CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Improvisation is a technique of creating a new tool, materials, instrument, or modifying

existing ones for serving a specific purpose. Improvisation of instructional materials in

secondary schools for teaching and learning purposes cannot be overemphasized. To be able

to upgrade quality instruction in our school system, there is the need to focus attention on

improvisation of instructional materials/model in the teaching and learning process.

(Esu, 2004) however noted that improvisation demands creativity, attention, curiosity and

perseverance on the part of the teacher, such skills are only realizable through well planned

training program on improvisation.

(Fajola, 2008) views improvisation from the point of creativity involved.

This creativity is substitution and construction. Substitution in improvisation implies the

techniques whereby an already local material is used in place of a piece of equipment that is

not readily available whereas construction involves making of a new instrument to serve in

place of the unavailable original one, where substitution is not possible.

(Esu, 2004), however observed that improvisation provides connectivity between students

abstract and real experience of teaching and learning. Improvisation is a teacher-oriented

activity used to facilitate the process of teaching/learning successfully.

(Bassey, 2002) identified two main difficulties against the successful improvisation of

Science equipment’s. These are the technical and the human factors respectively. The

technical factors relate to the question of degree of accuracy and precision that is possible

with the improvised equipment, the human factor relates to the teachers’ skill and the

technical know-how in developing the resources while providing the appropriate learning

experience to the learners.

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In addition, (Mbajiorgu, 2003) reported lack of adequate professional training as a major

problem militating against the proper use and implementation of local resources for Science

teaching.

(Isola, 2010) then stressed the need for a definite well-planned training program of

improvisation for teachers.

(Isola, 2010) suggested regular meaningful workshops, seminars, and conferences on

improvisation techniques for Science teachers to improve and update their competence and

knowledge.

The use of teacher produced improvised instructional materials/model and exposure of

students to resources available in their immediate environment for instruction at this level

brings students to real world of activities and may help students gain specific scientific skills

and knowledge.

The environment of the school as well as the homes of teachers provide rich sources of

materials and a resourceful teacher can on his/her own with the help of the students and other

members of the society, improvise these materials for teaching/learning purpose.

The use of improvised instructional materials for Biology teaching has been long advocated

for (Olumorin, 2004), the production of instructional materials had undergone several

reviews and processes by experts from various fields. Improvisation serves the following

purposes in the education system; It reduces the money spent on the purchase of equipment in

educational institutions, ensures the realization of lesson objectives; helps in solving the

problems relating to lack of equipment in educational institutions; provides room for a

teacher to demonstrate his creative skills and gives room for the use of cheap local materials

as alternatives to the expensive ones (Olumorin, 2004).

Improvisation encourages students towards the development of creative abilities, strengthen

enquiry, discovery and investigative method in sciences, it provides a frame of reference on

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which students can focus their attention during classroom activities, enable teachers to think

of cheaper and faster means of making teaching learning process easier for students, provide

students with the opportunity of becoming familiar with resources in their environment.

(Owolabi, 2003) suggested that students should be given opportunity to discover and

develop/invent things on their own; hence the teachers should allow the students to acquire

sound skills that will enable them learn on their own at their own pace. It must be noted that

learners achieved more when they are allowed to manipulate apparatus rather than mere

listeners. In a case, for instance where there is an inadequate standard or universally accepted

material or equipment for teaching the students with the assistance of the teacher will have to

produce a local substitute of the standard material. This will help in teaching and learning of

science.

This process helps to develop creativity and the spirit of resourcefulness among the teacher

and the students. Most importantly, the teacher should make sure that these materials

produced or substituted will be able to serve the same purpose as the conventional equipment

which this research is all about. In this study, locally sourced instructional materials/aids that

could be improvised are charts, posters, and a host of others.

Respiratory system is a concept in the senior secondary school syllabus taught.

Respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organ and structures used for

gas exchange in animals and plant. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies

greatly depending on the size of the organism the environment in which it lives and its

evolutionary history. Therefore, schools and teachers might be obliged to make the most of

what they can get or construct from available materials to teach those topics.

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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The transmission of knowledge, facts, ideas and information from the teacher to the learners

in a systematic method is referred to as teaching.

During this process instructional material/model which serves as a teaching aids meant to

make instruction more meaningful, clear, precise and much more interesting to students are

brought into play. However, incompetence of teachers towards the use of improvised

instructional model/material for teaching have been identified to be among the major factors

responsible for poor academic performance among learners at the secondary school level, as

many words becomes too difficult to comprehend and pronounce as such, students are made

to cram (i.e. study intensively over a short period of time just before examination or test)

most of the concepts without fully gaining insight or the actual meaning as such teaching

biology requires the use of various kinds of instructional model or resources. It is believed

that if adequate instructional materials/model are made available for use in schools and are

used appropriately in teaching-learning of biology concept, a better performance could be

achieved.

The thrust of this study therefore, is to assess the relevancy of improvisation of model human

respiratory system in teaching biology to secondary school students in Bosso (L.G.A) Niger

state, in order to stimulate effective learning of biology science in the selected school.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Purpose of this study include

1. To determine how academic performance of students is affected by the use of

improvised model of human respiratory system

2. To determine whether there is gender disparity in achievement when the concept of

human respiratory system is taught with I mprovised model materials

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 3. To investigate the knowledge and perceptions of teachers and students on the use of

improvised model materials.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To develop in students and teacher’s adequate skills for improvisation this will

generate interest and motivation for indigenous technology

2. To eradicate the menace of lack of usage and inadequate instructional materials

3. To determine whether there there would be any difference in the academic

performance of students in the selected secondary school through the use of the

constructed model

4. To ascertain the extent to which the constructed model of the human respiratory

system would influence the performance of students

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions guided the conduct of this study teaching are available

1. What is the mean achievement scores of students taught human respiratory system

using improvised model material and those taught using conventional method?

2. What is the influence of gender on the mean achievement scores of students taught

using improvised model material of human respiratory system?

