C H A P T E R VI

T H E A R T S OF IM PRESSIO N M ANAGEM ENT

In t h i s c h a p te r I would lik e to bring to g e th e r w hat h a s

been s a id or im plied about the a t t r i b u t e s th a t a r e required o f
a performer for th e work of s u c c e s s f u l l y s t a g i n g a c h a r a c te r ,
by referrin g briefly to som e of th e t e c h n iq u e s of im p re ssio n
m anagem ent in which t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s are e x p r e s s e d . A s an
in tro d u c tio n to t h i s attem pt, it may be well to s u g g e s t , in
some c a s e s for th e se c o n d tim e, some of th e prin cip al ty p e s
of p erform ance d is r u p tio n s , for it i s t h e s e d is r u p tio n s which
th e te c h n i q u e s o f im p r e s s io n m anagem ent functio n to avoid.
In th e beginning of th is report, in c o n s id e r in g th e general
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p erfo rm an ce s, it w as s u g g e s te d th a t th e
perform er m ust act with e x p r e s s i v e r e s p o n s i b ilit y , s in c e many
minor, in a d v e r te n t a c t s hap pen to be well d e s ig n e d to con v e y
im p r e s s io n s in a p p ro p ria te at the time. T h e s e e v e n t s were
c a lle d 'u n m e a n t g e s t u r e s . ’ P o n so n b y g iv e s an ill u s tr a tio n
of how a d ir e c to r ’s attem pt to avoid a n unm eant g e s tu re led
to th e o c c u r re n c e o f another.
O n e of th e A t t a c h é s from th e L e g a t i o n was to c a n y t h e cu s h io n on
w hich th e in s i g n i a w ere p l a c e d , and in otd er to p r e v e n t t h e i r fallin g off
I s tu c k the p in a t th e back of the Star through t h e v e l v e t c u s h i o n . T h e
Attaché', ho w evet, w as not c o n t e n t with t h is, but s c c u r e d the end of
t h e p in by the c a t c h to make doubly su r e . T h e r e s u l t w as t h a t when
P r i n c e A lex an der, h aving m ade a s u i t a b l e s p c e c h , tried to g e t hold of
t h e Star, he found it firmly fixed to th e cu s h i o n an d spe n t so m e rime
in g e t t i n g it lo o se . T h i s rath er .spoilt the most i m p r e s s iv e moment of
the ccrcm ony. 1
It should be added that the in d iv idual h e ld r e s p o n s i b le for
co ntrib u tin g an unm eant g e s tu re may ch iefly d is c r e d it h is
own perform ance by th is , a te am -m a te’s perform ance, or th e
perform ance being s ta g e d by h i s a u d ien c e.
When an o u ts i d e r a c c i d e n ta lly e n te r s a region in which a
perform ance is being given, or when a member of the a u d ie n c e
in a d v e r te n tly e n t e r s the b a c k s ta g e , th e in tru d e r is lik e ly to
c a tc h th o s e p r e s e n t flagrante delicto. T h ro ugh no o n e ’s
in te n tio n , the p e r s o n s p r e s e n t in th e region may find that
they have p a te n tly been w itn e s s e d in a c tiv i ty that i s q u ite
in c o m p a tib le with the im p re ssio n th a t they are, for w ider s o c ia l
r e a s o n s , in a p o s itio n to m aintain to the intruder. We deal
h ere with what are s o m e tim e s c a l l e d 'in o p p o r t u n e i n t r u s i o n s . ’
'P o n s o n b y , op. eft., p. 351.
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 T h e p a s t rife an d c u r r e n t round o f a c t i v i t y o f a given
perform er ty p ic a lly c o n t a in at l e a s t a fe w f a c t s w hich, if
in tro d u c e d d urin g th e perfo rm ance, would d i s c r e d i t or a t l e a s t
w eaken the c l a im s a b o u t s e l f th a t the perform er w a s atte m p tin g
io p r o je c t a s part o f th e d e fin itio n of th e s it u a t i o n . These
f a c t s may in v o lv e w e ll-k e p t dark s e c r e t s or n e g a tiv e ly - v a lu e d
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th a t e v e r y o n e can s e e but no one r e fe rs to.
When su c h f a c t s a r e in tro d u c e d , e m b a r ra s s m e n t is the usual
r e s u lt . T h e s e f a c t s can, of c o u rse , be brought to o n e ’s a tte n tio n
by un m eant g e s t u r e s or inopporcune in tr u s io n s . H ow ever, they
a re more f re q u en tly in tro d u c e d by in te n tio n a l v erba l s t a t e m e n t s
c r non-verbal a c t s w hose full s i g n i f i c a n c e i s not a p p r e c i a t e d
by :he in d iv id u a l who c o n t r i b u t e s them co the in te r a c t io n .
F o llo w in g common u s a g e , su c h d is r u p tio n s of p r o je c tio n s may
be c a lle d ' f a u x p a s . ’ Where a perform er u n th in k in g ly m a k es
ari in c entional co n trib u tio n w hich d e s t r o y s h is own te a m ’s
inv-'.£e we may s p e a k of ‘ g a f f e s ’ or : b o n e r s . ’ Where a performer
je c p s-fd iz e s the im a g e of s e l f p r o je c te d by the oth e r te am , we
may s p e a k o f ' b r i c k s ’ or of the perform er h a v in g ' p u t his
foot in i t . ' :
Unm eant g e s t u r e s , inopporcune i n tr u s io n s , and faux Das
are s o u r c e s o f e m b a r r a s s m e n t and d i s s o n a n c e w h ic h a re
ty p ic a l ly u n in te n d e d by the- person who is r e s p o n s i b l e for
making them and w hich woa.lo be a v o id e d w ere th e in d iv id u a l
tc ‘< now in a d v a n c e th e c o a s c q u e n c e s of h i s a c t i v i t y . H ow ever
th e :? a re s i t u a t i o n s , often c a l l e d ' s c e n e s , ' in w hich a n
in d iv id u a l a c t s in s u c h a way a s to d e s tro y or s e r i o u s l y th r e a te n
th e p o lite a p p e a r a n c e of c o n s e n s u s , and w hile he may not a c t
si.~:.;ly in o rd er to c r e a t e suci? d i s s o n a n c e , he a c t s wich th e
kno w led g e th a t th is kind c f d i s s o n a n c e is lik e ly to r e s u lt .
T n e c o m m o n - s e n s e p h rase , ' c r e a t i n g a s c e n e , ’ is a p t b e c a u s e ,
in iiifect, a new s c e n e is c r e a te d by s u c h d is r u p tio n s . The
p r e v io u s and e x p e c t e d in te r p la y betw een th e te a m s i s s u d d e n ly
forced a s i d e and a new drama forcibly t a k e s i t s p l a c e .
