Chapter # 01

Introduction to anthropology
Anthropology:

The word "anthropology" comes from the Greek roots "anthropos" (meaning "human") and
"logia" (meaning "study" or "science"). Therefore, the literal meaning of "anthropology" is the
"study of humans" or the "science of humanity." It encompasses the systematic investigation and
understanding of human beings, their origins, behaviors, cultures, societies, and development
throughout history.

Social anthropology is a field that studies human societies and cultures, focusing on
understanding social structures, cultural practices, and the ways people interact within different
social contexts. Various authors and scholars have provided definitions and interpretations of
social anthropology, highlighting its multidisciplinary nature and its focus on human diversity.
Here are some meanings and definitions of social anthropology from different authors:

1. E.E. Evans-Pritchard: "Comparative study of human societies and cultures."

2. Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown: "Study of social relationships, systems, and

institutions in human societies."

3. Franz Boas: "Science dealing with the biological and cultural development of humans."

4. Claude Lévi-Strauss: "Analysis of society and culture based on underlying patterns of

thought and behavior."

5. Bronisław Malinowski: "Study of the function of institutions, customs, and beliefs in

societies."

6. Marcel Mauss: "Study of social phenomena as interconnected totalities."

7. Max Gluckman: "Study of social structures and processes, focusing on stability and
change."

These definitions capture the essence of social anthropology as a discipline concerned with
understanding human societies, cultures, social relationships, and dynamics.

Nature of social anthropology:

Social anthropology is a branch of anthropology that focuses on the study of human societies and
cultures. It aims to understand the social structures, institutions, beliefs, practices, and behaviors
of different groups of people across time and space. The nature of social anthropology is
multifaceted, and it involves several key characteristics and principles:
 1. Holistic Approach: Social anthropology takes a holistic approach to studying human
societies, considering various interconnected aspects such as culture, economics, politics,
religion, kinship, and ecology. It seeks to understand how these different elements
interact and shape individuals' lives within a society.

2. Cultural Relativism: Social anthropologists often employ the principle of cultural

relativism, which means that they try to understand and interpret cultural practices and
beliefs from the perspective of the people within that culture. This approach avoids
ethnocentrism (judging other cultures based on one's own cultural norms) and promotes
cultural sensitivity and understanding.

3. Participant Observation: One of the primary methods used in social anthropology is

participant observation, where anthropologists immerse themselves in the culture they are
studying by living among the people, participating in their activities, and observing their
behaviors and interactions. This firsthand experience allows for a deep understanding of
the social dynamics and cultural norms of the society under study.

4. Comparative Analysis: Social anthropology often involves comparative analysis, where

anthropologists compare different societies or cultural practices to identify similarities,
differences, patterns, and variations. This comparative approach helps in generating
broader insights into human diversity and societal dynamics.

5. Longitudinal Studies: Social anthropologists may engage in longitudinal studies, which

involve studying a society or community over an extended period. This longitudinal
perspective enables them to observe social changes, cultural adaptations, and continuity
over time, providing valuable insights into cultural evolution and resilience.

6. Interdisciplinary Connections: Social anthropology has strong interdisciplinary

connections with other fields such as sociology, psychology, history, economics, political
science, and geography. This interdisciplinary approach allows anthropologists to draw
on diverse theoretical frameworks and methodologies to enrich their understanding of
human societies and cultures.

7. Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic research is a fundamental method in social

anthropology, involving the collection of qualitative data through interviews,
observations, and participant interactions. Ethnographic studies often result in detailed
ethnographies, which are written accounts that provide in-depth descriptions and analyses
of specific cultures or social groups.

Overall, the nature of social anthropology is dynamic, diverse, and rooted in the study of human
diversity, social relations, cultural practices, and the complexities of human existence in various
contexts
Scope of anthropology:

Social anthropology is a rich and diverse field that encompasses the study of human societies and
cultures across the world. Its scope is broad and multifaceted, covering various aspects of human
life, behavior, beliefs, customs, institutions, and social structures. Here are some key areas within
the scope of social anthropology:

1. Cultural Anthropology: This branch focuses on the study of cultures, including their
beliefs, rituals, norms, values, traditions, material artifacts, and symbolic systems.
Cultural anthropologists often conduct fieldwork to immerse themselves in different
societies and understand the intricacies of their cultural practices.

2. Social Organization: Social anthropologists examine how societies are organized and
structured, including kinship systems, social hierarchies, power dynamics, social roles,
and social networks. They explore how individuals and groups interact within these
social frameworks.

3. Economic Anthropology: This area delves into the ways in which different societies
produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. It includes the study of subsistence
strategies, economic systems (such as capitalism, socialism, and traditional economies),
exchange networks, labor relations, and the cultural meanings attached to economic
activities.

4. Political Anthropology: Political anthropologists investigate systems of governance,

authority, conflict resolution, and decision-making within societies. They analyze
political institutions, leadership structures, ideologies, power relations, and processes of
political change and resistance.

5. Religious Anthropology: This field explores religious beliefs, practices, rituals, myths,
and cosmologies across cultures. It investigates the role of religion in shaping social
norms, identities, worldviews, and interactions, as well as the relationship between
religion and other aspects of society, such as politics, economics, and kinship.

6. Medical Anthropology: Medical anthropologists study health, illness, healing practices,

and healthcare systems from a cultural perspective. They examine how different societies
understand and respond to health issues, the cultural meanings of sickness and well-
being, medical pluralism, and the impact of globalization on health.

7. Environmental Anthropology: This emerging area focuses on human-environment

interactions, including topics like environmental beliefs, knowledge systems, resource
use, conservation practices, ecological adaptations, and the cultural dimensions of
environmental challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainability.
 8. Applied Anthropology: Applied anthropologists use anthropological theories, methods,
and insights to address real-world problems and promote positive social change. They
work in diverse areas such as development, public health, education, community
development, advocacy, and cultural heritage preservation.

9. Visual Anthropology: This interdisciplinary field uses visual media (such as

photography, film, and multimedia) to document, analyze, and communicate
anthropological knowledge about cultures, social issues, and human experiences. Visual
anthropologists explore the role of images and visual representations in shaping
perceptions and understanding of diverse cultures.

Overall, the scope of social anthropology is vast and constantly evolving, reflecting the
complexity and diversity of human societies and cultures worldwide. It encompasses a wide
range of topics, methodologies, and theoretical perspectives, making it a dynamic and
interdisciplinary field of study.

Branches of anthropology:

Anthropology is a multidisciplinary field that encompasses several subfields, each focusing on

different aspects of human life, culture, and society. The main subfields of anthropology are:

1. Cultural Anthropology: This subfield studies human cultures, including their beliefs,
customs, practices, rituals, languages, social structures, and material artifacts. Cultural
anthropologists often conduct fieldwork to immerse themselves in different societies and
understand their unique cultural systems.

2. Biological/Physical Anthropology: This subfield focuses on the biological aspects of

humans and their ancestors. It includes the study of human evolution, primatology,
human genetics, forensic anthropology, skeletal biology, and the biological variations
among human populations.

3. Archaeology: Archaeology deals with the study of past human societies and cultures
through material remains such as artifacts, structures, and landscapes. Archaeologists use
excavation, analysis, dating techniques, and cultural interpretation to reconstruct and
understand ancient civilizations, technologies, economies, and social practices.