1.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses are therefore postulated

HO1: There is no significant difference between mean achievement scores of students taught

using improvised model material of human respiratory system and those taught using the

conventional method.

HO2: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of males and

female students taught human respiratory system using improvised model material.

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1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this research work will focus specially on senior secondary school biology

students, it will centre on the effect of improvised model of human respiratory system on

academic achievement of students. It will focus on secondary school students only.

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is beneficial to student teachers, curriculum planner’s researchers and parents

To the students, the essence of this study is to make assimilation easier during the Course of

teaching and learning biology, as the subject is being taught from a more theoretical stands

point and lacks the practicality of a concept which is attributed to the lack of resources.

This project is intended to make appropriate improvised model material of the human

respiratory system in teaching biology in Other to enhance students’ interest and performance

in the study of the concept especially in secondary schools.

To the teachers the study is to reveal the perception of teachers on the use of improvised

model material. Furthermore, it will help to know the effectiveness of improvised model

material in teaching respiratory system in humans.

To the curriculum planners in other for them to take into consideration the use of

improvised model material in teaching process while designing a curriculum for senior

secondary school students.

To the researchers, this study’s result will help the researchers with clues to enlighten

teachers on how to produce a good improvised model material for the student’s achievement.

To the Parents, parent with the knowledge of improvised model material will help to

support teachers as well as the students in producing the instructional model.

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1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Respiration Is defined as the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to cells

within tissues and transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.

Biology Is the science that deals with the study of the structure, function and behaviour of

living organism

Improvisation: this is the production of an appropriate substitute for real or original

equipment or material in terms of need from local or readily available materials.

Achievement Is the degree or extent to which students, teacher or an institution has achieved

a long term or short educational goal.

Interest The feeling of wanting to know or learn about something or someone.

Model A three-dimensional representation of thing or of a proposed structure, typically on a

smaller than the original

Education Is the process of teaching and learning national development

Learning is the process of acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, skills, and values

or preference.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviewed related literature on the following sub-headings

2.1 Conceptual frame work

2.2 Theoretical frame work

2.3 Empirical studies

2.4 Summary

2.1 Conceptual frame work

2.1.1 Science Education

2.1.2Concept of improvised model material

2.1.3Types of improvised materials

2.1.4 Importance of Improvisation

2.1.5 Importance of Instructional Materials to Learners

2.1.6 advantages of improvisation

2.1.7 Rationale for Improvisation

2.1.8 Rationale for selecting improvised model material

2.1.9 Basic considerations in planning improvised materials

2.1.10 Tools for improvised model material

2.1.11 Problems faced using improvised model material

2.1.12 Limitations of using improvised model material

2.2 Theoretical frame work

2.2.1Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

2.2.2 Bruner’s Theory of cognitive Development

2.3 Empirical studies

2.4 Summary of the Review and uniqueness of the Study

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2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORKS

2.1. SCIENCE EDUCATION

The word "science" probably brings to mind many different pictures: a fat textbook, white lab

coats and microscopes, an astronomer peering through a telescope, a naturalist in the

rainforest, Einstein's equations scribbled on a chalkboard, the launch of the space shuttle,

bubbling beakers. All of those images reflect some aspect of science, but none of them

provides a full picture because science has so many facets. Science is both a body of

knowledge and a process.

In school, science may sometimes seem like a collection of isolated and static facts listed in a

textbook, but that is only a small part of the story. Just as importantly, science is also a

process of discovery that allows us to link isolated facts into coherent and comprehensive

understandings the nature of the world.

The growth of any nation is a measure of its level of science education. That was why

(Orukotan, 2007) stated that science education has introduced several changes in our world

today and it will continue to do so in the future.

Achievement in science education will go a long way in reducing illiteracy and poverty,

which are impediments to national development (Nwachukwu, 2008). (Akpan, 2008) opined

that science contributes to the quality of life in areas such as health, nutrition, agriculture,

transportation, material and energy production, as well as industrial development. He further

stated that it ensures that the air we breathe, and the water we drink are life sustaining, and

not vectors of disease and decay. He finally concluded that if science and technology form

the bedrock of sustainable development, that this revelation should constitute a beacon to our

nation, so that science education should have a prominence place in Nigerian schools.

Science education is the field concerned with sharing scientific knowledge, and methods with

people not traditionally considered part of the scientific community. Science education

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should be able to transform the typical teacher centred classroom lecture into a discovery and

problem-solving arena. This encourages creativity and originality. In order to achieve this,

the students have to be actively engaged in finding problems and looking for the solutions.

It is in fact, generally accepted that the adoption of scientific frame of mind is a prerequisite

for development. Science has therefore become a crucial factor for sustainable development

worldwide. Again, in any country, issues of education are of considerable importance for

economic prosperity. In fact, no economy can be more stable than the nation’s education

sector. That was why (Adikw, 2008) opined that for any nation to experience economic

growth there must be a strong stimulation of science.

There is really a yawning- gap between what the experts know and the untapped knowledge

which should be known by the teachers and students. This is because the rate of generation of

new scientific knowledge is very fast.

2.1.2 CONCEPT OF IMPROVISED MODEL MATERIAL

Improvisation refers to adapting a device for use apart from that which it was initially

designed for, or constructing a device from uncommon additives, in an ad- hoc,

Improvisation means the act of making something or using something in the absence of the

perfect tools. According to (Webster’s dictionary, 2004); improvisation is to produce, select

or create substitute for something not available to use as the basis of free invention.

(Kamoru and Umeano, 2006) further outlined it as the act of using material accessible from

the local environment or designed by the teacher or with the assistance of local personnel to

reinforce instruction. According to (Ihiegbulem, 2007), it is the act of work for standard

equipment or instructional material, which is not available with regionally created equipment

or instructional material from promptly available natural resources.

