Jewelry, Fashion, and Identity: The Tuareg Example

Author(s): Kristyne Loughran

Source: African Arts , Spring, 2003, Vol. 36, No. 1, Memorial to Roy Sieber, Part 1
(Spring, 2003), pp. 52-65+93
Published by: UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center

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 W hen God decidesthetosteppes
No animalfrom createcan aequal
perfect
it. human being
It will not have similar eyes or the gaze,

Long knotted braids, resting over the shoulders,

And like saddle ornaments, her earrings 'tinkle,

And around her neck, the necklaces shine.

From a Tuareg poem

by Rabidin Ag Sidi Mohamed'

,T,'y, s ion,
and en tity
The Tuareg ExampleKRISTYNE LO ST HRAE

52 african arts * spring 2003

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 1. Antique dealers' display. Agadez, Niger, March
1991. Photo: Kristyne Loughran.
Tuareg smiths have learned to adapt classical
jewelry forms to meet the changing tastes of var-
ious clienteles. The older pieces, however, are
especially prized by Europeans and Americans.

of inspiration in the West, where they W hen I entered the African Art History
have appeared in the fashion arena and program at Indiana University in
in the media as markers of "exotica."
1986, I was already aware of the legends
They are also being reinterpreted by Afri-
and stories surrounding Roy Sieber: the
can fashion designers and jewelers. Anbirthday cake that landed on the floor, the
analysis of the convergence of local and
evenings at his home that were spent
international Tuareg jewelry styles will
looking at objects, and his one-liner "The
help us assess how this phenomenon
time to read a book is when you are
might be helping to shape urban Tuareg
reading the book!"
identities and give new dimension to
the authenticity and modernity of Tuareg Sieber was always open to new views
jewelry in Niger, where I conducted my
and topics of research. His interest in
field research. textiles and decorative arts inspired me in
my own study of Tuareg jewelry. He
The Classical Repertoire encouraged me to think in broad terms, to
stretch the boundaries of my discipline.
The Tuareg place great importance on
He was also extraordinarily generous with
their physical appearance, and they
have explicit ideas about attire and de- his time (and Sophie's). I cherished the
meanor (Fig. 2). Both men and women hours I spent with him examining
have a proud bearing that is enhanced by artworks: there was always something
garments that flow and billow as they new to learn and to see-another angle,
walk.2 Jewelry is considered a necessary the one unexpected detail.
part of everyday dress. It is rare to see a Sieber loved to play; he enjoyed a
Tuareg man without a ring, an amulet, or good joke as well as fine poetry He also
a bracelet. Women wear head ornaments,
liked to surprise and be surprised. One
earrings, amulets, pendants, necklaces,
day, my husband and I went to see Sophie
bracelets, rings, and veil weights. Ostenta-
tious display, however, is considered to be and "himself" at their house in Washington.
in poor taste except on festival and holi- After a while, Sieber pulled out a large
day occasions, and in some areas on mar- stack of Polaroids and started rearranging
ket day, when people wear all of their them. I knew he was going to ask
finest ornaments and clothing. Women someone to pick "the best object, " and I
who do not have enough jewelry to wear hoped I'd pass the test. Sophie smiled.
on these occasions are known to borrow
Instead of giving the photos to me,
them from friends and family members.
however, he handed them to my husband,
A woman inherits her mother's jewelry,
which might include large hoop earrings GianPaolo, who protested, "Papa Sieber,
and necklaces made with tubular silver 'the best' isn't fair. I didn't study this
ezmaman beads (Fig. 3). When she marries, stuff..." Sieber paused, looked at him, and
her husband gives her bracelets, rings, and chuckled. "Okay the three best."
necklaces made of polyhedral silver negneg GianPaolo went through the stack and
beads as part of the bridewealth. Wearing after a while came up with the three.
estern audiences are fa- certain items signals whether one is mar- Sieber was delighted. I was relieved. Then
miliar with the jewelry ried, divorced, or widowed. he said: "And now, which one is the best?"
of the Tuareg, a semino- Jewelry also communicates social sta-
As the father figure for generations
madic pastoralist people tus. In earlier times, each social class had
of north African Berber its own kinds of ornaments; in some of students, Sieber taught us to laugh at
ourselves and to share with each other
origins who inhabit the instances, pieces were similar in form,
Sahara Desert, southern Algeria, south- and class distinctions were conveyed by I think one of the things he gave all of us
western Libya, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, differences in materials. If made in cer- was a sense of our own humanity As a
and adjacent areas. These necklaces, tain shapes and materials or worn in suf- professional today, I continue to be
bracelets, crosses, and rings are popular ficient quantity, jewelry becomes a kind mentored and inspired by him. His
tourist mementos in many west African of protection for the wearer. For exam- infinite curiosity, his high standards and
countries. Given diverse ethnic attribu- ple, Tuareg regard the triangle, recurrent
pursuit of excellence, and his
tions, they are also available through in all their jewelry forms, as a potent dedication to the African humanities are
mail-order catalogues and in markets and protector against evil forces. Particular
stores in Indonesia and Europe. media carry other benefits as well. Silver his legacy For his students and
Like other expressions of African art- supposedly brings happiness, and agates, colleagues, it is both a priceless gift and
istry, Tuareg jewelry forms are a source which are rare, are considered healing a challenging responsibility