4. Linguistic Anthropology: Linguistic anthropology explores the role of language in

human societies. It examines language structure, communication patterns, language
acquisition, linguistic diversity, language evolution, sociolinguistics, language ideologies,
and the relationship between language and culture.

5. Applied Anthropology: Applied anthropology applies anthropological theories,

methods, and insights to address practical problems and promote positive social change.
It includes subfields such as medical anthropology, development anthropology,
 environmental anthropology, business anthropology, educational anthropology, and urban
anthropology.

6. Visual Anthropology: This subfield uses visual media such as photography, film, and
multimedia to document, analyze, and communicate anthropological knowledge about
cultures, societies, and human experiences. Visual anthropologists explore how images
and visual representations shape perceptions and understanding of diverse cultural
phenomena.

7. Political Anthropology: Political anthropology examines systems of governance, power

relations, authority structures, political ideologies, conflict resolution mechanisms, and
political processes within human societies. It explores the intersection of politics, culture,
identity, and social change.

8. Environmental Anthropology: Environmental anthropology studies the complex

relationships between humans and their environments. It explores topics such as human-
environment interactions, environmental beliefs, knowledge systems, resource use,
conservation practices, ecological adaptations, and the cultural dimensions of
environmental challenges.

9. Medical Anthropology: Medical anthropology investigates health, illness, healing

practices, and healthcare systems from a cultural perspective. It examines how different
societies understand and respond to health issues, the cultural meanings of sickness and
well-being, medical pluralism, global health challenges, and the social determinants of
health.

These subfields of anthropology are interconnected and often overlap, reflecting the holistic
approach of anthropology to understanding human beings in all their biological, cultural,
historical, and social dimensions.

Chapter # 02

Types of societies
Egalitarian societies:

Egalitarian societies are social systems characterized by a relatively equal distribution of power,
resources, and opportunities among their members. In these societies, there is a lack of rigid
social hierarchies or significant disparities in wealth, status, or access to basic necessities.
Egalitarianism often manifests in various ways, and here are some key characteristics of
egalitarian societies:

1. Equality of Access: Egalitarian societies ensure that all members have equal access to
essential resources such as food, shelter, healthcare, education, and decision-making
 processes. There are no significant barriers preventing individuals from meeting their
basic needs based on social status or wealth.

2. Horizontal Social Structure: Unlike hierarchical societies with clear social classes or
caste systems, egalitarian societies have a more horizontal social structure. There may
still be roles and divisions of labor based on age, gender, or expertise, but these roles do
not result in significant social stratification or unequal power dynamics.

3. Shared Decision-Making: Egalitarian societies often emphasize collective decision-

making processes, where important decisions are made through consensus, consultation,
or democratic means. Power is distributed among community members rather than
concentrated in the hands of a select few.

4. Limited Material Inequality: While some level of material inequality may exist based
on individual skills, contributions, or personal possessions, egalitarian societies typically
minimize extreme wealth disparities. Redistribution mechanisms, reciprocity, and sharing
practices may help ensure a more equitable distribution of resources.

5. Social Cohesion and Solidarity: Egalitarian societies tend to foster strong social
cohesion, cooperation, and mutual support among their members. Shared values, norms,
and collective identities contribute to a sense of solidarity and interconnectedness within
the community.

6. Egalitarian Gender Relations: Many egalitarian societies exhibit more equitable gender
relations compared to patriarchal or male-dominated societies. Women often have equal
access to resources, decision-making roles, and opportunities for leadership and
participation in public affairs.

7. Informal Social Control: Egalitarian societies often rely on informal social control
mechanisms, such as social norms, values, and moral codes, to regulate behavior and
resolve conflicts. Formal institutions of authority may be less prominent, with a greater
emphasis on self-regulation and community-based justice systems.

8. Emphasis on Reciprocity and Sharing: Reciprocal exchange, sharing of resources, and

communal ownership of land or property are common practices in egalitarian societies.
These principles promote cooperation, interdependence, and the equitable distribution of
benefits within the community.

9. Low Levels of Social Stratification: Compared to stratified societies with clear social
classes or caste systems, egalitarian societies exhibit lower levels of social stratification.
While differences in status or prestige may exist based on individual achievements or
contributions, these differences do not result in entrenched inequalities or barriers to
social mobility.
 10. Flexibility and Adaptability: Egalitarian societies often demonstrate flexibility,
adaptability, and resilience in responding to internal and external challenges. Their social
structures and decision-making processes may evolve based on changing circumstances,
allowing for innovation and collective problem-solving.

It's important to note that no society is entirely egalitarian, and variations in the degree of
egalitarianism can be found across different cultural contexts and historical periods.
Egalitarianism represents an ideal or aspiration toward greater social equality rather than a
rigidly defined social structure.

Egalitarian societies can be found across different regions and cultures, showcasing various
forms of social organization and community structures that prioritize equality, cooperation, and
shared resources. Here are a few examples of egalitarian societies:

1. !Kung San (Ju/'hoansi) of Southern Africa: The !Kung San hunter-gatherer societies,
also known as the Ju/'hoansi, traditionally lived in the Kalahari Desert region of southern
Africa. They practiced a form of egalitarianism characterized by communal living,
resource sharing, and gender equality. Decision-making was typically consensus-based,
and there were no formal leaders or centralized authority. !Kung San communities
emphasized cooperation, reciprocity, and mutual support in their daily lives.

2. Piaroa People of Venezuela: The Piaroa indigenous communities in Venezuela's

Orinoco Basin are known for their egalitarian social structure and emphasis on
cooperation and collective decision-making. They practice horticulture and hunting-
gathering, with a focus on sharing resources and maintaining social harmony. Leadership
is often informal, and decisions are made through discussions involving all community
members.

3. Mbuti Pygmies of Central Africa: The Mbuti Pygmies, who inhabit the rainforests of
the Democratic Republic of Congo and surrounding regions, live in egalitarian societies
characterized by cooperation, egalitarianism, and mobility. They practice foraging and
hunting, with a strong emphasis on sharing resources, egalitarian social norms, and
communal decision-making.

4. Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee) in North America: The Iroquois

Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee, is a historical example of an egalitarian
society among Native American tribes in North America. The Iroquois practiced a form
of participatory democracy known as the Great Law of Peace, where decisions were
made through consensus among representatives from member nations. The Confederacy
emphasized principles of equality, cooperation, and collective well-being.

5. Kibbutzim in Israel: Kibbutzim are collective communities in Israel where members

live and work cooperatively, sharing resources and responsibilities equally. These
 communities emerged as part of the Zionist movement and were based on socialist
principles of egalitarianism, communal living, and shared ownership of property and
means of production. While some kibbutzim have evolved over time, many retain
elements of egalitarian social structures.

6. Maroons of the Caribbean: Maroon communities, formed by escaped slaves in the

Caribbean and the Americas, often developed egalitarian social systems characterized by
collective decision-making, resource sharing, and mutual aid. These communities
prioritized freedom, autonomy, and solidarity among their members, fostering egalitarian
values in their social organization.