National teacher institute in (OMECHI, 2000), defines improvisation as the act of using

various materials and resources due to lack of or insufficient hand teaching aids to facilitate

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instruction from these opinion, improvisation entails the production (of equipment, kit or

apparatus) using available local and cheaper resources and the use of such equipment for

effective teaching. (Wikipedia, 2014) outlined improvisation as the method of creating or

doing something using whatever equipment or material resource’s presently available just

because the originally expected material resources are not available. (Hornby, 2015) in his

own view outlined improvisation as the act of creating something or inventing it as one goes

on, being guided only by imagination, instinct and guesswork rather than by a careful

arrangement. These are two broad perspectives by which improvisation may be viewed. In

the context of technology and education (teaching and learning processes), improvisation

may be defined as the method of manufacturing entirely new instructional material, tool,

instrument or equipment from locally available materials and using same to teach the

concerned technology content effectively.

It may also involve modifying the present prototype or model to suit the subject at hand, in

which there is no appropriate equipment. In general, the recently made instructional material

or the modified prototypes are referred to as the improvised materials of the usually imported

original model or normal materials that are not available.

Improvised materials are teaching materials designed and created from the available local

materials to promote effective teaching and learning in schools. They are materials that are

used in the absence of the original or the ideal objects to bring on the same learning impact

that the standard materials would have brought (Ahmed, 2008). (Ndirangu et al, 2003)

investigated the effective use of improvised materials designed by science teachers during

their teaching practice.

This study given proof that improvised teaching aids designed by science teachers during

practice had an excellent influence within the teaching of science in schools. These materials

were found to be durable and will last for an extended time to boost effective teaching and

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learning of science in school that are unable to afford costly standardized instructional

materials. Science teachers should be inspired to create their own teaching resources from the

locally accessible materials to teach science. Improvised materials are widely used across

variety of scientific disciplines. Such as, (Ahmed, 2008) presented in his study some

biological instructional materials that biology teachers will improvise to replace the

standardized ones. Biology teachers should verify materials from their local surroundings that

they could improvise without losing the originality of the conception, which is been taught.

Examples of these improvised materials include replacement D.N.A. models with stripped

cardboard for illustration in teaching genetics, exploitation clothes hangers in place of test-

tube holders, replacement of measuring cylinders with graduated feeding bottles for

measuring liquids and so on.

2.1.3 TYPES OF IMPROVISED MATERIALS

(Ofoefuna, 1999) expressed that there are two main kinds of improvisation.

1. Improvisation by substitution whereby an already existing local material are

employed in place of the equipment, which are not available.

2. Improvisation by construction whereby the teacher constructs a replacement material

to teach his lesson when the required original foreign model of the equipment or

material are not accessible or readily available.

In technology and education teaching and learning, the above two types of

instructional materials improvisation are at the same time used because of the dear

dearth of instructional materials necessary for effective teaching. Without adequate

provide, availability and utilization of functional instructional material, teaching and

learning are going to be devoid of practical reality and effectiveness.

2.1.4 IMPORTANCE OF IMPROVISATION

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 1. It changes the vocabulary and behaviour of the learner. Many classrooms particularly

when it comes to managing behaviour are run by a system of “NO” By making

improvisation an important piece of the class room culture, vocabulary of behaviour

expectations change If someone is talking out of turn in class, they have “taken focus”

which they should give back to the student who has the floor. Our classroom is an

assemble which must always work to keep on the same page.

2. It free the mind of the learner; creativity requires as a complete state of yes and

following ideals without judging them can be a difficult skill and improvisation is the

best tool to teach the learner to free their minds.

3. It creates something that’s truly shared in schools: creating is a high-level critical

thinking skill, and when you have created something as a class or group for which no

individual can take credit, you have created something very special indeed.

4. It helps in discover new stars: you will find there are group of students who excel at

this kind of work and receive a positive feedback from you and their pears. For many

of these students, being a star in the academic setting will be a new feeling. That’s is a

one of kind motivator and can make a big difference in a child life.

5. It makes the teacher to practice what he teaches: improvisation will make the teacher

and the school more positive. It also makes the students a better listener in the class

room and more open to new directions the class might take.

2.1.5 IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS TO LEARNERS

Jean Piaget’s theory of child development places the child aged 7 to 11 years under the

concrete operational stage (Obinaju, 1996). This means that for the child to learn he has to be

able to see and if possible touch or feel the objects of the lesson for concrete experience.

Instructional materials provide opportunity for the learners to have relatively uniform

attention and avenue to learn, practice, and acquire skills. They make teaching experiences

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flexible and rich enough to meet up with individual student’s learning styles (auditory, visual

and/or kinaesthetic).

Olumiran, Ajidagba and Jakeyinfa (2010) observed that instructional materials have direct

link with the sense organs. Students are able to use a combination of senses (touch, smell,

hearing, taste and sight) for easier, faster and better acquisition of concepts and facts being

taught. Instructional materials enable the learner to see a whole certain relationship that are

difficult to conceptualize in parts. For instance, pupils in the kindergarten learn to identify

and differentiate between different shapes more accurately when they see the real objects. It

allows them to compare and contrast the shapes and make a mental judgment of their

similarities and differences.

By means of instructional resources, students could learn about things too dangerous, too

small or not just expedient to bring to the classroom e.g. a cow or a river or a mountain. Any

of these can be effectively taught to the students in the classroom by the use of appropriate

improvised instructional materials (Omojuwa, 2000). Instructional Materials help the teacher

in providing the means of widening his students learning experience, providing his students

with meaningful source of information; provide the teacher the means of exposing the

students to a wide range of learning activities and increase the efficiency of the teacher by

providing tutorials and response guidance for individual students and small groups.

Other benefits of instructional materials to students are the fact that they bring excellent and

perfect learning resources to the classroom, and allow members of a group of learners or class

to share equally from the same teaching experience. Instructional materials can promote

learning by arousing the learners’ interest, sustain attention, provide the learners with

opportunities of interacting with their social and physical environment (e.g. during field trips

or excursion), offer opportunity for independent and individualized learning (self-paced

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learning), create concrete basis for conceptual thinking, offer opportunities for learners to

develop their abilities and skills by means of drill and practice (NTI Manual, 2006).

The need for the utilization of instructional materials cannot be over emphasized, as it is the

life wire of the instructional process and has far-reaching successful benefits or outcomes.