S io .iifican tly , th is new s c e n e often in v o lv e s a s u d d e n r e s h u f flin g
1 Ivriquette m a n u a l s p ro vid e c l a s s i c w a r n in g s a g a i n s t s u c h i n d i s c r e t i o n s .
*'or e x a m p le , 2"he L a w s o f E t i q u e t t e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : C a r e y , L e e &
o l a n c h a r d , 1336), p*. 1 0 1 :
‘ K th e r e is an y o ne in th e company whom you do not know, be c a r e f u l
how you Je t off any e p i g r a m s or p l e a s a n t l i t t l e s a r c a s m s . You might b e
ver y witty upon h a l t e r s to a man w h o s e fath er h ad been h a n g e d . T h e
first r e q u i s i t e for s u c c e s s f u l c o n v e r s a ti o n i s to know your c o m p an y w e l l . ’
A n other ex am ple o c c u r s in T h e C a no ns o f G ood B reed in g , op. c i t , t p. 80 : .
‘ In m e e t i n g a friend whom you h a v e n o t s e e n for so m e time, a n d of th e
s t a t e a n d h i s t o r y of w h o s e family you h a v e n o t been r e c e n t l y o r p a r t i c u l a rl y
informed, yo u s h o u ld avoid m ak in g e n q u i r i e s or a l l u s i o n s in r e s p e c t to
p a r t i c u l a r in d i v i d u a l s of h is fam ily t u n til you h a v e p o s s e s s e d y o u r s e l f o f
k n o w l e d g e r e s p e c t i n g them . Some may be d e a d ; o t h e r s may h a v e m is­
b e h a v e d , s e p a r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s , or fa lle n u nd er so m e d i s t r e s s i n g c a l a m i t y . ’
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a n d r e a p p o rtio n in g of t h e p r e v io u s te a m m em bers into two
new te a m s .
Some s c e n e s o c c u r w h e n t e a m - m a te s c a n no lo n g e r
c o u n t e n a n c e e a c h o th e r ’s in e p t p erfo rm an ce a n d blurt out
im m ed ia te p u b lic c r it ic is m of the very i n d i v i d u a l s with whom
th e y o ug ht to be in d r a m a tu r g ic a l c o -o p e ra tio n . Such m is c o n d u c t
i s often d e v a s t a t i n g to the p erfo rm ance w hich th e d i s p u t a n t s
o u g h t to be p r e s e n t i n g ; o n e e f f e c t of the quarrel i s to p ro v id e
t h e a u d i e n c e with a b a c k s t a g e view, and a n o t h e r i s to l e a v e
them with t h e f e e lin g th a t so m e th in g i s su r e ly s u s p i c i o u s
a b o u t a p erfo rm an ce w hen t h o s e who know it b e s t do not ag re e.
Another ty p e of s c e n e o c c u r s when th e a u d i e n c e d e c i d e s it
c a n no lo n g e r play th e gam e of p o l i t e in te r a c t io n , o r th a t it
no lo n g e r w a n ts to do so, an d s o c o n fro n ts th e perform ers
with f a c t s or e x p r e s s i v e a c t s w hich e a c h team know s w ill be
u n a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s i s w h a t h a p p e n s when an in d iv i d u a l s c r e w s
up h i s s o c i a l c o u r a g e an d d e c i d e s to ' h a v e i t o u t ’ with a n o th e r
or ' r e a l l y te ll him o ff.’ C rim inal t r i a l s h a v e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
t h i s kind of o p e n d is c o r d , a s h a v e th e l a s t c h a p t e r s of murder
m y s t e r ie s , w here an i n d iv i d u a l who h a s th e re to f o re m a in ta in e d
a c o n v in c in g p o s e of in n o c e n c e i s c o n fro n te d in t h e p r e s e n c e
of o th e r s with u n d e n i a b le e x p r e s s i v e e v id e n c e th a t h is p o s e
i s o n ly a p o s e . A n o th e r kind o f s c e n e o c c u r s when th e in te r ­
ac tio n b e tw e e n two p e r s o n s b e c o m e s s o lo u d , h e a te d , or
o th e r w is e a t te n t io n - g e tti n g , t h a t n earby p e r s o n s e n g a g e d in
th e ir own c o n v e r s a t i o n a l in te r a c t io n a r e forced to becom e
w i t n e s s e s o r e v e n to t a k e s i d e s an d e n t e r the fray. A final
t y p e o f s c e n e may be s u g g e s t e d . When a p erso n a c t i n g a s a
one-m an te am c om m its h im s e lf in a s e r i o u s way to a c la im or
r e q u e s t and l e a v e s h im s e lf no way out s h o u ld t h is be d en ied
by the a u d i e n c e , he u s u a lly m a k e s s u r e th a t h i s c la im or r e q u e s t
i s th e kin d th a t i s lik e ly to be a pp rov e d and g ran te d by th e
audience. If h i s m o tiv a tio n i s s tr o n g en ough, how ever, an
in d iv id u a l may find h im s e lf m ak ing a c la im or a n a s s u m p tio n
w hich he kn o w s th e a u d i e n c e may w ell r e j e c t . He know ing ly
l o w e r s h is d e f e n c e s in th e ir p r e s e n c e , throw ing h im s e lf, a s
we s a y , on th e ir m ercy. By s u c h an a c t th e i n d iv i d u a l m a k e s
a p le a to the a u d i e n c e to t r e a t t h e m s e l v e s a s part of h is team
o r to a llo w him to tr e a t h im s e lf a s part k>( th e ir te a m . T h i s
sort of t h in g i s e m b a r r a s s in g e'nough, but when th e u n g u ard e d
r e q u e s t i s re f u s e d to the in d iv i d u a l’s f a c e , he s u f f e r s what we
c a n c a ll h u m iliatio n .
We hav e c o n s id e r e d so m e m ajor forms o f p e rfo rm a n c e
d is r u p tio n —u nm e ant g estu re s, inopp ortune i n tr u s io n s , faux
p a s , and s c e n e s . T h e s e d is r u p tio n s , in e v e ry d ay te rm s , a r e
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often c a l l e d ' i n c i d e n t s . ’ When an in c i d e n t o c c u r s , th e r e a lity
sp o n so re d by th e p erform ers i s th r e a te n e d . T h e p e r s o n s p r e s e n t
a r e lik e ly to r e a c t by bec o m in g f lu s te r e d , ill at e a s e , em­
b a r r a s s e d , n e r v o u s , a n d t h e lik e . Q u ite l i t e r a l l y , th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s may find t h e m s e l v e s o u t o f c o u n t e n a n c e . When
t h e s e f lu s te r i n g s or sy m p to m s o f e m b a r ra s s m e n t becom e p e r­
c e iv e d , the r e a l i t y th a t i s s u p p o r te d by th e p erfo rm an ce i s
lik e ly to be further j e o p a r d iz e d an d w e a k e n e d , for t h e s e s i g n s
of n e r v o u s n e s s in m o st c a s e s a re a n a s p e c t o f th e in d iv id u a l
who p r e s e n t s a c h a r a c t e r a n d no t a n a s p e c t o f th e c h a r a c t e r
he p r o j e c t s , t h u s f o rc in g upon th e a u d i e n c e a n im a g e of the
man behind th e m ask.