These examples highlight the diversity of egalitarian societies across different cultural contexts,
emphasizing principles of cooperation, equality, shared responsibility, and consensus-based
decision-making as central elements of their social organization

Ranked societies:

Ranked societies are social systems characterized by a clear hierarchy or ranking of individuals
or groups based on specific criteria such as wealth, status, ancestry, or achievements. Unlike
egalitarian societies where power and resources are relatively equally distributed, ranked
societies exhibit more pronounced social stratification and inequality. Here are some key
characteristics of ranked societies:

1. Hierarchical Social Structure: Ranked societies have a structured social hierarchy with
distinct levels or ranks. Individuals or groups are placed in higher or lower positions
within the hierarchy based on criteria such as lineage, wealth, social connections,
religious roles, or achievements.

2. Hereditary Ranking: In many ranked societies, social status and privileges are inherited
through family lineage. This means that individuals' positions in the social hierarchy are
often determined by their birth into specific social classes or lineages with varying
degrees of prestige and power.

3. Differential Access to Resources: The social hierarchy in ranked societies often results
in unequal access to resources, wealth, and opportunities. Those in higher ranks typically
enjoy greater privileges, such as access to land, luxury goods, political influence,
educational opportunities, and better living conditions.

4. Distinct Social Classes or Castes: Ranked societies may exhibit distinct social classes or
castes, each with its own rights, obligations, and social roles. These classes or castes are
often stratified based on factors such as occupation, wealth, education, religious purity, or
ethnicity.
 5. Symbolic Markers of Status: Status distinctions in ranked societies are often reinforced
by symbolic markers such as clothing, jewelry, housing, ceremonial roles, titles, and
forms of address. These symbols visually represent individuals' positions within the
social hierarchy and contribute to maintaining social distinctions.

6. Limited Social Mobility: While some degree of social mobility may exist in ranked
societies, movement between social ranks is often constrained by factors such as birth,
kinship ties, marriage alliances, or exceptional achievements. It may be difficult for
individuals to significantly change their social status within the existing hierarchy.

7. Formalized Systems of Prestige and Honor: Ranked societies often have formalized
systems of prestige and honor that recognize and reward individuals or groups for their
contributions, achievements, or adherence to societal norms. Honorific titles, awards, and
privileges may be bestowed upon those in higher ranks.

8. Inequality in Power and Decision-Making: The social hierarchy in ranked societies is

reflected in unequal power dynamics and decision-making processes. Individuals in
higher ranks typically have more influence, authority, and control over important social,
political, economic, and religious matters.

9. Social Obligations and Responsibilities: Individuals' positions within the social

hierarchy come with specific social obligations, responsibilities, and expectations.
Higher-ranking individuals may have obligations to provide patronage, protection,
leadership, or support to those in lower ranks, while lower-ranking individuals may owe
loyalty, obedience, or tribute to higher-ranking authorities.

10. Cultural Justifications for Inequality: Ranked societies often develop cultural beliefs,
ideologies, or religious doctrines that justify and reinforce social inequality. These
cultural narratives may emphasize ideas of divine ordination, meritocracy, karma, or the
natural order as explanations for the hierarchical social structure.

Ranked societies can be found in various cultural contexts and historical periods, ranging from
ancient civilizations with kings and nobility to modern societies with social classes based on
wealth and privilege. The degree of social stratification and the specific criteria for ranking
individuals or groups may vary widely across different ranked societies.

Ranked societies, also known as stratified societies, are characterized by structured social
hierarchies with distinct levels of status, power, and privilege. Here are some examples of ranked
societies from various historical and cultural contexts:

1. Feudal Societies in Medieval Europe: Feudalism was a social and economic system
prevalent in medieval Europe, characterized by a hierarchical structure with monarchs or
kings at the top, followed by nobles (lords and knights), clergy, and peasants or serfs at
 the bottom. The feudal system was based on land ownership, vassalage, and obligations
of loyalty and service.

2. Ancient Egyptian Society: Ancient Egypt had a hierarchical society with a pharaoh at
the apex of power, followed by nobles, priests, scribes, artisans, and peasants. The social
hierarchy was closely tied to the religious and political structure of the Egyptian
civilization, with the pharaoh considered a divine ruler.

3. Caste System in India: The caste system in India is a hierarchical social stratification
based on birth, where individuals are born into specific castes (such as Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras) with varying degrees of social status and privileges.
Dalits (formerly known as untouchables) were historically marginalized and placed
outside the caste hierarchy.

4. Feudal Japan: Similar to feudalism in medieval Europe, feudal Japan had a hierarchical
society with the emperor at the top, followed by shoguns (military rulers), daimyo
(landowners and feudal lords), samurai (warrior class), peasants, and artisans. The feudal
system was characterized by a rigid social structure and obligations of loyalty and
service.

5. Antebellum Southern United States: Before the Civil War, the southern United States
had a plantation-based economy with a hierarchical society structured around race and
class. White plantation owners held the highest social status and economic power,
followed by poor whites, free blacks, and enslaved African Americans who occupied the
lowest rungs of the social hierarchy.

6. Modern Capitalist Societies: Contemporary capitalist societies often exhibit elements of

social stratification based on wealth, income, education, and occupation. These societies
have upper, middle, and lower classes, with wealthy elites at the top enjoying economic
privileges and political influence, while marginalized groups face socioeconomic
disadvantages and inequality.

7. Corporate Hierarchies: Within modern organizations and corporations, there are

hierarchical structures with executives, managers, supervisors, and workers occupying
different levels of authority and responsibility. Corporate hierarchies often reflect power
differentials, decision-making processes, and career advancement opportunities based on
job roles and positions.

These examples demonstrate how ranked societies can manifest in various historical periods and
cultural contexts, emphasizing the existence of structured social hierarchies and inequalities
based on factors such as birth, wealth, occupation, and social status
Class and caste-ridden societies:

Class- and caste-ridden societies are characterized by entrenched systems of social stratification
based on birth, wealth, occupation, and social status. Here are examples of both types of
societies:

1. Caste-Ridden Societies:

a. India: India is a classic example of a caste-based society, where the caste system has
historically structured social hierarchies and influenced various aspects of life, including
marriage, occupation, and social interactions. The traditional caste system in India includes four
main varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras) with hundreds of subcastes (jatis)
and Dalits (formerly known as untouchables) positioned outside the traditional varna system.
While efforts have been made to address caste-based discrimination and promote social equality,
caste dynamics still influence social relationships and opportunities in contemporary Indian
society.

b. Nepal: Nepal also has a caste-based social structure similar to India, with Brahmins, Chhetris,
Newars, and other caste groups occupying different positions in the social hierarchy. The caste
system in Nepal influences aspects of marriage, occupation, social interactions, and access to
resources and opportunities.

2. Class-Ridden Societies:

a. United States: The United States is often described as a class-based society, where social
stratification is primarily based on factors such as wealth, income, education, and occupation.
The U.S. has distinct social classes, including the upper class (wealthy elites and business
leaders), middle class (professionals, managers, and skilled workers), and lower class (low-
income earners, manual laborers, and marginalized populations). Class-based inequalities in the
U.S. manifest in disparities in access to healthcare, education, housing, employment
opportunities, and political influence.

b. United Kingdom: The United Kingdom also has a class-based society with historical roots in
feudalism and industrial capitalism. The British social class system includes categories such as
the upper class (aristocracy, landed gentry, and wealthy elites), middle class (professionals,
managers, and white-collar workers), and working class (blue-collar workers, manual laborers,
and service industry workers). Class distinctions in the UK influence social mobility, educational
attainment, income distribution, and cultural norms.