spring 2003 - african arts

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 count for its increased popularity. Gold
ornaments first appeared in Tuareg areas
of Niger in the 1960s and became more
easily available when Tuareg men be-
gan to work in Libya in the 1970s. Today
more people can afford these items: in
Arlit (a town in Niger north of Agadez),
living standards greatly improved when
the uranium mines began production in
1971; and now that many Tuareg women
work, they are quick to invest their
salaries in gold jewelry (Fig. 4). Greater
communication between villages, towns,
and cities through the mass media (mag-
azines and television) has also facilitated
the introduction and acceptance of the
gold forms. In addition, the Tuareg have
become increasingly sedentarized and are
now part of pluriethnic societies. Accord-
ing to some scholars, wearing gold jewel-
ry and colorful clothing, which Tuareg
people once considered to be in poor
taste, reflects social change and the de-
velopment of a sense of national identity
(Claudot-Hawad 1993:112).
Some Tuareg smiths in urban centers
such as Agadez have made gold jewelry
their specialty (Fig. 5). Their work recalls
classical forms and motifs, and they use
traditional manufacturing techniques:
women consider them "authentically"
Tuareg. The greatest difference is that the
forms are smaller and much lighter (Fig.
6). Women in these urban areas now wear
more jewelry on a daily basis than in
earlier times. Those who order classical
pieces are inclined to ask for small neck-
laces with pendants, such as the chatchat
necklaces (Fig. 7), and they avoid jewelry
produced for the tourist trade. Items are
commissioned from Tuareg smiths or
stones. Shells, used to make khomessa ject, informants replied that silver waspurchased ready-made from the Sene-
amulets (see Gottler 1989:251, fig. 122), the metal they'd always known, and that galese jewelers who, during my research
are fertility charms. thaler silver was especially favored be-in Niger, seemed to specialize in the sale
Jewelry items are either forged or cast cause of its warmth and light.5 The metalof gold ornaments.
in molds by the lost-wax process, and is appreciated for its "clarity"-its lumi- Some pieces have been given names in
decorative techniques include bending, nosity-and the tactile quality acquired Tamashegh, the language spoken by the
chasing, engraving, stamping, and re- through patination. Tuareg people. One example is the tamat-
pousse. Smiths may use materials such Great value and prestige are attacheden oragh (oragh=gold), which is also re-
as red copper, brass, lead, tin and alu- ferred to as broderies (from the French
not only to the materials used but also to
minum, and beads made of glass, agate, the care and technical expertise with
broder, "to embroider") because of the fine
shell, or stone. The principal metal, which pieces are made and embellished.gold wire "embroidered" in scalloped de-
however, is silver recycled from Maria Almost all Tuareg jewelry is ornate, deco- signs around coins (Fig. 8).6
Theresa thalers (Austrian coins), five- rated with endless combinations of in- My analysis of the jewelry forms used
franc pieces, and scrap silver found in tricately incised geometric motifs. The when I was in Niger in 1990-1991 clearly
markets. References in the literature often Tuareg aesthetic particularly favors trian- shows that although gold items are being
allude to the Tuareg preference for silver gles, rectangles, and squares. This prefer- added to the repertoire, they are not re-
as opposed to gold, a material thought to ence extends to items that shine, move placing the classical examples in silver,7
attract misfortune (see Rasmussen 1987:9). gracefully, and are smooth to the touch.which in many families account for most
Many authors note that silver jewelry Delicacy and subtlety are of primary im- of a woman's first jewelry purchases.
is worn not only because the metal portance. Patrons and smiths alike pride The tizabaten earrings, tereout tan idmar-
brings happiness and good fortune to themselves on their ability to judge aden pectoral amulets, cross forms (Fig. 9),
the wearer but also because the Tuareg are piece's workmanship and design as well ezmaman and tadnet necklaces (Fig. 10),
Islamized (Rasmussen 1987:13; Gabus as the value of the materials used. elkiss bracelets (Fig. 11), and "bagues am-
1958:48; Lhote 1984:160).3 This opinion is biance," or rattle rings, are just a few of
mirrored in much of the literature on the prestige forms that people are still
north African Berber jewelry, though
Contemporary Production proud to own. If women consider silver
Henriette Camps-Fabrer has suggested Gold has recently become a valuable com- jewelry to be too heavy and bulky, it is
that silver may have been favored simply modity, a sign of wealth, and current either modified to accommodate new
because it was less expensive (1990:21).4fashions dictate that it rather than silver needs or, in many instances, kept f
In response to my questions on the sub-be used in jewelry. Several factors ac- daughters and nieces.