In o rd e r to p r e v e n t th e o c c u r re n c e o f i n c i d e n t s and th e
e m b a rra ssm e n t c o n s e q u e n t upon them , i t w ill be n e c e s s a r y
for all the p a r t i c i p a n t s in the in te r a c t io n , a s w ell a s t h o s e
who do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e , to p o s s e s s c e r ta in a t t r i b u t e s an d to
e x p r e s s t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s in p r a c t i c e s em p lo y ed for s a v i n g th e
show. T h e s e a t t r i b u t e s and p r a c t i c e s w ill be r e v ie w e d u n der
th r e e h e a d i n g s : t h e d e f e n s i v e m e a s u r e s u s e d by perform ers
to s a v e t h e i r own sh o w ; t h e p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s u s e d by
a u d i e n c e and o u t s i d e r s to a s s i s t th e perform ers in s a v i n g the
p e rfo rm e rs’ s h o w ; and, fin a lly , the m e a s u r e s th e perform ers
m u s t t a k e ill order to m ake i t p o s s i b l e for th e a u d i e n c e and
o u t s i d e r s to employ p r o te c tiv e m e a s u r e s on t h e p e rfo rm e rs’
behalf.

Defensive Attributes and Practices

1. D RA M A TURG ICAL L O Y A L T Y . It i s a p p a re n t t h a t if
a te a m i s to s u s t a i n the lin e it h a s ta k e n , t h e te a m - m a te s
m ust a c t a s i f they h a v e a c c e p t e d c e r ta in moral o b lig a tio n s .
T h e y m u st not v o lu n ta rily b e tra y th e s e c r e t s o f th e te a m ,
w hether from s e l f - i n t e r e s t or p r in c ip le . T h e y m ust n o t e x p lo it
th e ir p r e s e n c e in th e front r eg io n in ord er to s t a g e th e ir own
show , a s do, for ex a m p le , m a rria g e a b le s te n o g r a p h e r s who
s o m e tim e s e n c u m b e r th e ir o f fic e su rro u n d in g s w ith a lu s h
undergrowth of high fa sh io n . N or m u s t th e y u s e th e ir perform­
a n c e tim e a s an o c c a s i o n to d e n o u n c e th e ir team . T h e y m ust
b e w illin g to a c c e p t minor p a r t s with good g r a c e a n d perform
e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y w h en e v er, w h erev e r, an d for w h o m so e v e r the
team a s a w hole c h o o s e s . And th e y m u s t be ta k e n in by th e ir
own p erfo rm ance to the d e g re e th a t i s n e c e s s a r y to p reve nt
them from s o u n d in g h o llo w and f a l s e to the a u d i e n c e .
P e r h a p s th e key problem in m a in ta in in g lo y a lty of team
m em bers (and a p p a r e n tly with m e m b ers o f o th e r t y p e s o f
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c o l l e c t i v i t i e s , too) i s to p r e v e n t t h e p erform ers from becom ing
so s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a t t a c h e d to the a u d i e n c e th a t t h e p erfo rm ers
d i s c l o s e co them th e c o n s e q u e n c e s for chem o f th e im p r e s s io n
th e y are b e in g g iv e n , o r in o th e r w ay s m ake the team a s a
w hole pay for t h i s a t t a c h m e n t . In sm all c o m m u n itie s in B r ita in ,
for e x a m p le , t h e m a n a g e rs o f s t o r e s w ill often be lo y a l to the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d will d e f i n e the pro d u ct b eing s o ld to a
c u s t o m e r in g lo w in g te rm s lin k e d by f a l s e a d v i c e , but c l e r k s
can fre q u e n tly be found who not o n ly a p p e a r to t a k e the r o le
o f th e c u s to m e r in g iv in g b u y in g - a d v i c e but a c t u a l l y do so . 1
So, too, f illi n g s t a t i o n m a n a g e rs s o m e tim e s d is a p p r o v e of
tip p i n g b e c a u s e it may l e a d a t t e n d a n t s to give u ndue free
s e r v i c e to t h e c h o s e n few w h ile o th e r c u s to m e r s a r e le f t w a iting.
O n e b a s i c te c h n i q u e th e te a m c a n employ to d e f e n d i t s e l f
a g a i n s t su c h d i s l o y a l t y i s to d ev e lo p h igh ingroup s o li d a r ity
w ith in the te a m , w h ile c r e a t i n g a b a c k s t a g e im a g e o f th e
a u d i e n c e w hich m a k e s th e a u d i e n c e s u f f i c ie n tly inhum an to
a llo w th e p erfo rm ers to c o z e n them with em o tio n a l a n d moral
im m unity. T o th e d e g r e e t h a t te a m - m a te s an d th e ir c o l l e a g u e s
form a c o m p le te s o c i a l com m unity w h ich o f f e r s e a c h perform er
a p l a c e and a s o u r c e o f moral su p p o r t r e g a r d l e s s o f w hether
o r n o t h e is s u c c e s s f u l in m a in ta in in g h is front befo re th e
a u d i e n c e , to th a t d e g r e e it would seem t h a t p erfo rm ers c a n
p r o te c t t h e m s e l v e s from d o ub t a n d g u ilt an d p r a c t i s e any kind
o f d e c e p t io n . P e r h a p s we are to u n d e r s ta n d the h e a r t l e s s
a r t i s t r y of t h e T h u g s by r e f e r e n c e to the r e li g io u s b e l i e f s and
r itu a l p r a c t i c e s in to w hich th e ir d e p r e d a tio n s w ere in t e g r a t e d ,
a n d p e r h a p s we are to u n d e r s ta n d th e s u c c e s s f u l c a l l o u s n e s s
o f co n men by r e f e r e n c e to th e ir s o c i a l s o l i d a r i t y in w h a t th e y
c a l l th e ' i l l e g i t ’ world an d t h e i r w ell-fo rm u lated d e n i g r a tio n s
o f th e l e g i t i m a t e world. P e r h a p s chis notio n a l l o w s u s to
u n d e r s ta n d in p a r t why g ro u p s th a t a r e a l i e n a t e d from or not
yet in c o rp o r a t e d into th e com m unity a re s o a b l e to go into
dirty-w ork t r a d e s a n d in to th e kind of s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s
w h ic h in v o lv e r o u tin e c h e a t in g .
A s e c o n d te c h n i q u e for c o u n t e r a c tin g the d a n g e r o f a f f e c tiv e
t i e s b e tw e en perfo rm ers and a u d i e n c e i s to c h a n g e a u d i e n c e s
p e r i o d i c a l l y . T h u s fillin g s t a t i o n m a n a g e rs u s e d to be s h if te d
p e r i o d i c a l l y from one s t a t i o n to a n o t h e r to p r e v e n t the formation
o f s tr o n g p e r s o n a l t i e s with p a r ti c u la r c l i e n t s . It w a s found
t h a t when s u c h t i e s w ere a l lo w e d to form, t h e m a n a g e r
l In the i s l a n d com mun ity r efe rred to in t h i s r e p o r t , I h e a r d a cle r k s a y t o a
c u s t o m e r a s t h e c l e r k w a s h a n d i n g o v er a b o t t l e of ch erry pop t o him, <( I
do no t s e e ho w y o u c a n drin k t h a t s t u f f . ” No one p r e s e n t c o n s i d e r e d t h i s
t o be s u r p r i s i n g f r a n k n e s s , a n d s i m i l a r c o m m e n ts c o u l d be h e a r d ev ery
day in the s h o p s on t h e is l a n d .