Abdu-Raheem (2011) attributes the ineffectiveness of the school system and poor

performance of students in schools to the non-availability and inadequacy of instructional

materials.

The contention is that availability of instructional materials in the right quantity improves

pupils’ learning achievement. Adequacy of instructional materials alone however, may not

guarantee learners’ achievement. These materials need to be utilized effectively in other to

achieve the desired objective. Hence, there is the need to find out the effect of utilization of

instructional materials on academic performance of students.

2.1.6 ADVANTAGES OF IMPROVISATION

Advantages of using low cost Materials

1. Use of local materials makes teachers and learners aware of the resources to

be found in their environment and stimulates creativity to use them.

2. The experiments and models can be constructed in a very short time, with a

few tools with locally available materials even by unskilled persons as part

of pre and in-service teacher training.

3. The self-construction develops a sense of proud ownership and promote a

more frequent used.

4. . Repair and replacement of broken part are possible locally technical or

administrative problem.

5. For the shortage, no special storage facility is need, a lockable cupboard is

enough. Security is not problem because of low material value.

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2.1.7 RATIONALE FOR IMPROVISATION

The fact that there is lack of or shortage of science equipment in schools couple with the

activity- oriented and child- oriented nature of the curriculum of the science has imposed

many heavy demands on laboratory facilities. The science teaching most be directed towards

the use of local materials and the material must be from the learner’s environment.

The following are the reason for improvisation

1. Improvisation of teaching resources enable the supplementing of verbal description

and explanation with observe and or touchable, manipulative objects.

2. Learners interest is stimulated when objects improvised by the teacher through his

creative ability and imagination are used effectively

3. It affords the student the opportunity of touching and manipulating for direct concrete

experience.

4. . Improvisation enables the learner to recognize that scientific concepts are invented

and created by acts of human intelligence and imagination and not a tangible object

accidentally discovered like a fossil or a particular mineral

5.

6. It helps in the development of scientific attitude in students. The concept “scientific

attitude” implies behaviour that demonstrates accuracy, objectivity and possession of

critical questioning skill.

2.1.9 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING IMPROVISED MATERIALS

For instructional material to be produced and made useful for teaching, a teacher has to be

properly organized in terms of knowledge skills of improvisation in order to allow for

maximum utilization of potential, which will be revealed through such improvisation

(Ogunlade, 2005).

The teacher must identify the goal and objectives of the lessons.

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 1. There should be stipulated time allocated for improvised model material.

2. The teacher must be well acquainted with the skills and operation of the system to be

improvised a basic knowledge of the material should be mastered.

3. Ensure that the cost benefit for improvised model material is purposefully calculated

if necessary an ample estimation of materials and tools to be collected locally must be

made.

4. The durability and robustness of the improvised model material Mastery of the steps

involved.

5. The teacher’s creativity, resources fullness, harmonization and management skills are

to be considered

6. A functioning area for the storage of the material model improvised.

According to the (Abdullahi, 2009) states that the availability depends upon your

availability storage upon your usage habit.

2.1.10 TOOLS FOR IMPROVISED MODEL MATERIAL

According to (egbodo, 2011) improvisation involves active participation of a teacher or

student it requires a professional commitment, sound knowledge of the subject matter

ingenuity and inventive ability.

However, despite the resourcefulness and propensity of the teacher he needs instructional

materials some specific essential tools aid to facilitate the production of instructional

materials some of the basic tools for improvisation of instructional materials consist of

hacksaw, gum, wood, wire, steel, rule, hand drill, plastic bottle, glass cuter, cardboard paper,

permanent maker, and square edge.

2.1.11 PROBLEMS FACED USING IMPROVISED MODEL MATERIAL

Teachers have been found to have difficulties in selecting and using instructional

17
Materials/model for teaching. Part of the difficulties has been that teachers tend to teach the

way they were taught in their training (NERCD, 2009). Consequently, teachers use the

materials they were exposed to during their training. This habit is often difficult for teachers

to change.

Other reasons advanced for the inability of teachers to use instructional resources effectively.

include:

• Inability to identify/ locate resources;

• Inability to develop appropriate materials from local resources;

• Lack of school- based resource Centre; and

• For instructional materials development, selection and utilization and Lack of short

term training to update teachers’ knowledge and skill for instructional materials development,

selection and utilization (NERDC, 2009).

In line with the stated reasons, the biology laboratories are to be equipped

appropriately to make teaching and learning conducive. According to Nwakonobi &

Igboabuchi (2010), biology laboratories are places where different types of experiments and

researches concerning all disciplines of life sciences take place for skills acquisition.

However, these skills cannot be acquired in the absence of well-equipped biology

laboratories to enhance effective teaching and learning which is geared towards empowering

the students to become functionally and qualitatively, educated, productive, self-reliant, and

sufficient and create enabling environment. All these are aimed at devising a proper

opportunity to salvage the medium of instruction in the national educational system.

It is against this background that the researcher decided to investigate the effect of students

produced- improvised instructional materials on the academic achievement of secondary

school’s students in biology examination.

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(Balogun, 2002) identified two main constraints militating against the successful

improvisation of science equipment. These are the technical and the human factors

respectively.

The technical factors relate to the question of the degree of accuracy and precision that is

attainable with the improvised equipment while the human factors relate to the teacher’s

ability in developing the resources and to also provide the suitable learning experience to the

learners.

(Maduabunmi, 2003) reported inadequate skilled training as a serious problem militating

against the effective use of local resources for science teaching. (Oyediran Isola, 2010) then

stressed the requirement for a definite well-planned training programme of improvisation for

teacher. He suggested regular meaningful workshop on improvisation technique for teacher to

boost and update their ability.

(Ayodele, 2003) Recognized two main barriers against successful Improvisation of science

materials. These are basically human and technical factors. The human factors incorporate the

teachers creative initiatives ingenuity in developing resources while preparing lesson and the

skills to effectively utilize the equipment for instruction on the other hand the teacher may

assign student with responsibilities of improvising so as extensively interact with his

environment while technical factors include the operative system of the device improvised

and its effectiveness thus factor measure the reliability, validity accuracy and precision of the

improvised.