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KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

Opposite page: Thus, jewelry in the two metals is

cations of members of the local foreign
being
2. Young Tuareg couple in festive attire at the an- used in parallel. Silver is consid-community and the norms set by dealers
nual Cure Salee celebration. InGall, Niger, Sep-
ered classical, culturally stable, part of
and traders from Europe and the United
tember 1991. Photo: Kristyne Loughran.
the greater Tuareg cultural identity. States. They must also fulfill the demands
The woman wears a broderie necklace and an
Gold jewelry highlights the importanceof antique dealers, merchants, and inter-
elaborately folded indigo-dyed headscarf. Her
of change
husband wears a face veil (tagelmust) and a and fashion, and it signals
mediaries in Niger.
white damask boubou. At the Cure Salee, Tuareg financial stability. Most resident foreigners seek out the
and other nomadic groups celebrate the rains silver pieces, feeling that they retain a
and the salt which comes to the surface of the
more "authentic" character. The special-
soil. The Tuareg emphasis on dress, including Production for Foreign
Communities in the 1990s
jewelry, has helped foster their romantic image in ists who produce work for this clientele
the West. as well as for collectors and foreign
More smiths from rural areas are work- dealers may follow the strict canons of
This page:
ing for government and museum coop- classical forms and designs, as in the
eratives in cities than they did twenty production of necklaces and amulets
3. Chatchat necklace (also ezmaman or tchedufen
necklace) from Abalak, Niger, worn by women of
years ago. Their new lifestyles in urban (Fig. 13). Traditional designs may also be
centers and easier access to foreign adapted to Western tastes. For example,
the Kel Dinnik, a Tuareg federation. Silver, glass
patrons have changed both their social the large rattle rings once worn for danc-
beads; length 40cm (15.8"). Collection of Gerhard
Gottler, Freiburg, Germany. and economic positions.8 Smiths contin- ing and child-naming ceremonies are
This necklace includes 20 black, 2 yellow, and ue
2 to produce classical pieces for Tuareg much smaller now, and, with adaptions
green glass beads, and 16 silver tubular beads
clients. Some have also established lu- in their basic design, are transformed into
(ezmaman). The central pendant, known as a laya,
pins
is highly valued because of its prophylactic quali-crative jewelry boutiques, mainly for for- (Fig. 14). The cross of InGall has been
eign
ties. The two small chatchat pendants on either patrons, that support their own
used as a pendant (Fig. 15), as drop ear-
side of the laya are reminiscent of the dolls found
workshops
and smiths in other areas
rings, in a larger version as a key ring,
in the tomb of Tin Hinan, the legendary ancestress
(Fig.
of the Tuareg, in Abalessa (Gabus 1982:449). 12). Others show their pieces on
and as a belt buckle (Fig. 16).
According to the ethnographer Gerhard Gottler Internet sites.9 Their economic well-being Just as forms are being manipulated,
(personal communication, Niamey, February 1991), lies principally in their ability not only the
to choices of metals and materials used
the chatchat necklace is usually strung in a moreproduce classical items for Tuareg clients in the manufacture of jewelry for the for-
intricate way: the ezmaman beads are assembled
and pieces for the tourist trade but also
into a triangular shape, requiring more beads. The
eign community have been altered to fit
necklace shown here is considered a rather mod- to execute commissions of high-quality, foreign norms and taste. Sterling silver
est example of the type. imported from Europe has replaced the
"traditional" jewelry that fit the specifi-

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This page:
4. Young woman at a Cure Salee celebration.
InGall, September 1991. Photo: Kristyne Loughran.
Silver is the metal customarily used in Tuareg jew-
elry, but this woman wears a gold necklace with a
pendant of foreign (possibly Saudi Arabian) ori-
gin, and a gold chatchat necklace. Her embroi-
dered damask dress is a striking departure from
the traditional garments worn on this occasion
(see Fig. 2).

Opposite page:
Left: 5. Ahanti, a Tuareg goldsmith, in his work-
shop. Agadez, Niger, February 1991. Photo: Kris-
tyne Loughran.
Some smiths have become specialists in gold
jewelry, which the Tuareg once considered to be
inappropriate and inauthentic. Following changes
in Tuareg society, it is now a desirable symbol
of wealth.

Right: 6. Chatchat necklace made by Ahanti and

shown in his workshop. Gold, length 40cm (15.8").
This gold necklace, a popular item when the
author was in Niger in 1990-91, is reminiscent of
the silver examples (Figs. 3, 7). The red stones
were imported from Saudi Arabia.