3. Brazil: Brazil is another example of a society with complex intersecting systems of

social stratification, including class and race. Brazilian society has distinct social classes
ranging from the wealthy elite to the urban middle class and rural poor. Additionally,
 Brazil has a history of racial stratification and inequality, with Afro-Brazilians and
indigenous populations often marginalized and facing socioeconomic disadvantages.

4. South Africa (During Apartheid): During the apartheid era in South Africa, the country
was characterized by a rigid system of racial segregation and discrimination, with white
minority rule and systemic oppression of non-white populations, including black
Africans, coloreds, and Indians. The apartheid regime enforced strict racial classifications
that determined individuals' access to resources, opportunities, and political rights,
leading to profound social inequalities and injustices.

These examples illustrate how class and caste-based systems of social stratification can shape
societies, influencing individuals' life chances, opportunities, social interactions, and access to
resources and privileges. Efforts to address inequalities and promote social justice often involve
challenging and transforming entrenched systems of hierarchy and discrimination.

Caste- class-ridden societies:

Caste- and class-ridden societies are characterized by entrenched systems of social stratification
based on birth, occupation, wealth, and social status. While caste systems are more commonly
associated with certain regions like India, class-based societies are prevalent globally, especially
in capitalist economies. Here are some key characteristics of caste- and class-ridden societies:

1. Caste System:

 Hereditary Social Hierarchies: Caste systems are based on the hereditary

division of society into distinct social groups, known as castes, which determine
individuals' social status, occupations, and privileges from birth.

 Endogamy and Social Segregation: Caste-based societies often enforce strict

rules of endogamy, where individuals are expected to marry within their own
caste. This leads to social segregation and limited social mobility between castes.

 Ritual Purity and Pollution: Caste systems often include notions of ritual purity
and pollution, where certain castes are considered "pure" and others "impure."
This affects social interactions, occupations, and access to religious rituals.

 Limited Occupational Mobility: Individuals in caste-based societies are

typically restricted to occupations associated with their caste. Higher castes often
have access to prestigious and economically advantageous professions, while
lower castes are relegated to menial or stigmatized occupations.

2. Class System:
  Economic Stratification: Class-based societies are characterized by economic
stratification, where individuals and families are grouped into social classes based
on their wealth, income, education, and occupation.

 Social Mobility: While class systems theoretically allow for more social mobility
than caste systems, in practice, there are often barriers to upward mobility, such as
limited access to education, unequal opportunities, discrimination, and inherited
wealth.

 Inequality in Access to Resources: Class-based societies exhibit significant

disparities in access to resources, including healthcare, education, housing,
employment opportunities, and political influence.

 Power and Privilege: The upper classes in class-based societies wield greater
power, influence, and privilege, shaping economic policies, social norms, cultural
values, and political decisions to their advantage.

 Class Consciousness: Class-based societies may foster class consciousness,

where individuals identify with and advocate for the interests of their social class,
leading to movements for social justice, labor rights, wealth redistribution, and
equality.

3. Inter-sectionality and Social Dynamics:

 Intersection of Caste and Class: In some societies, especially in regions with

historical caste systems, caste and class intersect, leading to complex social
dynamics where caste-based discrimination intersects with economic disparities.

 Discrimination and Marginalization: Caste- and class-ridden societies often

experience discrimination, marginalization, and social exclusion of lower
castes/classes, ethnic minorities, indigenous communities, and other
disadvantaged groups.

 Social Stigma and Stereotypes: Both caste and class systems perpetuate social
stigma, stereotypes, and prejudices that reinforce inequalities and hinder social
cohesion, solidarity, and mutual respect.

Caste- and class-based inequalities continue to be significant challenges in many societies,

requiring efforts to address structural injustices, promote social inclusion, ensure equal
opportunities, and uphold human rights for all individuals regardless of their caste or class
background.
 Chapter # 03

Family and marriage

Family:

The literal meaning of the word "family" comes from the Latin word "familia," which originally
referred to a household or domestic establishment. The term encompassed not just the immediate
relatives but also servants, slaves, and other individuals living together under one roof. Over
time, the concept of family evolved to specifically denote a group of people related by blood,
marriage, or adoption, who share a common residence and are typically involved in emotional
and social bonds, mutual support, and caregiving responsibilities. The modern understanding of
family encompasses various forms and structures, including nuclear families, extended families,
blended families, chosen families, and more, reflecting the diverse ways in which people come
together and form meaningful social units.

In social anthropology, the study of the family is a critical aspect of understanding human
societies and cultures. The family institution serves as a foundational unit in social organization,
providing a context for kinship relations, socialization, economic cooperation, emotional support,
and cultural transmission. Social anthropologists examine the structure, functions, dynamics, and
cultural variations of the family across different societies and historical contexts. Here is a
detailed note on the family in social anthropology:

1. George Peter Murdock: "A social group characterized by common residence, economic
cooperation, and reproduction, including adults of both sexes, at least two of whom
maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or
adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults."

2. Bronislaw Malinowski: "A fundamental social group in society typically consisting of

parents and their children, responsible for socializing children and providing emotional
and material support."

3. Margaret Mead: "A social unit where individuals are tied by kinship bonds and share
roles, responsibilities, and emotional connections, varying in structure and function
across cultures."

4. Claude Lévi-Strauss: "A symbolic structure that organizes kinship relations and
regulates social roles and obligations through marriage rules, descent patterns, and
kinship terminology."

5. David M. Schneider: "A cultural and social construct shaped by historical, economic,
and ideological factors, encompassing diverse family forms and roles beyond biological
ties."
 6. Edmund Leach: "A kinship system that classifies and organizes relationships based on
rules of descent, marriage, and alliance, influencing social organization and identity."

7. David H. J. Morgan: "A dynamic social unit adapting to changing societal norms and
economic conditions, characterized by roles, responsibilities, and interactions among
members."

8. Judith Stacey: "A fluid and diverse network of relationships based on emotional bonds,
shared experiences, and mutual support, extending beyond traditional biological and legal
ties."

The function of family in rural areas:

The functions of the family in rural areas can vary depending on cultural, economic, and social
factors specific to each region. However, there are several common functions that families in
rural settings often fulfill:

1. Economic Support: Families in rural areas often engage in agricultural activities or

small-scale farming as a primary source of livelihood. The family unit plays a crucial role
in managing agricultural tasks, tending to livestock, cultivating crops, and generating
income to sustain the household.

2. Subsistence and Food Security: Rural families are responsible for ensuring food
security and meeting the nutritional needs of their members. They may grow crops, raise
livestock, and engage in fishing or hunting to produce food for consumption and sale.

3. Household Management: Families in rural areas oversee the management of household

resources, including budgeting, procurement of necessities, maintenance of shelter and
infrastructure, and allocation of tasks among family members.

4. Childcare and Education: The family provides care, guidance, and support to children,
ensuring their well-being, health, and education. In rural areas, families may be involved
in homeschooling, sending children to local schools, or participating in community-based
education initiatives.

5. Socialization and Cultural Transmission: Families play a vital role in socializing

children and transmitting cultural values, traditions, and knowledge. They teach
language, customs, rituals, and norms that are integral to the community's identity and
heritage.

