, introduced by Planck, proposed that energy and radiation can only exist in specific
discrete values, providing an accurate explanation for the blackbody spectrum.

- 💡 Planck's constant, an incredibly small value, demonstrated the minuscule gradations between allowed
energy values, explaining why quantization had not been observed before.

- 💡 The discovery of quantization marked a paradigm shift in physics, leading to the quantum revolution
and a reevaluation of our perception of reality.

- 💡 The quantization of energy raised the question of why it occurs, prompting further investigations and
developments in quantum physics.

- 💡 The quantum revolution had a profound impact on the field of physics, transforming our
understanding of fundamental particles, energy, and the nature of the universe.

Physics Explained

This video explains the most essential concepts in physics, focusing on classical mechanics,
energy and thermodynamics, electromagnetism, relativity, and quantum mechanics. It emphasizes the
practical applications of physics in daily life and the importance of understanding these concepts. The
video is sponsored by the Great Courses Plus, a platform offering in-depth video lectures on various
subjects.

Key Insights

- 💡 Classical mechanics, including Newton's second law, is crucial for understanding the motion of
objects and making predictions in daily life situations.

- 💡 Energy and thermodynamics explain the concepts of work, heat, and the conservation of
energy, which are fundamental to understanding the behavior of systems.

- 💡 Electromagnetism, described by Maxwell's equations, reveals the interaction between

- 💡 Einstein's theory of relativity revolutionized physics by introducing the concepts of time

- 💡 Quantum mechanics challenges our intuitive understanding of reality, highlighting concepts

- 💡 Physics plays a fundamental role in various scientific disciplines and has practical applications
in everyday life, making it worth knowing at least the essential concepts.