136
so m e tim e s p la c e d th e i n t e r e s t s of a friend who n e e d e d cre d it
before t h e i n t e r e s t s o f th e s o c i a l e s ta b l is h m e n t. 1 Bank
m a n a g e rs an d m in i s te r s h a v e been r o u tin e ly s h if te d for s im ila r
r e a s o n s , a s h a v e c e r ta in c o lo n ia l a d m in is t r a to r s . Some fem ale
p r o f e s s i o n a l s pro v id e a n o th e r i l l u s tr a ti o n , a s th e follow ing
r e f e r e n c e to o r g a n iz e d p r o s titu t io n s u g g e s t s :
T h e S y n d i c a t e h a n d l e s t h a t t h e s e d a y s . T h e g i r l s d o n ’t s t a y in one
p l a c c lo n g en o ug h t o re a lly p e t on s p e a k i n g t e r m s w ith an y bo dy - T h e r e ^
n o t s o much c h a n c e of a girl f a llin g in love w ith s o m e g u y —you know,
an d c a u s i n g a s q u a w k . Anyway, t h e h u s t l e r w ho's in C h i c a g o t h i s
w e e k i s in St. L o u i s n e x t t or m o ving aro u n d t o h a l f a d o z e n p l a c e s in
to w n be fore b e i n g s e n t so m e w h ere e l s e . And t h e y n e v e r know w here
t h e y 'r e g o ing u n t i l t h e y 'r e to ld . 2

2. DRAM ATURGICAL D IS C IP L IN E . It i s c ru c ia l for th e

m a in te n a n c e of the te a m ’s p e rfo rm an ce th a t e a c h member of
th e te am p o s s e s s dram a tu rg ica l discipline,, and e x e r c i s e it in
p r e s e n t i n g h is own part. I refer to the fact that w hile the
performer is o s t e n s i b l y im m ersed a n d g iv e n o v er to th e a c tiv i ty
he i s perform ing, and i s a p p a r e n tly e n g r o s s e d in h i s a c t i o n s
in a s p o n ta n e o u s , u n c a l c u l a t i n g way, h e m ust n one th e l e s s
b e a f f e c tiv e ly d i s s o c i a t e d from h i s p r e s e n ta t io n in a way th a t
l e a v e s him free to c o p e with d ram a tu rg ica l c o n t in g e n c ie s a s
th e y a r i s e . He m u st offer a sh o w of i n t e l l e c t u a l and em otional
in v o lv e m e n t in the a c tiv i ty h e i s p ie s e n t in g , but m ust k eep
h im s e lf from a c tu a lly b e in g c a r rie d away by h is own s h o w
l e s t t h is d e s tr o y h i s in v o lv e m e n t in the t a s k of p u ttin g on a
s u c c e s s f u l p erfo rm an ce .
A perform er who i s d i s c i p l i n e d , d r a m a tu r g ic a lly s p e a k in g ,
i s so m e o n e who rem e m b ers h i s p a rt a n d - d o e s not commit unm eant
g e s t u r e s or faux p a s in perform ing it. H e i s so m e o n e with
d i s c r e t i o n : he d o e s not g iv e th e sh o w aw ay by in v o lu n tarily
d isclo sin g its se c re ts . H e i s s o m e o n e w ith ' p r e s e n c e of
m i n d ’ who c a n c o v e r up on th e s p u r o f t h e m om ent for
in a p p ro p r ia te b eh a v io u r on the part of h i s te a m -m a te s , w hile
all th e tim e m a in ta in in g th e im p r e s s io n t h a t he i s m erely p la y in g
h is part. And if a d isru p tio n o f the perform ance c a n n o t be
a v o id e d or c o n c e a le d , th e d i s c i p l i n e d perform er w ill be p rep a re d
to offer a p l a u s i b l e r e a s o n for d is c o u n tin g t h e d is r u p tiv e e v e n t,
a jokin g manner to remove i t s im p o rta n ce , or d e e p apo lo gy
and s e lf - a b a s e m e n t to r e i n s t a t e t h o s e h e ld r e s p o n s i b l e for it.
T h e d i s c i p l i n e d perform er i s alg o so m e one with ' s e l f - c o n t r o l . '
' O f c o u r s e t h i s b e t r a y a l i s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y faked in so m e co m m ercial
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w here t h e c u s to m e r i s giv en a ' s p e c i a l * c u t p r i c e by a
c l e r k who c l a i m s to be d oin g t h is in o rd er to s e c u r e the buyer a s a s t e a d y
p e r s o n a l c u s to m e r.
2 C h a r l e s Hamilton, Men o f th e Under world (New Y o rk : Macm illan, 1952),
p. 222 .
137
He c a n s u p p r e s s h i s e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e to h i s p r iv a te pro blem s,
to h i s te a m - m a te s w hen th e y m ake m i s t a k e s , a n d to th e a u d i e n c e
when th e y in d u c e untow ard a f f e c tio n or h o s ti lity in him. And
h e c a n s to p h im s e lf from la u g h in g abo u t m a tte rs w hich are
d e f in e d a s s e r i o u s and s to p h im s e lf from ta k in g s e r io u s ly
m a t t e r s d e fin e d a s hum orous. In o th e r w ords, h e c a n s u p p r e s s
h i s s p o n t a n e o u s f e e l i n g s in o rd e r to g i v e th e a p p e a r a n c e of
s t i c k i n g to t h e a f f e c tiv e lin e , t h e e x p r e s s i v e status quo,
e s t a b l i s h e d by h i s te a m ’s p erform an ce, for a d is p l a y of pro­
s c r i b e d a f f e c t may not only le a d to im prope r d i s c l o s u r e s and
o f fe n c e to th e working c o n s e n s u s but may a l s o im p lic itly
e x t e n d to the a u d i e n c e the s t a t u s o f te a m member. And th e
d i s c i p l i n e d perform er i s s o m e o n e w ith s u f f i c i e n t p o i s e to move
from p r iv a te p l a c e s of info rm ality to p u b lic o n e s of varying
d e g r e e s of form ality, w ithout a l lo w in g s u c h c h a n g e s to c o n f u s e
him. 1
P e r h a p s th e f o c u s of d r a m a tu r g ic a l d i s c i p l i n e i s to be
found in the m a n a g e m e n t of o n e ’s f a c e and vo ice. H ere is the
c r u c i a l t e s t of o n e ’s a b i lity a s a performer. A ctua l a f f e c tiv e
r e s p o n s e m u st b e c o n c e a l e d a n d an a p p r o p r ia t e a f f e c tiv e
r e s p o n s e m ust be d is p l a y e d . T e a s i n g , it o ften s e e m s , i s an
inform al i n it ia t io n d e v i c e em ployed by a te am to train and
t e s t the c a p a c i t y of i t s new m em bers to ' t a k e a j o k e , ’ th at
i s , tn s u s t a i n a frie n d ly m anner w h ile p e r h a p s not f e e lin g it.