6. Healthcare and Well-being: Families in rural areas often take on responsibilities related
to healthcare, including preventive care, home remedies, seeking medical assistance
when needed, and caring for elderly or sick family members.
 7. Community Engagement: Rural families are active participants in local communities,
contributing to social cohesion, collective decision-making, and community development
initiatives. They may be involved in community organizations, religious gatherings,
cultural events, and collaborative efforts to address common challenges.

8. Emotional Support and Solidarity: Families provide emotional support,

companionship, and solidarity to their members, fostering strong bonds and a sense of
belonging within the family unit and the broader rural community.

9. Inter-generational Support: In rural areas, there is often a strong tradition of inter-

generational support, where elders provide wisdom, guidance, and mentorship to younger
family members, while younger generations offer care, assistance, and respect to their
elders.

10. Environmental Stewardship: Rural families are stewards of natural resources and the
environment, practicing sustainable farming methods, conservation of land and water
resources, and traditional knowledge related to ecological management.

Overall, the family's functions in rural areas are interconnected and multifaceted, encompassing
economic, social, cultural, and environmental dimensions that contribute to the well-being and
resilience of rural communities.

Types of family:

Families can take various forms and structures, reflecting the diversity of human relationships
and social arrangements. Here are some common types of families:

1. Nuclear Family:

 A nuclear family consists of two parents (typically a mother and a father) and
their biological or adopted children living together in a single household.

 This type of family is common in many Western societies and is often associated
with the post-industrial era's emphasis on privacy, autonomy, and nuclear
households.

2. Extended Family:

 An extended family includes not only parents and children but also other relatives
such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and in-laws.

 Extended families often share a common residence or live in close proximity,

providing a network of support, caregiving, and social connections.
  This type of family is prevalent in many cultures worldwide and can offer benefits
such as intergenerational bonding, collective resources, and mutual assistance.

3. Blended Family:

 A blended family, also known as a stepfamily, is formed when two individuals

with children from previous relationships come together and create a new family
unit.

 Members of blended families may include stepparents, stepchildren, half-siblings,

and step-siblings, navigating complex relationships and dynamics.

 Blended families require adaptation, communication, and co-parenting strategies

to integrate family members and foster cohesion.

4. Single-Parent Family:

 A single-parent family consists of one parent (either due to divorce, separation,

death, or choice) raising their children without the presence of the other parent.

 Single-parent families face unique challenges and responsibilities, requiring

resilience, support networks, and adaptive parenting strategies.

 These families can be diverse, including single mothers, single fathers, and
LGBTQ+ parents, among others.

5. Same-Sex Family:

 Same-sex families, also known as LGBTQ+ families, are formed by couples of

the same gender who have children through adoption, surrogacy, donor
insemination, or previous relationships.

 These families challenge traditional notions of family structure and gender roles,
highlighting the importance of love, commitment, and parental care regardless of
sexual orientation or gender identity.

 Same-sex families can include two mothers (lesbian parents), two fathers (gay
parents), or non-binary parents, creating nurturing environments for children.

6. Chosen Family:

 A chosen family consists of individuals who are not biologically related but form
close bonds, emotional connections, and support networks akin to a family.

 Chosen families may include close friends, roommates, mentors, colleagues, or

community members who provide care, companionship, and solidarity.
  These families are based on mutual affection, trust, and shared experiences,
offering a sense of belonging and chosen kinship outside of traditional family
structures.

7. Childless or Childfree Family:

 A childless or childfree family is formed by individuals or couples who have

made a deliberate choice not to have children or are unable to have children due
to various reasons.

 These families focus on other aspects of life, such as careers, relationships,

hobbies, and personal fulfillment, without the primary responsibility of raising
children.

 Childless or childfree families can still be deeply meaningful and fulfilling,

emphasizing alternative forms of intimacy, connection, and life satisfaction

Marriage:

The literal meaning of the word "marriage" comes from the Latin word "maritare," which means
"to provide with a husband or wife" or "to marry." In its most basic sense, marriage refers to a
legally and socially recognized union between two individuals, typically involving a formal
ceremony or ritual. This union establishes a relationship that is usually considered permanent and
may involve rights, responsibilities, and obligations related to personal, legal, economic, social,
and cultural aspects of life.

Different definitions of marriage by different authors are given below:

1. George Murdock: "A social institution that establishes a legal and socially recognized
union between two individuals, typically involving mutual rights, obligations, and
responsibilities, including sexual exclusivity, cohabitation, and procreation."

2. Emile Durkheim: "A fundamental social institution that regulates intimate relationships,
provides social stability, and serves as a moral and symbolic framework for the
expression of love, commitment, and social integration."

3. Bronislaw Malinowski: "A cultural institution that fulfills essential functions such as
reproduction, socialization, economic cooperation, and emotional support within a
recognized and socially sanctioned union between partners."

4. Judith Butler: "A social contract and performative act that constructs and regulates
gender roles, identities, and norms within the context of legal, cultural, and social
frameworks."
5. Claude Lévi-Strauss: "A symbolic and structural alliance between kinship groups or
families, often marked by rules of exogamy, endogamy, and incest taboos, shaping social
relations, alliances, and cultural categories."

6. Lawrence Stone: "A legal and economic partnership between individuals that establishes
rights to property, inheritance, and status, while also regulating sexual behavior, domestic
roles, and familial obligations."

7. John Gottman: "A deep friendship and emotional bond between partners characterized
by mutual respect, trust, communication, and shared values, contributing to personal
growth, happiness, and relational satisfaction."

8. Margaret Mead: "A cultural and social construct that varies across societies,
encompassing diverse forms of marital arrangements, family structures, and norms
related to gender, sexuality, and kinship."

9. Elizabeth Brake: "A private commitment and intimate relationship between consenting
adults, recognized or not by legal institutions, based on emotional connection, mutual
consent, and shared life goals."

10. Barbara Whitehead: "A social institution that provides a stable and nurturing
environment for raising children, promoting family stability, and fostering emotional
security and well-being among family members.

11. Encyclopedia Britannica: “Marriage is a physical, legal and moral union between man
and woman in complete community life for the establishment of a family.”

Malinowski: “Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children.”

Edward Westermark : Marriage is a relation of one or more men to one or more women
which is recognized by customs or law and involves certain rights and duties both in case
of parties entering into the union and in the case of children born of it.”

M. Johnson: “Marriage is a stable relationship in which a man and a woman are socially
permitted without loss of standing in community to have children.”

Lowie: “Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates.”

Horton and Hunt: “Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more
persons establish a family.”

Hoebel: “The complexes of social norms that define and Control the relations of a mated
pair to each other their kinsmen, their offspring and their society at large.”
Functions of marriage:

Marriage serves various functions in societies around the world, encompassing social, economic,
cultural, and personal dimensions. Here are some of the key functions of marriage:

1. Social Stability and Structure: Marriage contributes to social stability by providing a

recognized framework for intimate relationships, family formation, and kinship ties. It
establishes legal and social norms regarding partnership, parenthood, and familial
responsibilities, contributing to societal cohesion and order.

2. Reproduction and Family Formation: One of the primary functions of marriage is to

facilitate reproduction and family formation. It creates a socially sanctioned environment
for procreation, child-rearing, and the continuation of family lineages. Through marriage,
individuals often commit to building a family unit and raising children together.

3. Emotional and Psychological Support: Marriage offers emotional and psychological

support to partners, fostering intimacy, companionship, trust, and mutual care. The
marital relationship provides a stable foundation for emotional connection,
communication, and resilience in navigating life's challenges and joys.