According to (Laidlaw et al, 2009) Barriers such as lack of inaccessibility to resources and

equipment for teaching science in most areas are one of the major problem biology teachers

are faced with thus, inadequate resources for teaching and learning usually result to less

productive impact on student’s development (lingam and lingam 2013).

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2.1.12 LIMITATIONS OF USING IMPROVISED MODEL MATERIAL

Most improvised model materials lack precision and accuracy in measurement which can

eventually undermine the precise outcome of the experiment (Aina, 2013).

Sometimes the cost concerned in planning these materials is also more expensive than buying

the original ones. Again, the obtainable material might not be appropriate or acceptable for

the lesson and may subsequently yield unexpected results. This may create learning more

difficult and frustrating. typically, improvised materials may be expensive, and there might

not be enough to teach a big class.

Furthermore, improvised model material demands creative thinking, adventure, curiosity and

perseverance on the part of the teacher, such ability may be accomplished through training

programs with the instructional materials. The perception of some teachers towards

improvisation may also have an effect on different teachers absolutely or negatively in the

production of educational materials.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

2.2.1 Piaget's stages of Cognitive Development

From his observation of children, Piaget understood that children were creating ideas. They

were not limited to receiving knowledge from parents or teachers; they actively constructed

their own knowledge. Piaget's work provides the foundation on which constructionist theories

are based. Constructionists believe that knowledge is constructed and learning occurs when

children create products or artefacts. They assert that learners are more likely to be engaged

in learning when these artefacts are personally relevant and meaningful.

In studying the cognitive development of children and adolescents, Piaget identified four

major stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.

Piaget believed all children pass through these phases to advance to the next level of

cognitive development. In each stage, children demonstrate new intellectual abilities and

20
increasingly complex understanding of the world. Stages cannot be "skipped"; intellectual

development always follows this sequence. The ages at which children progress through the

stages are averages-they vary with the environment and background of individual children.

At any given time, a child may exhibit behaviour’s or characteristic of more than one stage.

2.2.2 Stages of cognitive development

The first stage, sensorimotor, begins at birth and lasts until 18 months-2 years of age. This

stage involves the use of motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge is limited in

this stage, because it is based on physical interactions and experiences. Infants cannot predict

reaction, and therefore must constantly experiment and learn through trial and error. Such

exploration might include shaking a rattle or putting objects in the mouth. As they become

more mobile, infants' ability to develop cognitively increases. Early language development

begins during this stage. Object permanence occurs at 7-9 months, demonstrating that

memory is developing. Infants realize that an object exists after it can no longer be seen.

The preoperational stage usually occurs during the period between toddlerhood (18-

24months) and early childhood (7 years). During these stage children begin to use language;

memory and imagination also develop. In the preoperational stage, children engage in make

believe and can understand and express relationships between the past and the future. More

complex concepts, such as cause and effect relationships, have not been learned. Intelligence

is egocentric and intuitive, not logical.

The concrete operational stage typically develops between the ages of 7-11 years. Intellectual

development in this stage is demonstrated through the use of logical and systematic

manipulation of symbols, which are related to concrete objects. Thinking becomes less

egocentric with increased awareness of external events, and involves concrete references.

The period from adolescence through adulthood is the formal operational stage. Adolescents

and adults use symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents can think about multiple

21
variables in systematic ways, can formulate hypotheses, and think about abstract relationships

and concepts.

Piaget believed that intellectual development was a lifelong process, but that when formal

operational thought was attained, no new structures were needed. Intellectual development in

adults involves developing more complex schema through the addition of knowledge.

2.23 Educational implications of piagents theory

An important implication of Piaget's theory is adaptation of instruction to the learner's

developmental level. The content of instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental

level of the learner.

The teacher's role is to facilitate learning by providing a variety of experiences. "Discovery

learning" provides opportunities for learners to explore and experiment, thereby encouraging

new understandings.

Opportunities that allow students of differing cognitive levels to work together often

encourage less mature students to advance to a more mature understanding. One further

implication for instruction is the use of concrete "hands on" experiences to help children

learn. Additional suggestions include:

1. Provide concrete props and visual aids, such as models and/or time line.

2. Use familiar examples to facilitate learning more complex ideas, such as story

problems in math.

3. Allow opportunities to classify and group information with increasing complexity; use

outlines.

and hierarchies to facilitate assimilating new information with previous knowledge.

4. Present problems that require logical analytic thinking; the use of tools such as "brain

teasers" is encouraged.

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This theory has direct implication on this study effect of improvised model of human

respiratory system on academic achievement of students in senior secondary school. learners

are given the chance to find facts on their own and to explore learning resources in his

surroundings so, psychological feature structuring such as assembling knowledge

hypothesizing investigation experimenting instigated the students creative thinking are

enhanced student develop problem determination skills and concretized answer through trial

and error.

2.2.4 Bruner’s Learning Theory

Bruner introduced the concept of learning by discovery. Bruner is of the view that

learning is effectively engaged in if the learner is giving the opportunity to discover facts by

him/herself. Bruner argues that mere presentation of information will not enhance effective

solution of a problem. The theory stresses cognitive effectiveness. Because of this, some

referred to Bruner’s theory of learning as Bruner’s theory of cognitive development. Bruner

believed that learning by discovery begins when science teacher intentionally create a

problem and present it to the students by introducing some contradictions among source of

information which are giving in the process of instruction.

According to Bruner such inconsistencies lead to intellectual

discomfort that will motivate the students to initiate individual discoveries

through cognitive restructuring the intellectual discomfort created by the inconsistencies

makes the learner to attempt to bring order out of this confusion by engaging in mental

processes i.e. discovery activities which involve observation, hypothesizing, measuring,

stating problem, data collection, classifying, inferring, etc. Through mental processes, the

student can generate facts from

his/her desperate experiences. Experiences gained during the mental processes enable the

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students to sense the disparity.