When a n in d iv id u a l p a s s e s s u c h a t e s t o f e x p r e s s io n - c o n tr o l,
w h eth e r he r e c e i v e s it from h i s new te a m - m a te s in a s p ir it of
j e s t or from an u n e x p e c te d n e c e s s i t y of p la y in g in a s e r io u s
p erfo rm an ce , he ca n th e r e a f t e r v en tu re forth a s a p la y e r who
c a n tr u s t h im s e lf an d be t r u s t e d by o th e rs . A very n ic e
il l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s i s g iv e n in a forthcom ing p a p e r by Howard
S. B e c k e r on m a riju an a sm oking. B e c k e r r e p o r ts t h a t th e
i r r e g u la r u s e r of th e drug h a s a g re a t fe a r of finding h im self,
w hile under th e in f lu e n c e of th e drug, in th e im m edia te p r e s e n c e
o f p a r e n t s or work a s s o c i a t e s who will e x p e c t a n in tim ate
undrugged p erfo rm an ce from him. A p p arently the irre g u la r
u s e r d o e s not becom e a confirm ed re g u la r u s e r u n til he l e a m s
h e c a n be ' high ’ and y e t c a r ry off a perform an ce before non-
s m o k e r s w ithout b e tra y in g h im s e lf . T h e sa m e i s s u e a r i s e s ,
p e r h a p s in a l e s s d r a m a tic form, in ordinary family life , when
a d e c i s i o n h a s to be r e a c h e d a s to t h e po in t in th e ir tra in in g
a t w hich young m em bers o f th e team c a n be ta k e n to p u b lic
a n d s e m i-p u b lic c e r e m o n ie s , for on ly when th e c h ild i s re a d y
to k e e p control of h i s tem per will he be a tru stw o rth y p a r ti c ip a n t
on su c h o c c a s i o n s .
1 F o r an ex am p le sec Page, op. cil., pp. 91-92.
138
 3. DRAM ATURGICAL C IR C U M SPE C T IO N - L o y a l ty and
d is c ip li n e , in the d ra m a tu rg ic a l s e n s e o f t h e s e te rm s, a r e
a t t r i b u t e s r e q u ir e d of te am -m a tes if th e s h o w they put on is
to be s u s t a i n e d . In a d d itio n , it will be u s e fu l i f th e m em bers
of th e te am e x e r c i s e f o re s ig h t and d e s i g n in d e term in in g in
a d v a n c e how b e s t to s t a g e a show . P r u d e n c e m u s t be e x e r c i s e d .
When th e re i s l i t t l e c h a n c e of b ein g s e e n , o p p o r tu n iti e s for
r e la x a ti o n c a n be t a k e n ; when th e re i s l i t t l e c h a n c e o f b ein g
put to a t e s t , th e c o l d f a c ts c a n be p r e s e n t e d in a glow ing
lig h t and the perform ers c a n p la y th e ir p a rt for a l l it is worth,
i n v e s t i n g ic with full d ig n ity . If no c a r e and h o n e s t y are
e x e r c is e d , then d is r u p tio n s are lik e ly to o c c u r ; if rigid c a r e
a n d h o n e s ty a r e e x e r c i s e d , th e n th e perfo rm ers are not lik e ly
to be u n d e rsto o d ' on ly too well ’ but they may be m isu n d e rsto o d ,
in s u f f ic i e n tly u n d erstood, or g r e a tly lim ite d in w hat th e y c a n
build o u t of th e d ram a tu rg ica l o p p o r tu n iti e s o p e n to them. In
o th e r w ords, in th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e te a m , perform ers will be
req uired to e x e r c i s e prudence and c i r c u m s p e c ti o n in s ta g in g
the show , prep a rin g m a d v a n c e for lik e ly c o n t i n g e n c i e s and
e x p lo itin g th e o p p o r tu n itie s th a t rem ain. T he e x e r c i s e or
e x p r e s s io n of dram a tu rg ica l c irc u m s p e c tio n t a k e s w ell-know n
form s; so m e of t h e s e te c h n i q u e s for m anaging i m p r e s s io n s
will be c o n s id e r e d h e r t.
O b v io u sly , o n e s u c h te c h n iq u e i s for th e te am to c h o o s e
members who a re lo y a l and d i s c ip li n e d , and a s e c o n d one i s
lor th e team to a c q u ir e a c l e a r id e a a s to how much lo y a lty
and d i s c i p l i n e i t c a n rely on from t h e m em bership a s a w hole,
for th e d e g r e e to which t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s are p o s s e s s e d will
m arkedly a f fe c t t h e lik e lih o o d of ca rry in g off a perform ance
and h e n c e th e s a f e t y of i n v e s t i n g t h e perfo rm an ce with
s e r i o u s n e s s , weight, and dig n ity .
We w ill a l s o find t h a t th e c i r c u m s p e c t perform er w ill attem p t
to s e l e c t th e kind of a u d i e n c e th a t w ill g iv e a minimum of
tro u b le in te rm s o f th e show th e perform er w a n ts to put on
a n d t h e sh o w he d o e s not w a n t to h a v e to put on. T h u s it i s
rep orted th a t t e a c h e r s often favour n e i th e r l o w e r - c l a s s p u p ils
nor u p p e r - c la s s o n e s , b e c a u s e both gro u p s may make it d ifficu lt
to m a in ta in in t h e c l a s s r o o m th e kin d o f d e f in itio n of th e
s it u a ti o n w hich affirm s th e p r o f e s s io n a l t e a c h e r role. 1
T e a c h e r s w ill t r a n s f e r to m i d d l e - c l a s s s c h o o l s for t h e s e
d r am a tu rg ica l r e a s o n s . So, too, it i s reported th a t som e n u r s e s
lik e to work in an o p e r a tin g room ra th e r th a n on a ward b e c a u s e
in the o p e r a tin g room m e a s u r e s are ta k e n to e n s u re t h a t th e
a u d ie n c e , who num bers only o n e, is soon o b liv io u s to th e
1 B e c k e r, 'S o c ia l C la s s V ariations . . op. cit., pp. 461-462.
139
w e a k n e s s e s of th e show , p e rm ittin g th e o p e r a tin g te am to
r e la x and d e v o te i t s e l f to the t e c h n o lo g i c a l r e q u ir e m e n ts of
a c t i o n s a s o p p o s e d to the d r a m a tu rg ic a l o n e s . 1 O n ce th e
a u d i e n c e i s a s l e e p it i s e v e n p o s s i b l e to bring in a ' g h o s t
s u r g e o n ’ to perform th e t a s k s th a t o th e rs who were th e re will
l a t e r c l a im to h a v e done. 2 Sim ilarly, g ive n t h e fa c t th a t
h u s b a n d and w ife a re req uired to e x p r e s s m arital s o li d a r ity
by both s h o w in g th e s a m e regard for t h o s e whom th e y e n te r ta i n ,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y to e x c l u d e from th e ir g u e s t s t h o s e p e r s o n s
about whom h u sb a n d and w ife feel d if fe r e n tly . 3 So a l s o , if a
man of in f lu e n c e an d p o w e r i s to make s u r e th a t he c a n ta k e
a frie n d ly r o le in o f fic e i n t e r a c t i o n s , then it w ill be u se fu l
for him to hav e a p r iv a te e l e v a to r an d p r o te c tiv e c i r c l e s of
r e c e p t i o n i s t s an d s e c r e t a r i e s s o t h a t no o n e ca n g et in to s e e
him whom he m ight h a v e to t r e a t in a h e a r t l e s s o r s n o b b is h
f a sh io n .