!Modern Physics is a branch of physics that deals with the fundamental nature of the universe with post-
Newtonian concepts. In the early twentieth century, some experimental results could not be matched
with the predictions of classical physics, which describes physical phenomena at an ordinary scale.
Modern physics gradually took birth from these theories. The two pillars of modern physics are quantum
theory and the theory of relativity. Quantum theory explains the physical phenomena at a short scale
whereas the theory of relativity describes large-scale physics and gravity. The results of classical theory
can be approximated from both theories.Father of PhysicsPhysics is the study of all-natural phenomena
from both theoretical and experimental view points. The developments of the subject have been made
by numerous scientists. Considering the most important contributions, the title “Father of Physics” is
given to three scientists at different times. Galileo Galilei is called the Father of Observational Physics for
his contributions to Astrophysics. Sir Issac Newton gave the laws of motion and gravitation. Classical
physics is based on his theory, which works fine on an ordinary scale. He also gave the theory of calculus
in mathematics. For their remarkable contributions, Newton is known as the Father of Physics.Albert
Einstein is considered the Father of Modern Physics. He gave the special theory of relativity and the
general theory of relativity. These theories govern the behaviour of objects at high speeds (close to the
speed of light) and gravity. He was awarded the Nobel prize for the explanation of the photoelectric
effect. The Advent of Quantum TheoryClassical physics failed to explain the experimental results of black
body radiation, photoelectric effect, and the phenomena of interference of electrons, the stability of an
atom. Classical physics considers waves and particles as different notions. In 1900, Max Planck
hypothesized that light consists of packets or quanta of energy, called photons. Each photon has energyE
= hvHere, v is the frequency of light and h is Planck’s constant. Although it contradicts the classical
theory that considers light as an electromagnetic wave, the black body radiation phenomenon could be
described by this hypothesis. Later in 1905, Einstein successfully explained the photoelectric effect,
considering light as a swarm of photons (quanta of energy). On the other hand, the interference of
electrons and the stability of an atom could only be described if electrons were considered as waves. De
Broglie hypothesized that every particle behaves as a wave, having wavelength:λλ\lambda = hphp\
frac{h}{p}Here, p is its momentum. Everyday objects have very short wavelengths, such that classical
theory works at an ordinary scale but the wavelengths of subatomic particles like electrons are
comparable with their dimensions. To describe physics at small scales (e.g. atomic scale), quantum
theory was found to be necessary. In this theory, energy, angular momentum, and other quantities of a
bound system are quantized. Many physicists including Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Pauli, and Dirac
formulated the theory from a mathematical point of view. In the late twentieth century, Quantum Field
Theory emerged through the works of scientists like Jordan, Hawking, Weinberg, Feynman.Origin of the
Theory of RelativityEinstein realized that space and time are not different concepts. Any observation
depends on a frame of reference, so that space and time are relative. Newtonian physics considers time
as a constant that does not depend on the observer. The classical theory failed to explain Mercury’s
precision and time difference of satellites. The theory of relativity could explain these phenomena.
Einstein introduced the idea of “spacetime”. A massive object can wrap the fabric of spacetime and
gravity is its consequence. Einstein also realized that mass and energy are equivalent concepts. The
equivalent energy E corresponding to a mass m is,(Image will be uploaded soon)Here, c denotes the
speed of light in a vacuum. Black Body RadiationBlack-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic
radiation released by a black body when it is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings (an
idealised opaque, non-reflective body). It has a defined spectrum of wavelengths that are inversely
linked to intensity and are only dependent on the body's temperature, which is considered to be uniform
and constant for the sake of calculations and theory.Many everyday items spontaneously release thermal
radiation that can be approximated as black-body radiation. Internally, a fully insulated container in
thermal equilibrium includes black-body radiation, which it will release through a hole in its wall if the
opening is small enough to not influence the equilibrium.Solid State PhysicsQuantum mechanics,
crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy are all used in solid-state physics to explore rigid
matter or solids. It is the most important subdiscipline in condensed matter physics. Solid-state physics
investigates how solid materials' large-scale characteristics are derived from their atomic-scale
properties. Solid-state physics is thus the theoretical foundation of materials science. It also has direct
uses, such as in transistor and semiconductor technologies.The majority of solid-state physics is centred
on crystals as a generic theory. This is mostly because the periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its
distinguishing feature — makes mathematical modelling easier. Similarly, crystalline materials frequently
possess electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical characteristics that can be used in engineering
applications.Atomic TheoryThe scientific hypothesis that matter is made up of tiny bits called atoms is
known as atomic theory. The origins of atomic theory may be traced back to an ancient intellectual
tradition known as atomism. According to this theory, if you cut a lump of stuff into smaller and smaller
bits, you would ultimately reach a point where the parts can no longer be sliced into smaller pieces.
These hypothesised fundamental elements of substance were given the name ‘atomos’ by ancient Greek
philosophers, which meant "uncut."John DaltonJohn Dalton researched and expanded on this previous
work, defending a new idea later known as the law of multiple proportions: if the same two elements
can be combined to form several different compounds, the ratios of the two elements' masses in their
various compounds will be represented by small whole numbers. This was a prevalent pattern noted by
Dalton and other scientists at the time in chemical processes.AvogadroAmedeo Avogadro addressed the
weakness in Dalton's theory in principle in 1811. Equal volumes of any two gases, under equal
temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules, according to Avogadro (in other words,
the mass of a gas's particles has no bearing on the volume it occupies). By observing the volumes at
which gases interacted, Avogadro's law allowed him to derive the diatomic nature of many gases. For
example, when two litres of hydrogen react with one litre of oxygen to make two litres of water vapour
(at constant pressure and temperature), a single oxygen molecule splits in half to produce two water
particles. As a result, Avogadro was able to provide more precise estimations of the atomic mass of
oxygen and other elements, as well as distinguish between molecules and atoms.Brownian
MotionRobert Brown, a British botanist, noticed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water
jiggled around for no apparent cause in 1827. Albert Einstein proposed in 1905 that the Brownian
motion was created by water molecules constantly pushing the grains around, and he constructed a
hypothetical mathematical model to explain it. In 1908, French physicist Jean Perrin confirmed this
model experimentally, offering more support for particle theory (and by extension atomic
theory).Concepts of Modern PhysicsThe key concepts of quantum theory are,Wave-Particle Duality: Light
behaves as both wave and particle. Light consists of photons or quanta of energy. Particles have a wave
nature. Particles are delocalized in spaceUncertainty Principle: It is not possible to measure the precise
position and momentum of a particle simultaneously.Measurement Problem: Performing a
measurement or observing a system changes its state.The Concepts of Relativity are:No massive object
can have a speed greater than that of light. The laws of physics always remain invariant for all
observers.Mass causes curvature in spacetime.When an object approaches the speed of light, its length
reduces (length contraction). A moving clock slows down (time dilation).The sequence of events or the
cause-effect structure (causality) remains preserved.Gravitational and inertial masses are equivalent.Did
You Know?Gravity can bend light. It causes gravitational lensing, which is the phenomenon of bending of
light near a massive object.Time slows down near a massive object. Gravitational attraction is the
consequence of the bending of spacetime.An accelerating mass can create ripples in spacetime, which is
referred to as gravitational waves. In 1915, gravitational waves were detected.Classical physics can be
retrieved from modern physics by taking appropriate limits.Interference of electrons, photoelectric
effect, hydrogen spectrum, blackbody radiation are verifications of quantum physics.Anomalies in the
orbits of planets, time gaps in satellites, gravitational waves match the predictions of relativity.There are
four fundamental forces in nature namely gravitational force, electromagnetic force, strong and weak
forces. The last three forces are described by the Standard model.Scientists are trying to incorporate
quantum theory and the theory of relativity through the conception of a more general theory, often
referred to as the “theory of everything”.ConclusionModern physics deals with the fundamental nature
of the universe with post-Newtonian concepts. Two pillars of modern physics are quantum theory and
the theory of relativity. The title "Father of Physics" is given to three scientists at different times for their
contributions to Astrophysics.