4. Legal and Property Rights: Marriage grants couples legal recognition and rights,
including inheritance rights, property ownership, healthcare decision-making, and
spousal benefits such as insurance, pensions, and tax advantages. It establishes a legal
framework for joint ownership, financial responsibilities, and estate planning.

5. Economic Cooperation and Stability: Marriage often involves economic cooperation

and partnership, where spouses share financial resources, expenses, and responsibilities.
It can enhance economic stability through shared incomes, joint investments, division of
labor, and mutual support in managing household finances and assets.

6. Socialization and Cultural Transmission: Marriage plays a role in socialization and

cultural transmission by transmitting cultural values, beliefs, traditions, and norms related
to marriage, family roles, gender expectations, and societal roles. It contributes to
intergenerational continuity and the preservation of cultural heritage.

7. Health and Well-being: Research suggests that married individuals often experience
better physical and mental health outcomes compared to unmarried individuals. Marriage
can provide social support, reduce stress, promote healthy behaviors, and contribute to
overall well-being through emotional connection and partnership.

8. Parenting and Child Development: Marriage provides a stable and nurturing

environment for parenting and child development. Married parents can collaborate in
 caregiving, discipline, education, and emotional nurturing, promoting positive outcomes
for children in terms of social, emotional, and cognitive development.

9. Social Status and Identity: Marriage can confer social status, recognition, and identity
as part of a married couple or family unit. It influences individuals' social roles, identities,
and perceptions within their communities, contributing to a sense of belonging and social
integration.

10. Religious and Cultural Significance: For many individuals and communities, marriage
holds religious, cultural, and spiritual significance. It may involve ceremonial rituals,
rites of passage, and symbolic gestures that reflect cultural values, beliefs, and traditions
related to love, commitment, and union.

Overall, the functions of marriage are multifaceted and intersect with various aspects of human
life, including social relationships, legal rights, economic cooperation, emotional well-being,
cultural practices, and personal fulfillment

Types of Marriage:

As a universal social institution marriage is found to exist in all societies and at all stages of
development. Types or forms of marriage vary from society to society. Types or forms of
marriage in different communities, societies and cultural groups differ according to their
customs, practices and systems of thought. In some societies marriage is a religious sacrament
whereas in others it is a social contract. However, there are several types of marriage which is
classified on different basis.

(A) On the basis of number of mates:

On the basis of number of mates marriage may be classified into three types such as Monogamy,
Polygamy and Endogamy or group marriage. This can be known from the following diagram.

(1) Monogamy:

Monogamy is an ideal, widespread and rational type of marriage. It is found in all civilized
societies. Monogamy refers to a marriage of one man with one woman at a time. This type of
marriage is normally unbreakable in nature. It continues till death. Today the principle of
monogamy i.e. one husband and one wife is practiced and emphasized throughout the world.
Monogamy is of two types such as serial Monogamy and non-serial Monogamy.

(i) Serial Monogamy:

In serial Monogamous marriage the possibility of remarriage exists in case of divorce or death.
Inspite of his remarriage he remains to be monogamous.

(ii) Non-serial Monogamy:

In case of non-serial monogamy the question of remarriage does not arise by either of the couple.
Here a spouse has the same single spouse throughout his life.

However, Monogamy is an ideal or best form of marriage because of its different advantages
which are as follows:

(1) It is suitable for all society and for all levels of people.

(2) It provides better sex satisfaction to both husband and wife.

(3) It promotes better understanding between the spouses.

(4) It minimizes jealousy, hatred and quarrels in the family.

(5) It upholds gender equality and provides equal status to men and women.

(6) It provides stable sex-life and stable family life.

(7) Children are taken proper care by parents.

(8) It facilitates easy rules of inheritance and succession.

Because of the above advantages Monogamy is considered as the best form of marriage and is
practiced everywhere. The only disadvantages of Monogamy are divorce which is resulted due to
the monogamous boredom.

(2) Polygamy:

Polygamy is a type of marriage in which there is plurality of partners. It allows a man to marry
more than one woman or a woman to marry more than one man at a time. Polygamy is of three
types such as polygamy, polyandry and endogamy or group marriage.

(i) Polygamy:

Polygamy is a type of marriage in which a man marries more than one wife at a time. In this type
of marriage each wife has her separate household and the husband visits them in turn. It was a
preferred form of marriage in ancient Indian society. But now it was not in practice among
majority of population.

But it is now found among few tribal‟s such as Naga, Gond and Baiga. Economic and political
cause was mainly responsible for polygamy. Besides man‟s taste for variety, enforced celibacy,
Barrenness of women more women population etc. are some of the cause of polygamy.
Polygamy is further divided into two types such as Sororal polygyny and non- sororal polygyny.

(a) Sorroral Polygamy:

Sorroral polygamy is often called as surrogate. The term surrogate comes from the Latin word
„sorer‟ which means sister. Accordingly it refers to a marriage practice in which a man marries
the sisters of his wife at a time or after the death of his wife.

(b) Non-sororal Polygamy:

It is just opposite of the sororal polygamy, when a man marries several women at a time who are
not necessarily sister to each other it is known as non-sororal polygamy.

(ii) Polyandry:

Polyandry is a very rare type of marriage in present day. In this type of marriage a woman
marries several men at a time. In the words of K.M. Kapadia, “Polyandry is a form of union in
which a woman has more than one husband at a time or in which brothers share a wife or wives
in common. At present it is found among some of the tribes like toda, khasi and nayars.
Polyandry is divided into two types such as fraternal polyandry and non-fraternal polyandry.

(a)Fraternal Polyandry:

When several brothers share a common wife it is called as fraternal polyandry. Draupadi‟s
marriage to Pandabs is fine example of fraternal polyandry. The determination of father is
associated with some rituals. At present time this type of marriage is practised by some tribals
like toda and khasi.

(b) Non-fraternal Polyandry:

It is just opposite of fraternal polyandry. In this type of marriage husbands of a woman is not
necessarily brother to each other. This type of marriage is found among the Nayars of Kerala,
Wife goes to spend some time with each of her husband. So long as a woman lives with one of
her husbands, the others have no claim on her. This mainly happens due to scarcity of women.

(iii) Endogamy or Group Marriage:

Endogamy is otherwise known as group marriage. In this type of marriage a group of men marry
a group of women at a time. Every woman is the wife of every man belonging to the particular
groups. Sociologist, like Dr. Rivers call it as a kind of sexual communism. This type of marriage
is found among some tribes of New Guinea and Africa,

(B) On the basis of choice of mate or on the basis of rules of mate selection:

Marriage may be divided into two types i.e. endogamous and exogamous marriages on the basis
of choice of mate or on the basis of the rules of choice of mate. Endogamy is divided into four
sub types such as caste, sub-caste, varna and tribal endogamy. Similarly exogamous marriage
may be divided into four sub-types such as Gotra, Pravar, Sapinda and village exogamy. All this
can be presented in the following diagram.

(1) Endogamy or endogamous marriage:

Endogamy or endogamous marriage refers to the marriage within one‟s own group such as
within one‟s own caste, sub-caste, varna and tribe. In other words there are several types of
endogamous marriage such as caste endogamy, sub-caste endogamy, varna endogamy and tribal
endogamy.