It will be a p p a r e n t th a t an a u to m a tic w ay of e n s u r i n g th a t
no member of th e te a m or no member of th e a u d i e n c e a c t s
im p rop erly i s to lim it th e s i z e of both t e a m s a s much a s
po ssib le. O th e r th in g s b e in g e q u a l, th e fe w e r the members,
th e l e s s p o s s i b i l i t y of m i s t a k e s , ’ d i f f i c u l t i e s , ’ and tr e a c h e r i e s .
T h u s s a l e s m e n l i k e to s e l l to u n a c c o m p a n ie d c u s to m e r s , s i n c e
i t i s g e n e r a lly th o u g h t th a t two p e r s o n s in th e a u d i e n c e a r e
m uch more d if f i c u lt to 1 s e ll ’ than on e. So, too, in som e s c h o o l s
th e re i s a n informal ru le th a t no t e a c h e r is to e n t e r th e room
o f a n o th e r t e a c h e r w h ile t h e o th e r i s h o ld in g a c l a s s ;
a p p a r e n tly th e a s s u m p tio n is t h a t it w ill be lik e ly th e new
p erform er w ill do s o m e th in g th a t th e w a itin g e y e s of the s t u d e n t
a u d i e n c e w ill s e e a s i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e im p r e s s io n f o s te r e d
by t h e i r ow n t e a c h e r . 4 H o w ev er, th e re a r e at l e a s t two r e a s o n s
why t h i s d e v ic e o f lim itin g t h e number o f p e r s o n s p r e s e n t h a s
lim i t a t i o n s i t s e l f . F i r s t , so m e p e rf o rm a n c e s c a n n o t be p r e s e n te d
w ithou t th e t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e of a s i z e a b l e number of te a m ­
m a te s . T h u s , a lth o u g h a g en e ral s t a f f a p p r e c i a t e s th a t th e
more o f f ic e r s th e r e a re who know the p l a n s for t h e n e x t p h a s e
o f a c tio n , th e more lik e lih o o d th a t som e one w ill a c t in s u c h a
' U n p u b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h r e p o rt by E d it h L e n t z . It may be n o te d t h a t th e
p o l i c y s o m e t i m e s follo w ed of p i p i n g m u s i c by e a r p h o n e s to the p a t i e n t who
i s u n d e r g o i n g a n o p e r a t i o n w i t h o u t a g e n e r a l a n e s t h e t i c i s a m e a n s of
e f f e c t i v e l y rem oving him a s an a u d i e n c e for t h e s p o k e n word.
2 Solomon, o p. c i t . , p. 108.
3 T his p o i n t h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d in a s h o r t s t o r y by Mary McCar thy, ' A
F r i e n d of the F a m i l y , ’ r e p r i n t e d in Mary M cCarthy, C a s t A C o ld E y e (New
Y o t k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e , 1950).
4 B e c k e r , ' T h e T e a c h e t in t h e Auth ority S y ste m of th e P u b l i c S c h o o l ,’
op. c i t . , p . 139.
140
way a s to d i s c l o s e s t r a t e g i c s e c r e t s , the s t a f f will s ti ll hav e
to le t e n ough men in on th e s e c r e t to pla n an d a rran g e th e
ev e n t. S eco n d ly , it a p p e a r s th a t in d iv i d u a ls , a s p i e c e s of
e x p r e s s i v e equipm ent, a re more e f f e c tiv e in a c e r ta in s e n s e
than non-hum an p a r t s of the s e ttin g . If, then, an in d iv id u al
i s to be g iv e n a p l a c e o f g r e a t dram a tic p ro m in e n ce, it may
be n e c e s s a r y to employ a s i z e a b l e c o u rt-fo llo w in g to a c h i e v e
an e f f e c tiv e im p r e s s io n of a d u l a ti o n aro u n d him.
1 h a v e s u g g e s t e d that by k e e p in g c l o s e to th e f a c t s it may
be p o s s i b l e for a perform er to s a f e g u a r d h is sh o w but t h i s
may p rev e n t him from s ta g in g a very e la b o r a te o n e . If an
e la b o r a te show i s to be s a f e ly s t a g e d i t may be more useful
to remove o n e s e l f from the f a c t s r a th e r th a n s t i c k to them. It
i s f e a s i b l e for a n o ffic ia l of a relig io n to c o n d u c t a solemn,
a w e so m e p r e s e n ta t io n , b e c a u s e th e re is no r e c o g n iz e d way
by which t h e s e c l a im s ca n be d is c r e d ite d . S im ilarly, th e
p r o f e s s io n a l t a k e s th e s ta n d th a t the s e r v i c e he p erfo rm s i s
not to be jud ged by th e r e s u l t s it a c h i e v e s but by th e d e g re e
to w hich a v a i l a b l e o c c u p a t io n a l s k i l l s h a v e bee n p ro fic ie n tly
a p p l i e d ; an d , of c o u r s e , the p r o f e s s io n a l c l a i m s th a t only the
c o l le a g u e group ca n m ake a judgment o f th is kind. It is there*
fore p o s s i b l e for the p r o f e s s io n a l to commit h im s e lf fully to
h is p r e s e n ta t io n , with a l l h is weight and d ig n ity , know ing
that on ly a very f o o lish m i s t a k e will be c a p a b l e of d e s tro y in g
th e im p r e s s io n c r e a te d . T h u s we c a n u n d e r s ta n d the effo rt of
tr a d e sm e n to o b ta in a p r o f e s s io n a l m a n d ate a s a n effort to
gain con tro l over th e r e a lity th e y p r e s e n t to th e ir c u s t o m e r s ;
and in turn we c a n s e e th a t s u c h c o n tro l m a k e s it u n n e c e s s a r y
to be prud en tly hum ble in the a i r s one a s s u m e s in performing
o n e ’s tr a d e .
T h e r e would a p p e a r to be a r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e am ount
o f m o d e sty em p lo y ed an d th e tem poral l e n g th o f a perform ance.