According to Bruner there are two forms of discovery processes which are:

Assimilation: This occurs when a student recognizes a new situation that is familiar to one of

the elements in the existing structure of knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure) and he/she easily

assimilates it.

Accommodation: This occurs when a new situation (i.e. a new knowledge) is incompatible

to the existing structure of knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure) the learner first restructures

(i.e. reorganizes) his/her cognitive framework (i.e. cognitive structure) in order to be able to

accommodate the new knowledge.

Bruner believes that the students should find out information on their own using

mental processes. The theory places great emphasis on the three types of human activity for

learning i.e. the three information processing systems which are:

1. Physical activity (motor activities) called Enactive representation.

2. Imagery called Ionic representation.

3. Symbolic activities

The three activities coexist with each other and for this reason; the attainment of one does not

mean the total abandonment of the others.

At enactive stage, the child manipulates the learning materials directly by neuro

muscular activities. At ionic stage, the child deals with mental images of objects, but does not

manipulate them directly. At symbolic stage the child uses language. The interpretation of the

above is that when a child, say at secondary school level shows deficiencies in his/her

learning capacity especially in symbolic representation, it could be that he/she was deficient

in early stages (i.e. enactive and ionic stages) which he/she skipped. It is therefore necessary

to fill in the missing gap by providing concrete support that will make up for the deficiency.

Discovery learning, when encouraged in science instruction also aids problem solving

24
because learning by discovery starts with problem solving (Aknmoyewa, 1992). Discovery

learning also stimulates creativity in the student, which is one of the major objectives of

science teaching/learning.

2.2.5 Educational implications of Bruner’s Theory

The science teacher should intentionally create or present problems to students either in form

of apparent contradiction or inconsistency among sources of information which are giving in

the process of instruction. Encouraging discovery learning in science class by science

teachers will result into aiding problem solving. One of the major objectives of science

teaching is creativity. Therefore, discovery learning encourages creativity. Students should be

taught concepts in such a way that they have applicability beyond the situation in which they

were learned. Retention of science concepts are aided by knowledge acquired through

discovery learning. Teachers must encourage students to make intuitive guess more

systematically. Bruner supported a radical reorganization of the curriculum across all levels

of education. Bruner advocated the fundamental structure of curriculum to begin with simple

contents and later graduated to complex contents. That means that learning should proceed

from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, and from specific to general. Teaching

should be inductive. Bruner supported the spiral nature of curriculum as we have in our

present science curriculum at all levels of education. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory asserts

that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas based upon them

current knowledge. Instruction can be made more efficient by providing a careful sequencing

of materials to allow learners to build upon what they already know and go beyond the

information they have been given to discover the key principles by themselves.

In relation to the present study: Effect of Students’ Produced Improvised Instructional

Materials on Senior Secondary Students Achievement in Biology, the application of Bruner’s

constructivist theory to learning will help the students to have a focused attention on the

25
principles they learn and also increase and sustain students’ attitude to learning environment.

Secondly, Bruner’s theory of learning by discovery and his theory of cognitive development

suggested that instructions at all level should be geared towards the learning maturational

development or cognitive operation. Bruner’s theory is directly related to the present study:

effect of students’ produced improvised instructional materials. This is because effective use

of students’ produced improvised materials involves the learner actively working on his own

to find solutions to problems. So, Bruner’s theory is in support of the present study.

2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

This section discusses several research works carried out on the effect of improvised model

of human respiratory system on academic achievement of students in senior secondary

school.

(Fatima jibril, 2015), carried out research work to find out the importance of improvisation

in teaching Biology in senior secondary school students in Sokoto metropolis. Total numbers

of 31 teachers were used in this study; the instrument used for data collection was

questionnaires which were administered personally by the researchers to ten randomly

selected secondary schools in Sokoto metropolis. The method used for data analysis was

simple percentages to examine the findings. Among the major findings for this is that, there is

an adequate instructional material for teaching Biology in secondary schools in Sokoto State.

In addition, there is a great difference between the performance of the students taught with

improvised materials and without any instructional aid.

With these findings, we recommend the teachers to be resourceful to improvise when the

original materials are not available.

(Umar, 2016). carried our study on Improvisation and use of community resources in

geography the research employed the use of questionnaire for collecting data cross tabulation

26
was used to analyse the data collected the researchers that ninety percent of teacher do not

improvise materials in the absence of manufacture ones.

(Mberekpe, 2015). investigated on the effect of improvised instructional material the

students’ academic achievement in biology at public secondary schools in potiskum local

government are at yobe, state the study was conducted with five research objectives and

research questions the purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of using

improvised food chain and food web in teaching the concept of ecology the study was

conducted to put on the centre stage the disposition of materials within the students

immediate environment and a way of eradicating the persistent shortage of educational

resources the researchers used analysis of covariance.

(ANCOVA). and data were collected using biology achievement test (BAT) the sample size

of 140 students were collected randomly from the population of 1043, SS two students in the

three co-educational School. This finding revealed the students who were taught using

improvised material perform better than students taught using conventional materials.

(Shodeine, 2015). carried out a study on the effect of improvised instructional material on

academic of junior secondary school students in social studies in kaduna state the sample

consist of four secondary school in kaduna by a cluster sampling technique. The researcher

employed quasi experimental design of pre-test, post-test and non-equivalent control groups

design. T-test was to test the four hypotheses at 0.05 level significances. The following

findings were made.

1. there was a significances’ differences between students taught social study with the

use of improvised instructional materials and those taught without the use of

instructional materials through the mean scores or the post-test [t=164.721, df=115,

p=0.002]

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 2. there was a significances difference in the performance of boys and girls as female

perform better than the male counter pad [t=1.760, DF=1115, p=0.001]. the

implication of these studies to teachers was discussed.

2.4 SUMMARY OF THE REVIEW AND UNIQUENESS OF THE STUDY

On the entire, the summary of the review and uniqueness of the study indicated that,

improvisation plays an important role in teaching and learning method from the various

disciplines and studies, the concept of improvisation materials are important to the substance

of any education system.