(a) Caste endogamy:

Caste endogamy is a type of endogamous marriage in which marriage takes place within one‟s
own caste. In a caste based society endogamy is strictly followed. Members of each caste marry
within its own caste group.

(b) Sub-caste endogamy:

It is another type of endogamous marriage. In a caste based society each caste is divided into
many sub-castes. Like caste each sub-caste is also an endogamous unit. In sub-caste endogamy
marriage takes place within one‟s sub-caste only.

(c) Varna endogamy:

Varna endogamy is another type of endogamous marriage. In the traditional Indian Society we
found the existence of four varnas such as Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. In varna
endogamy the choice of mate is restricted to one‟s own varna only.

(d) Tribal endogamy:

Tribe is a territorial group. Tribal endogamy is a type of endogamous married in which the
choice of mate is restricted to one‟s own tribal group. Like caste tribe is also an endogamous
unit.

(ii) Exogamy or Exogamous marriage:

It is just opposite to the endogamy or endogamous marriage system. It refers to a system of

marriage in which an individual has to marry outside one‟s own group such as gotra, pravara,
sapinda or village. This is a sound marriage system which leads to the creation of healthy and
intelligent children. However there are several forms of exogamy such as:

(a) Gotra exogamy:

Gotra refers to clan. Members of a particular gotra or clan supposed to have close blood relation
among themselves. Hence according to gotra exogamy one has to marry outside one‟s own gotra.

(b) Pravara exogamy:

Pravara means siblings. People originating from a common saint are said to belong a particular
Pravara. According to Pravara exogamy one has to marry outside one‟s own pravara. Marriage
within pravara is forbidden.

(c) Sapinda exogamy:

Sapinda means-lineage. People belonging to five generations from father side and three or seven
generation from mother side are known as sapindas. They believed to belong a particular pinda.
Hence according to sapinda exogamy marriage within one‟s own sapinda is forbidden. They are
supposed to marry outside one‟s own sapnida.

(d) Village exogamy:

According to this principle marriage within one‟s own village is forbidden each and every
society prescribes certain rules relating to marriage. Some societies put several restrictions on
marriage among kins whereas some other societies allows marriage between a limited number of
kins.

Hence in those societies marriage is sanctioned on the basis of preference or priority.

Accordingly socially sanctioned marriage among kins is known as preferential marriage. In other
words on the basis of preference marriage may be divided into four types such as cross-cousin
marriage, parallel cousin marriage, levirate and surrogate.

(i) Cross-cousin marriage:

When marriage takes place between one‟s mother‟s brother‟s daughter/son with father‟s sister‟s
son/daughter we called it as cross cousin marriage. The marriage of Abhimanyu with Sashikala
is an example of this cross-cousin type of marriage. This type of marriage supposed to be
practised in some part of Orissa, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra etc. This type of marriage occurs to
avoid payment of high bride price and to maintain one‟s family property.

(ii) Parallel Cousin marriage:

When marriage takes place between the children of either two sisters or two brothers it is known
as parallel cousin marriage. This type of marriage is mostly found among Muslims.

(iii) Levirate:

It is otherwise known as „Devar Vivaha‟. When a woman marries her husband‟s brother after the
death of her husband it is known as levirate. This type of marriage is found among some tribes
like the Gond, the Munda or the Santal the oran and the Toda etc

(iv) Sororate:

It is otherwise known as „Sali Vivah‟. When a man marries his wife‟s sister after the death of his
wife or even when the wife is alive it is called as sororate. This type of marriage is found among
some tribes like the Kharia and the Gond.

(E) Anuloma or Pratiloma:

Sociologists have classified marriage into Anuloma or Pratiloma.

(i) Anuloma marriage or Hypergamy:

When a man of higher caste or varna marries a woman of lower caste or varna it is called as
Anuloma or Hyper-gamy marriage. In traditional Indian society hyper gamy is known as
Anuloma. This was in practice among the nobles in the past. In Bengal it was found in the form
of Kulinism.

(ii) Pratiloma marriage or Hypogamy:

Pratiloma or hypogamy marriage is just opposite of Anuloma or hyper-gamy. When a man of

lower caste or status marries a woman of higher caste or status it is known as pratiloma or
hypogamy marriage. This is not an approved form of marriage. Ancient Hindu law giver a man a
lower caste or status marries a woman of higher caste or status it is known as pratiloma or hypo-
gamy marrieage. This is not an approved form of marriage. Ancient Hindu law giver Manu
denounced Pratiloma is still it practice among the people.

Different ways of marriage:

Marriage practices vary significantly across different religions, reflecting diverse cultural, social,
and theological beliefs. Here are some of the various ways marriages are conducted according to
different religions:
1. Christianity:

 Catholicism: In Catholicism, marriage is considered a sacrament, a sacred and

lifelong covenant between one man and one woman. The marriage ceremony
typically involves vows, blessings from clergy, exchange of rings, and readings
from the Bible.

 Protestantism: Protestant denominations may have different marriage customs,

but they generally view marriage as a union ordained by God and conducted in a
church setting. The ceremony may include prayers, hymns, sermons, and the
exchange of vows.

 Orthodox Christianity: In Orthodox Christianity, marriage is seen as a

sacrament and is often conducted within the context of the Divine Liturgy. The
ceremony includes prayers, blessings, crowning of the couple, and the sharing of
a common cup.

2. Islam:

 Nikah: In Islam, marriage is called Nikah and is considered a sacred contract

between a man and a woman. The ceremony involves a marriage contract
(Nikahnama), recitation of Quranic verses, prayers, consent of both parties, and
the presence of witnesses. Different Islamic cultures may have variations in
customs and rituals.

 Mut'ah Marriage: This type of temporary marriage is practiced by some Shia

Muslims, where the marriage contract specifies a fixed duration for the marriage,
after which it expires unless renewed.

3. Judaism:

 Orthodox Judaism: In Orthodox Judaism, marriage is conducted according to

Jewish law (Halacha) and involves a Ketubah (marriage contract), blessings,
recitation of prayers and Psalms, breaking of a glass, and the traditional seven
blessings (Sheva Brachot).

 Conservative and Reform Judaism: Marriage ceremonies in these branches

may incorporate modern elements while still adhering to Jewish traditions. The
Ketubah, blessings, and symbolic rituals are often part of the ceremony.

4. Hinduism:

 Vivaha: In Hinduism, marriage is called Vivaha and is considered a sacred union

between a man and a woman. The ceremony involves various rituals and customs,
 including the exchange of garlands (Jaimala), recitation of Vedic hymns
(Mantras), circling the sacred fire (Agni), and blessings from family and priests.

 Arranged Marriages: Arranged marriages are common in Hindu culture, where

families play a significant role in matchmaking, negotiations, and conducting the
marriage ceremony.

5. Buddhism:

 Buddhist Marriage: While Buddhism does not have specific marriage rituals
prescribed by the Buddha, Buddhist marriages may include blessings from monks,
recitation of Buddhist teachings, offerings, and vows of commitment and
compassion between the couple.

 Cultural Variations: Buddhist marriage customs may vary depending on

regional traditions and cultural practices.

6. Sikhism:

 Anand Karaj: In Sikhism, marriage is called Anand Karaj, meaning "blissful

union." The ceremony takes place in a Gurdwara (Sikh temple) and includes the
reading of hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib, exchange of vows (Lavan),
blessings from the Guru, and the sharing of a sweet pudding (Karrah Prasad) as a
symbol of unity.