If the a u d i e n c e i s to s e e only a brief p erfo rm an ce , th e n the
lik e lih o o d of an e m b a r r a s s in g o cc u rre n c e will be r e la tiv e ly
sm a ll, an d it will be r e la tiv e ly s a f e for th e perform er, e s p e c i a l l y
in anon ym ous c i r c u m s ta n c e s , to m a in ta in a front th a t i s rath e r
false. 1 In A m erican s o c i e t y th e re i s w hat i s c a l l e d a
‘ te le p h o n e v o i c e , ' a c u l tiv a te d form of s p e e c h not em plo yed
in f a c e - to - f a c e ta lk b e c a u s e of th e d a n g e r of d o in g so. In
B rita in , in th e k in d s of c o n t a c t between s t r a n g e r s th a t are
1 In brief an on y m o u s s e r v i c e r e l a t i o n s , s e r v e r s becom e s k i l l e d a t d e t e c t i n g
w h at they s e e a s a f f e c t a t i o n , an d s i n c e t h e i r own p o s i t i o n i s made c l e a r
by t h e i r s e r v i c e role they c a n n o t return a f f e c t a t i o n with a f f e c t a t io n . At
t h e s a m e tim e, c u s t o m e r s who are w h at they c l a i m to b e often s e n s e t h a t
t h e s e r v e r may not a p p r e c i a t e t h i s , and s o the c u s t o m e r may f e e l a s h a m e d
b e c a u s e he f e e l s a s he wou ld feel w ere h e a s f a l s e a s he a p p e a r s to be.
141
g u a r a n te e d to b e v e ry b rief—th e k i n d s in v o lv in g 'p l e a s e , *
‘ th a n k y o u , ’ ' e x c u s e m e , ’ .a n d ' m a y I s p e a k t o ’—o n e h e a r s
m any more P u b l i c S chool a c c e n t s th a n th e re are P u b l i c School
people. So a l s o , in A n g lo - A m e r ic a n s o c ie t y , th e m ajority of
d o m e s tic e s t a b l i s h m e n t s do n o t p o s s e s s s u f f i c i e n t s t a g i n g
e q u ip m e n t to m a in ta in a sh o w of p o lit e h o s p i t a l i t y for g u e s t s
who s ta y more th a n a few h o u r s ; only in t h e upper-m iddle
a n d u pper c l a s s e s do w e find t h e i n s t itu ti o n of t h e w ee k -e n d
g u e s t , for it i s o n ly h ere th a t p erfo rm ers feel th e y h a v e enough
s ig n eq uipm ent to bring off a le n g th y show . 1
T h e perform er who i s to b e d r a m a tu r g ic a lly p rudent will
h a v e to a d a p t h i s p erfo rm an ce to th e inform ation c o n d i tio n s
u nder w hich it m ust be s t a g e d . O b v io u s ly , he w ill h a v e to
t a k e in to c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e in form atio n th e a u d i e n c e a l r e a d y
p o s s e s s e s a b o u t him. T h e more inform ation th e a u d i e n c e h a s
a b o u t th e perform er, th e l e s s l ik e ly it i s t h a t a n y th in g th e y
l e a m during t h e i n te r a c t io n will r a d ic a ll y in f lu e n c e them. On
t h e o th e r hand, w here no prior in fo rm ation i s p o s s e s s e d , it
m ay be e x p e c t e d th a t th e in form ation g l e a n e d d u rin g t h e in te r -
a c tio n w ill be of r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t im p o r ta n c e . H e n c e , on th e
w h o le, w e may e x p e c t in d iv i d u a ls to r e l a x th e s t r i c t m ain­
t e n a n c e of front w hen th e y a r e with th o s e th e y hav e known
for a lo n g tim e, an d we may e x p e c t perform ers to tig h te n th e ir
front when am ong p e r s o n s who a r e new to them . With t h o s e
whom one d o e s not know, c a r e f u l p e r f o rm a n c e s a re req u ired .
A n o th er c o n d i tio n a s s o c i a t e d with co m m u n ic atio n may b e
cited. T h e c i r c u m s p e c t perform er w ill h a v e to c o n s i d e r t h t
a u d i e n c e ’s a c c e s s to info rm ation s o u r c e s e x te r n a l to th e in te r ­
ac tio n . F o r e x a m p le , m em bers of the T h u g trib e of In d ia a re
s a i d to h a v e given t h e f o llo w in g p e rf o rm a n c e s d u rin g th e ea rly
n i n e te e n th c e n t u r y :
A s a g e n e r a l rule chcy p t e t e n d e d t o be m e r c h a n t s o r s o l d i e r s ,
t r a v e l l i n g w ith o u t w e a p o n s in o rder co d i s a r m s u s p i c i o n , w hich g a v e
them an e x c e l l e n t e x c u s e for s e e k i n g p e r m i s s i o n co acc o m p a n y t r a v e l l e r s ,
for chere w a s n o t h i n g to e x c i t e alarm in t h e t r a p p e a r a n c e . Mosc T h u g s
w e r e m ild lo o k in g a n d p e c u l i a r l y c o u r t e o u s , for t h i s ca m o u f la g e formed
p a r t o f cheir s t o c k - i n - t t a d e , an d w ell-arm ed t r a v e l l e r s f e l t no fear in
a l l o w i n g t h e s e k n i g h t s of che r o a d co join them . T h i s f irs t s t e p
s u c c e s s f u l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d , che T h u g s g r a d u a l l y won t h e c o n f i d e n c e of
cheir i n t e n d e d v tccim s by a d em ean o u r of humilicy a nd g r a t i tu d e , an d
feig n ed in c e r c s t in t h e i r a f f a i r s until f a m i li a r wich d e t a i l s of th eir
h o m e s , w h eth er they w e r e l i k e l y to be m i s s e d i f m u rd ered, a n d if t h e y
k n e w a n y o n e in t h e v i c i n i t y . S o m e tim e s t h e y t r a v e l l e d long d i s t a n c e s
t o g e t h e r before a s u i t a b l e op portunic y foe tr e a c h e r y o c c u r r e d ; a c a s e is
o n r e c o r d w here a g a n g jo u r n e y e d w ith a fam ily o f e l e v e n p e r s o n s for
1 On th e i s l a n d s t u d i e d by t h e wricer, so m e cr ofc ers felc t h e y c o u l d suscain
a m i d d l e - c l a s s sh o w for the d u r a t i o n o f a t e a , in so m e c a s e s a m e a l , and
in* one or two c a s e s e v e n a w e e k - e n d ; b u t many i s l a n d e r s fe lt it only
s a f e to perform for m i d d l e - c l a s s a u d i e n c e s on che front p orch or, betcer
s t i l l , in che co m m unity h a l l , w h e r e (he e f f o r t s an d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the
sh ow c o u l d be s h a r e d by many t e a m - m a t e s .