The utility of improvisation in education system gained support by the government that led to

the policy statement in the national policy of education (1998). Frequent observations by

educationist concerning teacher’s ignorance in the use of improvised material to aids learning

has become of concern.

(Okeowu, Adeniyi,2000) and (Onasanya, Adegbija, 2006) observed that teachers mostly

neglect the use of appropriate improvisation material because of ignorance of their benefit to

their students or laziness of the teacher to put things together or due to limited time.

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter focused on research methodology adopted by the researcher in carrying out the

study; they include, the research design of the study, population of the study, sample and

sampling techniques, instruments used for data collection, validity and reliability of the

instruments. It also includes method of data collection and data analysis.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The design used for the study is the quasi-experimental research design (pre-test post-test)

and control group design was used.

Table.1 Research Design layout

Group Pre-Test Treatment Post-Test

Experimental O1 S O2
Control O3 X O4
___________________________________________________________________________

Source: Gravetter et al (2006)

Where:

01 and 03=Pre-test for experimental and control group

02 and 04=Post-test for experimental and control group

S.=Treatment for experimental group

29
X= Treatment for control group

3.2 POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of this study comprises of all SSII biology students in Bosso local

government area in Minna Niger state.

The total population of SSII Biology students in Bosso local government area Minna, Niger

State are three thousand two hundred and thirty six (3,236), while the population of SSII

Biology students from two secondary schools are shown below in table 2.3

Table 2.3: population distribution of two sampled schools in Bosso local government

area Minna, Niger state

School Female Male total

Bosso Secondary School 24 36 60

Model secondary School 54 33 87

(Source: school registers)

3.3 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

The sample size used for this study is 147 SSII students randomly selected from two

secondary schools. Male (60) and Female (87). Simple random sampling technique was

used to categorised the sampled schools into experimental and control groups. The class used

in each of the schools were also randomly selected.

3.4 PILOT STUDY

The instrument used for the study is Respiratory System Biology Achievement Test

(RSBAT) was carried out at Government Day Secondary School which is within Bosso Local

30
Government Area of Niger State. The school was excluded during the sampling of

population. The trial test enabled the researcher to determine clarity of the test items, its

understandability, vagueness and appropriateness as well as to help determine the actual time

used in answering the pre-test and post-test questions. The data obtained in the trial testing

were used to estimate the reliability coefficient of the study.

3.5 INSTRUMENTATION

There are two research instruments namely:

3.4.1 The improvised model of human Respiratory system

3.4.2 The Respiratory System Biology Achievement Test (RSBAT)

The Respiratory System Biology Achievement Test (RSBAT) consists of twenty (20)

objective questions constructed some by the researcher and some adopted from a

standardized senior secondary school past examination questions paper. The secondary

school curriculum for biology was used as a guide for developing questions also. The

questions were drawn based on approved table of specification on six level of cognitive

domain. The table of specification was shown below in table 3.4

Table 3.4: Table of specification on six level of cognitive domain

____________________________________________________________________

Domain Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Total

Respiratory 7 5 5 1 1 1

20

System

3.5 VALIDITY OF RESEARCHER INSTRUMENT

31
 The validity of the instrument was determined by two senior lecturers in science

education department in Federal University of Technology Minna. The Respiratory System

Biology Achievement Test (RSBAT) was validated by the supervisor for the content and face

validity. The treatment instrument, that is the improvised model of human respiratory system

was validated by experts in science education department. This was done to ensure that the

research instrument accurately measures what its intended to measure.

3.6 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

The reliability test was conducted at Government Day secondary School which was not part

of sampled school. Twenty students from SSII were given The Respiratory System Biology

Achievement Test (RSBAT) The scores obtained were used to determine reliability

coefficient using Kuder-Richardson (KR21) and 0.71 is reliability coefficient.

3.7 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The following steps were used for data collection;

A lesson plan were, prepared by the researcher to teach the topic that will be taught. There

were two groups from different schools, the control and experimental groups. Experimental

treatment. The test was scored to be used as a criterion for measuring students’ performance

The Respiratory System Biology Achievement Test (RSBAT) 20 objectives questions on the

topic that was taught.

An intact class was used in both the experimental and control group. The two groups were

taught in the same length of time i.e. 45 minutes.

At the end of the lesson, the post test was administered to both groups. The students tick the

correct answers. The scripts were marked by the researcher to obtain the scores and to

measure student’s achievement. The scores were used for analysis.

3.8 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

32
The data for the study were analysed using the mean, standard deviation and t-test statistics.

The research questions were analysed using mean, and standard deviation while the research

hypothesis were analysed using t-test statistics. The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of

significance using (SPSS) version 21.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

This chapter presents the analysis of data collected from two secondary in Bosso. The

research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation while independent t-test

statistics was used to test the research hypotheses. All the hypotheses were tested at P ˂ 0.05

level of significance.

4.1 RESEARCH QUESTION

4.1.1Research Question One

What is the mean achievement scores of students taught using improvised model of human

respiratory system and those taught using conventional method?

Table 4.1: Mean and standard deviation of Pre-Test and Post Test scores of students

taught using improvised model of human respiratory system and those taught using

conventional method

Group Pre-test Post-test

N X SD X SD

Experimental Group 87 14.11 5.19 25.29 5.66

Control Group 60 11.17 6.13 19.38

5.77

33
Table 4.1 indicates that students taught respiratory system using improvised model material

has mean achievement score of 25.29 with a standard deviation of 5.66 at the post test while

those taught using lecture method had mean achievement score of 19.38 with a standard

deviation of 5.77 From the Post-test mean scores it is revealed that the students that were

exposed to improvised model material achieved higher than those taught using conventional

method.

34
4.1.2 Research Question Two

What is the influence of gender on the mean achievement scores of students taught using

improvised model material of human respiratory system?