Maria Theresa thaler, and necklaces with

traditional pendants are interspersed with
imported coral, amethyst, shell, or colored
glass beads instead of the faceted black
beads used in classical ornaments (Fig.
17). Pieces that incorporate these imported
materials also fetch a higher price.
Although most techniques and basic
designs remain unchanged, modem tools
have greatly reduced the production
time. Many smiths use European-manu-
factured files, pliers, tweezers, and saws,
though they continue to make stamps for
decorative effects. Electric polishers and
the contents of a manganese alkali bat-
tery cell can be used to enhance finely
engraved motifs with darkened reliefs;
one immediately creates the patina that
was once achieved only with wear.
Signatures are more frequent on mod-
em pieces and on those produced for for-
eigners and tourists. In fact, it is quite
common to hear merchants in tourist
markets call out, "See, this is a real Tuareg
piece-it is signed" (Fig. 18). The popu-
larity of the jewelry has encouraged smiths
to produce other objects that fit the needsfor Camel cigarettes in Newsweek (1993:6) ry; then it introduces gold Tuareg-style
of foreigners, such as boxes, chopsticks,that featured a Tuareg warrior behind anjewelry called "ethnica," produced by the
knife rests, coffee spoons, paper holders,Indiana Jones type. In 1997 the SaecoValenza Jewelry Company (Associazzione
and letter openers (Fig. 19). Company used the image of a turbaned Culturale Arcana, 1992:n.p.). The Italian
blue-eyed man set against allusions tomagazine II Mondo dei Gioielli (1993:40)
Convergence and desert life in order to sell air-conditioningonce proposed "authentic" silver Tuareg
Reinterpretation in the West units called "Tuareg" (Panorama 1997:118).jewelry forms for Valentine's Day.
Judging from the steady stream of Presentations like these, which rely
In the past ten years the advertising andtourists still visiting the Sahara, it seemson the exotic to sell fashions and ac-
fashion industries have used stereotypesthat the Tuareg and their landscape con-cessories, are not new. In the 1900s the
about the Tuareg to sell their products,tinue to generate romantic images whichlavish use of pearls by members of Euro-
capitalizing on the mystique of a peoplefulfill Western fantasies. People buy intopean and American high society was
who once were famous warriors, whothe mythologies of another place andpartly inspired by Indian traditions (see
were reported to have held medieval lovetime. In 1992 the cultural association the photograph of the Duchess of Marl-
courts, who are famed as poets, and whoArcana, based in Turin, Italy, mounted borough a wearing pearl necklaces in
know how to live in a difficult physical small exhibition of Tuareg jewelry. The Dubin 1987:301). Photographs published
environment. For example, in 1993 the accompanying brochure illustrates tradi- in European and American fashion mag-
R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company ran an adtional pieces and gives a cultural summa- azines over the past twenty years often
56 african arts - spring 2003
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highlight clothing styles accessorized that links the arts, popular trends, and This crisscrossing of cultures contin-
with foreign jewelry forms. In one, a culture at a very quick pace. In recent ued in Milan in 1998. The spring collec
model wears the tadnet necklace (labeled years African fashion models such as tions in that fashion capital included thos
an "Arab cross" necklace) to set off her Iman and Alek Wek have been the dar- of the Senegalese designer Oumou Sy
lings of European designers and photog-and several exhibits celebrating "le noir
slick motorcycle outfit (Elle USA 1992:327),
and another fashion spread shows jeans- raphers (Elle UK 1998: 89-94; see also Lewere organized all over town (Matarres
clad women wearing Tuareg rattle rings Goues 1997, Paquin 1994), and allusions 1998a). Jean-Paul Gaultier adopted Tuare
and band bracelets on their upper arms to the "new metropolitan African styles"turbans for his 1998 spring/ summer co
(Moda 1992:184-85). I doubt that most are frequent (Attolico 1997:193). Catchylections (see L'Officiel 1998), so it shoul
people looking at the photographs knew expressions like "ethnic chic" and "mal come as no surprise that Gucci's and St
where these ornaments came from: what d'Africa" (African nostalgia) are main- Laurent's 2002 spring/summer fashion
matters are the "look" and the creation stream, used to highlight lavish collagesillustrated in Vogue Paris (2002:206-19)
of an identity, however fleeting. of African statues or masks, bracelets, presented African head wraps under th
As the social historian Jennifer Craik textiles, bags, and clothing in fashion title "Melting Tops!"
points out, the fashion arena is slippery.magazines.10 Hermes, a well-established French
It communicates and commodifies iden- A fascination with things "ethnic"leather goods company in Paris, als
tity, and it is never permanent: was particularly strong in 1997 and 1998manufactures silver jewelry, scarves
Fashion behavior invokes rules and (Vormese 1997:138-43), and Africa was and household items. It christened 1997
celebrated in one way or another in almost"The Year of Africa." Since 1993 Hermes
codes of dress, adornment and ges-
ture to articulate attributes of the every fashion collection. According to has produced silk scarves with Tuareg
the fashion historian Colin McDowell motifs, leather bags adorned with Tuareg
social body. At a collective level, cross closures, and innumerable Tuareg
(1997:119), a designer's inspiration re-
fashion maps social conduct and, in necklaces, belt buckles, bracelets, and
sults from a piocess of layering, a collage
turn, is shaped by it. Fashion state- of various influences, which are materi-rings. The company's "Tuareg line" of
ments appear to mark a moment, alized in his or her source book. The cou-silver accessories and jewelry pieces is
but the fashion body is never secure
manufactured by Tuareg smiths in a
turier John Galliano, to cite the most
or fixed. The body is constantly re-
clothed and re-fashioned in accor- workshop in Agadez (Dorleans 1997: n.p.).
extreme example, used Maasai necklaces
Hermes catalogues sometimes include a
and Dinka corsets with his spring/sum-
dance with changing arrangements mer 1997 dress called Kamata. It was
of the self.
travel diary with photographs of the
places the designers visited and of local
inspired by a dress designed by Chris-
(Craik 1994:225) artists and artisans, as well as back-
tian Dior in 1948 and by photographs
Fashion themes are dictated by a of Maasai taken by Mirella Ricciardi
ground information on the cultures rep-
complex, remarkably globalized system (McDowell 1997:32, 33). resented (Le Monde d'Hermes 1997:98-101).

KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

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 KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

For example, the caption for the "Desert

Leathers" scarf reads:

For some people, the desert was a

passion, an obsession, a way of los-
ing themselves.... For others, the
desert is daily life, where the eye
pursues the ancient dream of cool
shade and deep wells while the
hand works, whenever it can, be-
cause that is what it was made for.
Here are several bags and pouches
of the skillful Tuareg, those proud
inhabitants of the Hoggar and Gao
in the Sahara.
(Le Carre Hermes 1993)
This situation leads us to consider
how Tuareg smiths perceive this Western
interest in things Tuareg, and whether
this interest has brought or will bring
about ephemeral or lasting changes
within the culture itself.
The smiths are indeed receptive to the
opinions of foreign clients. Antique deal-
ers (Fig. 1) and merchants tell them
which types of pieces to produce for dif-
ferent clienteles. Those who travel
abroad learn what has good resale po-
tential on the European and American
markets. While Tuareg smiths do not
search for exotica, they are certainly
open to new ideas. Inspiration comes in
the form of fashion-magazine images, KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

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KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

always careful to point out that the

invented to satisfy popular demand. The
jewelry catalogues, and the jewelry forms
of neighboring groups such as the earliest known prototype was recordedearliest prototypes were the Agadez,
Wodaabe and the Moors." This positiveby Foureau in 1905 (p. 921). Sixteen ex- Iferouane, InGall, Tahoua, and Zinder
response to outside influences is not aamples were recorded in 1955 (Dudot crosses.15 However, crosses have become
form of acculturation but an opening of1955:106), and there were twenty-one part of the national vocabulary, and they
an artistic dialogue, as exemplified byknown crosses when I was in the field in are such a visual constant that they have
Tuareg crosses.12 1991. The latest cross honors Mano Dayak,
founder of the Temoust Liberation Front,
who died'in a plane crash in the Air Opposite page:
Tuareg Crosses Mountains in December 1995.14
Top: 7. Chatchat necklace from Asodey, Niger.
Tuareg crosses have always held a certain Over time, the cross forms became in-
Silver, glass beads; length 46cm (18"). Collection
creasingly Europeanized-for example,
appeal for foreigners, and they constitute of Gerhard Gottler, Freiburg.
the one object type that was adapted andhanging loops were added (Creyaufmul- These chatchat pendants are simpler than those
transformed by an outside influence,
ler 1983b:39)-and their original names
in Figure 3, which display engraved motifs and
(and meanings, if any) were lost. Com-
then reintegrated within Tuareg culture. have armlike extensions near the apex. These
Crosses were once called tenaghalt ("that small pendants usually take the shape of elon-
binations and stylizations of crosses ap-
gated triangles, as here, or crosses.
pear on dagger handles, on satchels
which is made by fusion"). They were
and bags, in Berber carpets woven in
given group names,13 and different types Bottom: 8. Necklace called tamaten oragh, made
were used by different social classes.
Morocco (Creyaufmuller 1983b:39), on
by Ahanti and shown in his workshop. Gold wire,
During the French colonial era, however, amulet cases, and, as medals and pins, gold coins; length 59cm (23.2").
the crosses, often in the form of pen- This type of necklace is also called broderie
on berets worn by Niger's army. A collec-
(from the French "to embroider") because of its
dants, acquired the names of the areas in tion of twenty-one crosses, framed as the
lacy goldwork technique. Gold coins like those
which they were worn, such as the croix perfect souvenir, can be found in most used here often come from Saudi Arabia.
tourist markets in west Africa (Fig. 20).
d'Iferouane and the croix d'Agadez (e.g., in
Tamashegh, tenaghalt tan Agadez, or "cross In addition, aprons, the Niamey phone
of Agadez"; Creyaufmuller 1983a:60). This page:
book, postage stamps, bottle openers
Some cross designs were used to create(Fig. 21), soap boxes, and government
9. Cross necklace from Abalak, Niger. Silver,
vehicles are often decorated with cross
the insignias for Saharan military groups, string, cowrie shell; length of each cross 7.7cm
motifs. The entrance posts to many(3"). Collection of Gerhard Gottler, Freiburg.
and the army still uses similar ones today
Nigerien cities are large cement AgadezSmall necklaces like this one may include three
(see Boucher 1982: pl. 10). When crosses
to four crosses, sometimes interspersed with
became popular among foreigners in thecross sculptures. coins or other pendants. The crosses do not
1950s, they began to be manufactured in This foreign influence is recognized have loops at the top and therefore are usually
greater numbers, and new types wereas such; the older smiths I spoke to were tied to a leather strand or string.

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 KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

almost become emblematic of the nation

of Niger rather than the Tuareg people.

International Styles
There is a continual convergence of clas-
sical and modern Tuareg jewelry styles.
Today some of these forms (such as
crosses, amulets, and necklaces) are being
reinterpreted by African fashion design-
ers who, like the smiths, need to appeal
to different kinds of clienteles.16 Those
working abroad-for example Lamine
Kouyate (a.k.a. Xuly Bet) from Senegal,
Ly Dumas from Cameroon, and Mickael
Kra from C6te d'Ivoire-have opened
work spaces and boutiques in Paris
(Revue Noire 1998:143), where they are
enjoying increasing recognition (Benaim
1997:140-43). Their clothing and jewelry
are often photographed in European fash-
ion magazines (e.g., Vogue Paris 1998: n.p.;
L'Officiel 1998: n.p.).17 These individuals
incorporate African elements into their
creations-for example, Mickael Kra's
jewelry is inspired by Asante gold-
weights and Tuareg forms (see Revue
Noire 1998:99)-and promote their fash-
ions as international metropolitan styles
(La Cecla 1998:80-87).
Another group of designers, based in
Africa, are working to create a modern
fashion industry at home and gain
KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN greater visibility on an international
60 african arts - spring 2003