7. Jainism:

 Jain Marriage: Jain marriages involve rituals such as Pratikraman

(introspection), Kanyavaran (bride's arrival), Antarpat (curtain ceremony),
Mangal Divo (sacred lamp), and Abhishek (blessings). The ceremony emphasizes
principles of non-violence, purity, and spiritual harmony.

8. Bahá'í Faith:

 Bahá'í Marriage: In the Bahá'í Faith, marriage is considered a spiritual and

social institution based on unity, equality, and mutual respect. The ceremony is
simple and includes prayers, readings from Bahá'í scriptures, exchange of vows,
and a marriage certificate signed by witnesses.

These are some examples of how marriages are conducted according to different religions. It's
important to note that within each religion, there may be variations in customs, traditions, and
regional practices associated with marriage ceremonies
In Pakistan, marriage customs and traditions vary significantly across different regions,
ethnicities, and communities. Here are some examples of different ways marriages are conducted
in various Pakistani cultures:

1. Punjabi Culture:

 Mehndi Ceremony: A Mehndi ceremony is a vibrant and joyful pre-wedding

event in Punjabi culture. The bride's hands and feet are adorned with intricate
henna designs, and there is singing, dancing, and traditional songs (Mehndi songs)
celebrating the upcoming wedding.

 Baraat and Walima: The Baraat is the groom's wedding procession,

accompanied by family and friends, and usually includes a decorated horse or car.
The Walima is the wedding reception hosted by the groom's family to celebrate
the marriage.

2. Sindhi Culture:

 Ubtan Ceremony: In Sindhi weddings, an Ubtan ceremony takes place where the
bride and groom are covered in a paste of turmeric, sandalwood, and other natural
ingredients for skin beautification and blessings.

 Sindhi Topi and Ajrak: The groom may wear a traditional Sindhi cap (Sindhi
Topi) and a shawl (Ajrak) during the wedding ceremonies, representing cultural
identity and heritage.

3. Balochi Culture:

 Jum Ghara: In Balochi weddings, a Jum Ghara ceremony is held where the
couple exchanges vows and promises in the presence of witnesses, signifying the
formalization of marriage.

 Balochi Dress and Jewelry: The bride and groom wear traditional Balochi attire,
which includes vibrant dresses, intricate embroidery, and distinctive jewelry such
as headpieces, necklaces, and earrings.

4. Pakhtun (Pashtun) Culture:

 Nikkah: The Nikkah ceremony in Pakhtun culture is the formal Islamic marriage
contract, conducted by an Islamic scholar or Imam, and involves recitation of
Quranic verses, prayers, and blessings.

 Pashtunwali Traditions: Pashtun weddings often include traditional Pashtunwali

customs such as hospitality, feasting (Walwal), music (Attan dance), and the
exchange of gifts (Walwar or Meher) between the families.
 5. Kashmiri Culture:

 Wazwan: In Kashmiri weddings, a Wazwan feast is an integral part of the

celebrations, featuring a variety of delicious dishes such as rice, meat (Rogan
Josh), kebabs, and traditional desserts like Phirni.

 Pheran and Kangri: The bride and groom may wear traditional Kashmiri attire,
including the Pheran (long robe) and carry a Kangri (firepot) during outdoor
ceremonies, symbolizing warmth and protection.

6. Muhajir Culture (Urdu-Speaking):

 Rukhsati: The Rukhsati ceremony marks the departure of the bride from her
parents' home to join her husband's family. It is an emotional moment with
blessings, tears, and farewells.

 Mehfil-e-Milad: Some Urdu-speaking communities host a Mehfil-e-Milad

gathering during weddings, where Islamic scholars recite praises and blessings
upon the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and offer prayers for the
couple.

7. Gilgit-Baltistan Culture:

 Bride's Entry: In Gilgit-Baltistan weddings, the bride's entry is a significant

moment, often accompanied by traditional songs, dances (Dhamal), and cultural
performances as she is welcomed into the groom's family.

 Chilam Joshi Festival Influence: Some Gilgit-Baltistan weddings incorporate

elements from the Chilam Joshi festival, such as floral decorations, rituals, and
festivities celebrating spring and fertility.

These examples highlight the rich diversity of marriage customs and traditions across different
Pakistani cultures, each with its unique rituals, attire, ceremonies, and celebrations that reflect
the cultural heritage and values of the communities.

Incest taboo:

The word “incest” is a word which means sexual intercourse with the closely related persons of
one‟s family like brother and sister, mother and son etc. “Taboo” refers to the prohibition
intercourse especially on religious and moral bases. So, incest taboo means the prohibition of
sexual intercourse or marriage between the close related persons of family.

In every society there are some limits of prohibitions of sexuality. However in some other
society‟s incest taboo is permitted like in “ancient Egyptians. They practiced marriage between
brother and sister in the royal families. This is also practiced in Saha Tribe of Columbia and
North America. Islam gives the permission of marriage cross and parallel cousins but in other
societies it is prohibited considered them as siblings.

Theories of incest Taboo

Psychoanalytic Theory:

This theory is presented by Sigmund Freud. According to this theory a strong sexual relation
exists between two persons of a closely related family like mother and son, and father and
daughter. But during the process of socialization these sexual feelings of children are depressed
due to fear from parents. Although the sexual attraction is continuously exist between them. So,
incest taboo is a way to control the sexual line or it is necessary for the defense against the sexual
relations between these persons.

Childhood familiarity Theory:

This theory was presented by Edward Wester in 1920. According to this theory, “People who
have brought up together from very each other are like siblings. These people would be not
sexually attached to each other‟s. To test the hypothesis, a study was conducted on a family of
Israel, in which the married pair born a child and was kept in a separate center where other
children of the same age were present. They were nourished and reared in that center and had no
relations with parents. When they reached to maturity, it was observed that among 125 pars of
male and female, there was no single case of sexuality with other group members.

So, it was proved that the persons who are born, reared and socialized in the same place have no
sexual attraction with each other‟s.

Inbreeding Avoidance Theory:

This is one of oldest theory. According to this theory, “people type of harmful successive genes.
During inbreeding off-springs produced which leads to illness, weakness, and later die due to
genetic diseases. So, for this purpose incest taboo is necessary.

This theory was rejected because inbreeding was practiced in ancient Egyptians and there were
no harmful disease. But according to the modern investigators even endogamous is harmful and
incest taboo is necessary.

Cooperation Theory:

This theory was presented by an eminent anthropologist E-B-Taylor. According to him, “incest
taboo is necessary for co-operation and healthy relationships among family members. Incest
taboo accelerate cooperation among the members and if there is no restriction of sexual relations,
it would lead to suspicious and hostility among members.”
Incest taboo enforces a person to marry outside one‟s family and if he performs exogamy, he
attached to another family. So, in this way the bond of cooperation with that family will be
strengthened.

So, Taylor is of the view that due to incest taboo cooperation among family members and with
outside family members increases.

Family Disruption Theory:

This theory was presented by Malinowski. According to him, “Sexual relations within family
members would create many rivalries, enmity, jealousy, tension, and disturbance which effects
the function of a good family”. So, incest taboo means to keep the unity and function of the
family intact. Incest taboo is necessary for the protection of the family members from
disturbance and other rivalries.