Table 4.2: Mean and standard deviation of Male and Female Students Taught using

improvised model of human respiratory system

Group Pre-test Post-test

N X SD X SD

Male 33 12.27 4.34 27.09 5.68

Female 54 15.24 6.59 25.80 5.67

Table 4.2 shows the mean achievement scores of both Male and Female taught with

improvised model of human respiratory system. The post-test means scores of 27.09 with the

standard deviation of 5.68 was recorded for male students while the means scores of 25.80

with the standard deviation of 5.67 for the female counterpart. This result shows that the male

students had higher mean scores than the female students when taught with improvised model

of human respiratory system. To find out if the difference between the two mean are

significant, HO2 was tested.

4.2 TESTING RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The data analysis of the study and the result obtained are presented according to the research

hypothesis which in turn was used to answer the research question of the study

HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students

taught using improvised model of human respiratory system and those taught using

conventional method.

35
Table 4.4: t-test statistics of Post-Test scores of students taught using improvised model

of human respiratory system and those taught using conventional method.

Group N SD df t-value sig

Experimental 87 5.77

26.29

145 -7.21 0.00

Control 60 5.66

19.38

Significant at p<0.05

Table 4.4 reveals the t-test statistics of the mean achievement scores of students taught

human respiratory system using improvised model material and those taught using

conventional method. The mean score and standard deviation of the control group are 19.38

and 5.66 respectively while the experimental group is 26.29 and 5.77, this indicated that there

was significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught human

respiratory system using improvised model material and those taught using conventional

method (t = -7.211, df= 145, p ˂ 0.05). Hence the null hypothesis stated above was rejected

in favour of the experimental group.

HO2: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and

female students taught human respiratory system using improvised model material.

In order to test this hypothesis, the mean achievement of male and female students in the

Biological Concept on Respiratory System Achievement Test using improvised model

material the scores were computed

36
Table 4.5: t-test statistics Mean Achievement scores of male and female students taught

Human Respiratory system using improvised model material.

Group N X SD df t.val sig

Male 33 27.09 5.63

85 1.03 0.30

Female 54 25.80 5.67

Significant at p<0.05

Table 4.5 Reveals the t-test statistics, t=1.03, df= 85, is significant at p˂0.05 level of

significance. The result of the analysis indicates that there is no significant difference in the

mean achievement scores between the male and female students. Therefore, the hypothesis

which states that there is no significant difference between male and female students taught

human respiratory system using improvised model material is accepted.

4.4 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The data analysed in chapter four were interpreted and discussed based on the results gotten

from the two research questions and hypotheses. The post-test scores in table 4.1 shows that

the experimental group ( X = 25.29, S.D = 5.66) had higher achievement scores than the

control group ( X = 19.38, S.D= 5.66). Similarly, the p-value associated with the calculated

value of t (7.211) in table 4.4 is 0.00 which is less than the level of significance, the null

hypothesis is rejected. This finding is in line with the observations of Ehikioya (2000),

Olagunjo

37
(2000), Abolade (2004), Olagungu (2000), Mbajiorgu (2003), Onasanya and Omosewo

(2010), Adeyemi and Olaleye (2010) who found out that improvised model

material affects students’ achievement more than conventional method.

The male students at post-test level ( X = 27.09, S.D = 5.63) achieved higher than the female

students ( X = 25.80, S.D= 5.67). Similarly, the p-value associated with the value of t (1.03)

in table 4.5 is greater than the 0.05 level of significance hence, the hypotheses is accepted.

This indicates that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male

and female Biology students. The finding support Onasanya and Omosewo (2010) who found

out that improvised model materials in the comparison of the male and female mean scores.

Therefore, is no significant difference in the achievement scores of male and female students

using improvised model material.

38
39
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the findings of the study based on the two research questions and two null

hypotheses that guided the study are discussed. The conclusion, discussion of the result,

major findings of the study, educational implications, recommendations, and suggestions for

further research.

5.1 CONCLUSION

Based on the findings and discussion of the study, the following conclusions were made

1. Use of improvised model material in teaching biology enhances students’

achievement more than conventional method.

2. Gender has no significant effect on students’ achievement in Biology.

From the results obtained in the study on the effects of improvised model of human

respiratory system on students’ achievement in Biology, it was found that students taught

biology using improvised model material performed better than students taught using

conventional method; the performance of the male students differs, from that of their female

counterparts in Biology;

5.2 MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The following are the major findings of the study:

1. There is significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught

human respiratory system using improvised model material in favour of those taught

using conventional method of teaching.

2. Gender has influence on the mean achievement scores of male and female students

taught using improvised model in biology as such there is a significant difference

between mean achievement score of the male and female students.

40
5.3 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

The findings of this study have implications for science education particularly in

teaching biology in secondary schools. The implications of this study border on development

of more virile instructional materials for teaching biology. The study revealed that it was

students taught using improvised model material that performed better than students taught

using conventional method; there is a significant difference in the performance of male

students compared to their female counterparts in Biology, meaning gender affect

performance of students. In addition, the findings of this study have implications for biology

teachers. With these findings on the efficacy of improvised model material on students’

achievement in biology, it has become obvious that the current conventional instructional

materials recommended by the Ministry of Education are inadequate to meet the needs of the

student and consequently need to be reviewed. This will, without doubt, enhance students’

achievement in science, particularly in biology.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of this study, and their implications, the following recommendations

are made.

a. The teaching of Biology in secondary school should be conducted in a manner that

students will effectively understand and learn the concept taught. It should be

practical as the use of improvised model materials has play greater role in

students’ achievement.

b. Teachers should try to improvise instructional materials and encourage students to do

the same. This will give students enough understanding of Biology concepts as the

child’s local environment will be use to source for the materials.

d. It is suggested that regular meaningful workshop on improvisation technique for

Science teachers should be conducted to improve and update their competence in

41
teaching.

5.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Similar studies should be conducted in biology to find out the effects of improvised

and conventional instructional material on students’ achievement among varied ability

levels and their retention.

2. It was suggested that further research can be carried out on this topic using true

experimental research design.

3. Similar study should be carried out using another concept in Biology in other local

government areas.

42