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 Opposite page:
Top: 10. Tadnet necklace. Silver, glass beads;
necklace length 61cm (24"), pendant length 7cm
(2.8"). Collection of Odile Dayak, Meudon.
This necklace, worn by women of the Tuareg fed-
eration of Kel Ewey, belongs to a classical neck-
lace style from the Air region (north of Agadez) in
Niger. It is composed of silver beads-the tubu
lar ezmaman and the faceted negneg beads-
and glass beads. Both ezmaman and negneg
beads are central elements of Tuareg necklaces.
The main lozenge-shaped pendant is called
egrou or egeru ("toad").

Bottom: 11. Elkiss bracelet from Agadez, shown

in Boubou Chaffi's store in Agadez. Silver, length
17.5cm (6.9").
Bracelets are almost always worn in pairs. The
highly desirable elkiss bracelets (elkiss=wrist),
cast in solid silver, are among the heaviest made
by the Tuareg. They are distinguished by their
polyhedral ends ornamented with triangles,
squares, and other geometric motifs. Classical
pieces like this one are still prestigious.

This page:
12. Interior of Moussa Albaka's boutique. Niamey,
Niger, February 1991. Photo: Kristyne Loughran.
This Tuareg smith is among those who cater to a
foreign as well as a Tuareg clientele.

of the biennial International Festival of

African Fashion (Festival International
de la Mode Africaine, or FIMA). The
event promotes the African fashion in-
dustry and creates a forum for dis-
cussion and exchange between African
artists and artists from other continents
(Revue Noire 1998:23). The first festival
was held near the town of InGall (west of
Agadez in Niger) in November 1998. The
fashion show, called tende (a traditional
Tuareg dance), attracted numerous Afri-
can and European designers. The second
festival was held outside Niamey, and
the next festival is scheduled to be held
in Niamey later this year. Including fash-
ion shows, concerts, and discussion pan-
els, FIMA has become a major media
event, judging from the extended cover-
age it has received (e.g., Sepulchre 1999;
Matarrese 1998b; Manservisi 1998).

Urban Identities
scale (Reuters 1997).18 Like their coun- Paris (Vormese 1997:n.p.). His styles
terparts abroad, these designers are try- characteristically involve handwovenSome smiths I know tailor their person
ing to reach a varied clientele, and they cotton textiles that reproduce motifs andal fashion look to their audience. On
highlight African artistry by incorporat- designs on Zarma wedding blankets. Heone occasion I saw Moussa Albaka, who
ing indigenous textiles and accessories. also makes prolific use of jewelry com-travels extensively, at the airport; he
The K'Palezo festival, held in Abidjan missioned from Tuareg smiths in Niamey,left for Paris wearing gray trousers, a
in 1997, was part of this effort. Its pur- and his clothing sometimes incorporateslight blue shirt, and a Burberry-style
pose was to promote the African fash- characters from tifinagh, the Tuareg al-raincoat. In 1992 he showed up in Flor-
ion and textile industries; its long-term phabet, as embroidered designs (Revue ence at the annual International Craft
goals are to develop both industries Noire 1998:21). Fair in traditional festival attire (Fig. 22).
into creative and financially productive Alphadi sees Internet sites as provid- When I asked why the change, he re-
fields (Glazai 1997). ing international visibility for Africansponded that the French liked a more
Alphadi, a Nigerien, is perhaps the designers. According to him, the fashionconservative look, whereas the Italians
most influential of the group of African and textile industries and the related
would certainly appreciate his tradi-
designers. He became the president of tional flair!
areas of jewelry and leatherwork can
the African Federation of Fashion De- become stable enough in the future to Smiths dress in different ways to suit
different audiences abroad, but this does
signers when the Malian designer Chriscreate jobs and support local entrepre-
Seydou died in 1994. Alphadi lives andneurship (www.anais.org/Fr, 1996). not In mean that they view themselves dif-
ferently from one situation to the next,
works in Niamey and has a boutique in February 1997 he announced the creation

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KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

Clockwise from top left:

13. Amulet with concave sides, shown in Moussa
Albaka's workshop. Silver, copper, leather; lon-
gest dimension 13cm (5.1").
Amulets are sometimes filled with papers bearing
Koranic inscriptions and texts or with protective
magical letters and numbers prepared by reli-
gious leaders. Some are filled with sand. Amulets
with concave sides tend to be large and are dec-
orated with different metals (copper in this case)
to create color contrasts.

14. Three modern brooches from Moussa Albaka's

workshop. Silver, largest diameter 4cm (1.8").
To suit Western tastes, these brooches were
adapted from the larger, classical rattle-ring form.
Composed of a ring band and a case containing
seeds, the rattle ring was used in Tuareg dances
and ceremonies.

15. Pendant. Tuareg, possibly Mauritania. Silver,

glass, wax; height 8cm (3.1"). National Museum
of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washing-
ton, D.C., 93-6-7.
Crosses are mostly worn by women as necklace
pendants and hair ornaments. Although this pen-
dant is referred to as a cross-specifically, the
Cross of InGall-it closely resembles some of the
ring types worn by Tuareg and Moor women.
Some authors (Creyaufmuller 1983:60) have sug-
gested that the prototype of this kind of pendant
was a ring.

16. Belt buckle, shown in Moussa Albaka's work-

shop. Silver, height 4.5cm (1.8"). 0

This belt buckle, a modern piece, is adapted from

the Cross of InGall.

62

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 From top:
17. Necklace shown in Moussa Alkaba's workshop.
Glass beads, silver; length 49cm (19.3").
Made for a foreign clientele, this contemporary
necklace incorporates imported materials. The
two tubular beads are known as korkoro because
they take their shape from turban amulets of the
same name. The central bead is a modern form.

18. Modern band bracelet made by Khamadan

(Moussa Albaka's brother), shown in Moussa
Albaka's workshop. Silver, 17cm x 3.5cm (6.7"
x 1.4").
In earlier times, an artisan's hand would be rec-
ognized by the ornament's distinctive stamped
motifs or engraved designs. Today bracelets and
pendants are often signed on the reverse side
with a name or decoration.

19. Coffee spoons made by Dauda Mohamed of

Niamey. Silver, glass, wax; length 8cm (3.1"),
handle 5.5cm (2.2"). Collection of Odile Dayak,
Meudon.

Such spoons are another Tuareg-style item made

by smiths for foreign use.
KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

nor does it mean that they view their

jewelry forms differently either. They are
proud of both the small, classical pieces
favored by Tuareg patrons (and Western
collectors) and the more modern (larger)
items favored by Western patrons (Figs.
23, 24). Smiths derive a strong sense of
solidarity from all objects they've pro-
duced well, and can often be found dis-
cussing their work with one another.
Theirs, they feel, is an important contri-
bution to the expressive culture of Niger.
Some smiths in urban communities
are also enjoying the publicity and atten-
tion given them as creative and original
emerging artists. But when asked if they
perceive a difference between being an
artisan and being an artist, the usual
response is no.19 They hope the pieces
that win competitions, or are out of
the ordinary, will help build their rep-
utations, establish relationships with
KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN patrons, and facilitate the government
endorsements necessary to participate
in international competitions and attend
international trade fairs. Smiths are also
businessmen, and like their counter-
parts the world over, know that their
businesses can only continue through
sales. They are keenly aware that a wide
range of expertise ensures greater work
opportunities.
The Tuareg still evaluate a person's
merit based on social class and appro-
priate comportment, and contemporary
oral literature still portrays an idealized
society. Nevertheless, social stratification
is no longer as rigid (Claudot-Hawad
1993:98-101). With regard to the use of
jewelry, analogous changes are emerg-
ing. In earlier times some pieces (such as
the heavy pectoral amulets) and certain
weapons (such as the takouba sword)
were reserved for the nobility. Today
they may be owned by people who have
the means to acquire them. Women, once
KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN
limited to dark indigo clothing, are now

spring 2003 - african arts 63

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This page:
Left: 20. The twenty-one crosses of Niger, framed
as a souvenir, displayed at a store in Agadez,
September 1990. Photo: Kristyne Loughran.
The handful of cross styles recorded at the be-
ginning of the 1900s expanded to twenty-one
by the beginning of the 1990s. These were often
grouped together as tourist curios.

Right: 21. Bottle opener in the shape of the

Agadez cross. Brass, length 15.5cm (6.1"). Col-
lection of Sibourd-Baudry, Paris.
The appeal of Tuareg cross forms has caused
them to be adapted for innumerable purposes.

Opposite page clockwise from top left:

22. Moussa Albaka at the International Craft
Fair. Florence, Italy, April 1992. Photo: Kristyne
Loughran.
This well-traveled Tuareg smith is aware of the
importance of self-presentation. On this occasion,
he deliberately appeared in traditional rather than
Western dress.

23. Necklace with pendant made by Moussa

Albaka, shown in his workshop. Silver, leather;
length of pendant 9cm (3.5"), length of necklace
60cm (23.6").

24. Necklace and earrings made by Moussa

Albaka, shown in his workshop. Necklace: silver,
glass beads; width of pendant 11cm (4.3").
Earrings: Silver, 6cm (2.4").
Smiths still take pride in making large classical
pieces like these, though many Tuareg now find
them too bulky and heavy to wear.
KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

seen wearing colorful ensembles at chris- ion designer Mickael Kra is incorporat- lifestyles, individuals in traditional attire,
tenings and festivals. Tuareg jewelry ac- ing gold cross forms, and Alphadi is and smiths at work. The artist has also
centuates new forms and techniques, been making an inventory of metal en-
using modern silver Tuareg jewelry.
and in some cases-the gold ornaments, Like Alphadi and other designers, graving and punch motifs, and of pyro-
for example-embody changing cultural some Tuareg artists, like Rissa Ixa, are engraved designs. These are reproduced
ideals. This intentionality on the part of seeking to preserve their national patri- on jewelry designs.
Tuareg women is the result of an artistic mony, while others, like the poet Hawad, Working in another vein is the Tuareg
"engagement with the world" (Ravenhill are taking it one step further. In 1991 writer and poet Hawad, who comes from
1996:17). The meaning and effect of the Rissa Ixa, a self-taught painter now liv- the Air region of Niger but lives and
gold jewelry now being used will only ing in Niamey, created Tagazt, which is works in Aix-en-Provence, France. Con-
become clear in the years to come. also known as the Association for the sidering the alphabetization programs in
Promotion of the Traditional Arts and Niger and in Mali, and the need for more
Viewed through the Western lens, most Culture of Niger. The association seeks vowels in the tifinagh alphabet, Hawad
images of the Tuareg are still steeped in to archive traditional forms and designs has developed an innovative version of
romantic mythologies. It is doubtful that before these disappear from common tifinagh in both print and cursive forms.
European fashion designers will ever usage. Rissa Ixa uses traditional dance,He also uses a calligraphic style of ex-
adopt the gold jewelry, for they lack the music, and decorative motifs as sources ceptional beauty and grace (see Revue
panache and drama of the classical silver of inspiration for his work. His paintings Noire 1995:76-77) to illustrate his poems
pieces. On the other hand, African fash- and drawings record scenes of nomadic (Claudot-Hawad 1993:141-45). Hawad's

64 african arts ? sDring 2003

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 KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

literary oeuvre addresses a vision of a

world built through its people's move-
ment and mobility, which are the back-
bone of Tuareg life and culture.
Today the Tuareg identity encom-
passes many portraits. Like the objects
produced by smiths, these portraits are
not homogeneous, and they defy the
neatly pigeonholed categories created
by Western scholarship. Appropriately,
a poem by Hawad (in Claudot-Hawad
1993:117) embraces both the attachment
to the Tuareg world and the opening to
and recognition of modernity:
Children!
To play, leave the bed of the valley.
To sleep, return to its bosom.
Notes, page 93 KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN

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 25, 4:36-51. 11. Recorded interview, Moussa Albaka, Niamey, September 1991. Baconiere.
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Santayana, George. 1896. The Sense of Beauty. Reprint, 1955. 13. These groups are politically autonomous federations whose Gattermeyer, Michela. 1997. "Mal d'Africa. Perche voler guarire
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Mickelsen 1976:16-19 or Gabus 1982. Dorleans, Francis. 1997. "On en parle," Vogue Paris, March, n.p. L'Officiel, Feb., p. 56 (Paris: Editions Jalou).
(The Conde Nast Publications).
8. Regarded as jewelers and artists by foreigners, smiths Sieber, Roy 1972. African Textiles and Decorative Arts. New
have benefited economically from the patronage of out-Dubin, Lois Sherr. 1987. The History of Beads. New York: Abrams. York: Museum of Modern Art.
siders. In Tuareg society, however, their position is more
Dudot, B. 1966. "Notes sur la Croix d'Agades," Notes Africaines Vogue Paris. 1998. "Xuly Bet," Dec.-Jan., n.p. (The Conde Nast
ambiguous. They are looked down upon because of their 68:106-8. Publications).
associations with manual labor and commerce; yet their ser-
Egora, Claire. 1997. "Le centre de la mode se diplace A Abidjan,"Vogue Paris. 2002. "Melting Tops," Dec.-Jan., pp. 206-19 (The
vices as intermediaries, as skilled craftsmen, and as healers
in Le Jour Culture 826, Oct. 29. Conde Nast Publications).
are indispensable. Elle USA. 1992. Image of woman wearing a tadnet necklace,Vormese, Francine. 1997. "L'Afrique flamboyante," Elle
9. In 1997 Moussa Albaka's photograph was on www.txdi Aug., p. 327 (Paris: Hachette Filipacchi Associds). France, May, pp. 138-43 (Paris: Hachette Filipacchi
on UK. 1998. "Sudan, London, Paris, Milan, New York," June, Associds).
rect.net/-jmayer/ fon.html in the "Links to InformationElle
Niger" section. The site, created by J. Mayer, is no longer oper-pp. 89-94, (London: Hachette-Emap Magazines).
ative. More recently some pieces from Albaka's workshop
Eudel. Paul. 1902. L'orfevrerie algerienne et tunisienne. Algiers:
were shown on the Internet site devoted to the international Typographie et Lithographie Adolphe Jourdan. GOTT: Notes, from page 81
craft show in Ouagadougou: www.siao.bf/ francais/nospavil "Festival International de la Mode Africaine." On Internet site
[This article was accepted for publication in December 2002.]
lons_htm/prodexposes/bijouterie/bijouterie.htm. Other Internet www.alphadi.com/ presentation.html.
sites exhibit objects manufactured by the Village Artisanal de "Focus on Niger." Internet site, now inoperative, created byThe J. field research for this article was funded, in 1999, by an
Wadata in Niamey. Mayer: http:/ /www.txdirect.net/ -jmayer/ fon/html. Indiana University School of Fine Arts Friends of Art Research
Travel Award and, in 1990, by a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dis-
10. The Italian expression "mal d'Africa" usually refers to those Foureau, F. 1905. Documents scientifiques de la Mission Saharienne
people who, once they have lived in Africa, can no longer 3. Paris: Masson. sertation Research Grant, a grant from the International Doc-
adapt in their country of origin (see Gattermayer 1997). Gabus, Jean. 1958. Au Sahara: Arts et symboles. Neuchitel:toral La Research Fellowship Program for Africa of the Social

spring 2003 * african arts 93

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