142
 tw en ty d a y s , c o v e r i n g 200 m i l e s , b e f o re t h e y s u c c e e d e d in m u rd erin s
t h e w h o le par ry w ith o u t d e t e c t i o n . 1 0
T h u g s c o u ld g iv e t h e s e p e rfo rm a n c e s in spice o f th e f a c t th a t
th e ir a u d i e n c e s w ere c o n s ta n t ly on th e w atch for su c h per-
form ers (and quickly put to d e a th th o s e id e n tif ie d a s T h u g s)
partly b e c a u s e of the in form ation al c o n d itio n s of t r a v e l ; o n c e
a party s e t out for a d i s t a n t d e s tin a tio n , th e re w a s no w ay for
them to c h e ck the i d e n t i t i e s claim ed by th o s e whom th e y en­
co u n te re d , an d if a n y th in g befell th e party on th e way i t would
be m o n th s before they would be c o n s id e r e d o v e rd u e , by which
time th e T h u g s who h ad performed for and then upon them
would be o u t of rea ch. But in th e ir n a tiv e v i l l a g e s , th e m em bers
of t h e tribe, being known, fixed, and a c c o u n t a b le for th e ir
s i n s , b e h a v e d in an exem plary fash io n . Sim ilarly, c i r c u m s p e c t
A m e ric a n s who w ould o rd inarily n e v e r c h a n c e a m is r e p r e s e n t ­
ation of th e ir s o c i a l s t a t u s may ta k e su c h a c h a n c e w hile
sta y in g for a sh o rt tim e a t a summ er re s o r t.
If s o u r c e s of inform ation e x t e r n a l to th e in te r a c t io n
c o n s t i t u t e one c o n tin g e n c y th e c i r c u m s p e c t performer m ust
ta k e into c o n s id e r a t io n , s o u r c e s o f inform ation in ternal to t h e
in te r a c t io n c o n s t i t u t e an o th er. T h u s th e c i r c u m s p e c t
perform er will a d j u s t h i s p r e s e n ta t io n ac c o rd in g to t h e
c h a r a c t e r of th e p ro p s an d t a s k s out of w hich he m ust build
h i s perform an ce. F o r ex am ple, c lo th in g m e r c h a n ts in th e
U nited S t a t e s a r e r e q u ir e d to be r e la tiv e ly c i r c u m s p e c t in
making e x a g g e r a te d c l a im s , b e c a u s e c u s to m e r s ca n t e s t by
s ig h t and touch whar i s show n for them, but furniture s a l e s ­
men nee d not be s o c a r e f u l, b e c a u s e few members of the*
a u d i e n c e can jud ge w hat l i e s behind th e front of varnish an d
v e n e e r th a t i s p r e s e n t e d to them . 2 S im ilarly, if a h o u s e w ife
i s c o n c e r n e d with sh o w in g th at s h e m a in ta in s c l e a n l i n e s s
s t a n d a r d s , s h e i s lik e ly to fo c u s h e r a tte n t io n upon th e g l a s s
s u r f a c e s in her liv in g room, for g l a s s sh o w s dirt all too c l e a r l y ;
sh e w ill g iv e l e s s a t te n t io n ro the d arke r and l e s s r e v e a lin g
rug, w h ich may well have b een c h o s e n in the b e lie f th a t ' d a r k
c o l o u r s do n o t show the d i r t . ’ So, too, an a r t i s t n e e d ta k e
li t t l e c a r e with th e d e c o r of h i s s t u d i o —in fact, th e a r t i s t ’s
stu d io h a s becom e s te r e o ty p e d a s a p la c e w here th o s e who
work b a c k s t a g e do not c a r e who s e e s them or th e c o n d itio n s
in w h ich they are s e e n —p a rtly b e c a u s e the full v a l u e of the
a r t i s t ’s p ro d u ct c a n , or ought to be, im m ediately a v a ila b le
to the s e n s e s ; p o rtra it p a i n te r s , on the o th e r hand, must pro m ise
to make th e s i t t i n g s s a t i s f a c t o r y and te n d to u s e r e la tiv e ly
l S l eem an , op. c i l ., p. 25.
2 Con an t, op. c i t . , m a k e s t h i s p oint.
143
p r e p o s s e s s i n g , ric h -lo o k in g s t u d i o s a s a k in d of g u a r a n te e
for t h e p r o m is e s th e y make. Sim ilarly , we find t h a t c o n f id e n c e
m en m u st employ e l a b o r a t e an d m e tic u lo u s p e r s o n a l f ro n ts
an d often e n g i n e e r m e t i c u l o u s s o c i a l s e t t i n g s , n o t so much
b e c a u s e th e y l ie for a liv i n g but b e c a u s e , in order to g e t aw ay
with a l i e of th a t d im e n sio n , on e m ust deal with p e r s o n s who
h a v e b e e n a n d a r e going to b e sc ra ngers, an d o n e h a s to
te r m in a te the d e a l i n g s a s q u ic k ly a s p o s s i b l e , L e g i tim a te
businessm en who would p rom o te .n v e n tu re u n d e r t h e s e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s would h a v e to b e j u s t a s m e t i c u l o u s in
e x p r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s , for it i s u n d e r j u s t su c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s
t h a t p o te n tia l i n v e s t o r s s c r u t i n i z e th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h o s e who
would s e ll to them . In short, s i n c e a con m e rc h an t must s w in d le
h i s c l i e n t s u n d er t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w here c l i e n t s a p p r e c i a t e
th a t a c o n f id e n c e g a m e c o u ld be em p loyed , th e con man must
c a r e f u lly f o r e s ta ll th e im m e d ia te im p r e s s io n th a t h e m ight b e
w h a t in f a c t h e i s , j u s t a s th e l e g itim a te m erchant, u n d e r th e
s a m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , would h a v e to f o re sta ll c a r e f u lly th e
im m e d ia te im p r e s s io n th a t he might be w hat h e i s not.
It i s a p p a r e n t th a t c a r e will be g r e a t in s i t u a t i o n s w here
im p o rta n t c o n s e q u e n c e s for th e perform er will o c c u r a s a r e s u lt
o f h i s c o n d u c t. T h e jo b - in te rv ie w i s a c l e a r exa m p le . O ften
th e in te r v ie w e r will h a v e to m ake d e c i s i o n s of fa r-re a c h in g
im po rranc e for th e in te r v ie w e e on the s o le b a s i s o f inform ation
g a i n e d from th e i n t e r v i e w e e ’s in te rv ie w -p e rfo rm a n c e . The
i n te r v ie w e e i s l ik e ly to feel, and with so m e j u s t i c e , th a t h i s
ev ery a c tio n w ill be ta k e n a s high ly s y m b o lic a l, an d he will
th e re fo re g iv e much p r e p a ra tio n and thought to h i s p erform an ce.
We e x p e c t a t s u c h tim e s t h a t th e in te r v ie w e e will pay much
a t te n t io n to h i s a p p e a r a n c e and manner, not m erely to c r e a t e
a f a v o u r a b le im p r e s s io n , but a l s o to be on the s a fe s i d e and
f o r e s ta ll an y u n fa v o u ra b le im p r e s s io n th a t might be u n w ittin g ly
conveyed. A nother exa m p le may be s u g g e s t e d : t h o s e who
work in the field of rad io b r o a d c a s ti n g and, e s p e c i a l l y , t e l e ­
v is i o n k e e n ly a p p r e c i a t e th a t the momentary im p r e s s io n they
g iv e w ill hav e a l a s t i n g e ffe c t on the view th e a u d i e n c e t a k e s
o f them, an d it i s in t h i s p a rt of th e com m u n ic atio n in d u stry
t h a t g r e a t c a re i s ta k e n to g iv e th e rig h t im p r e s s io n and g rea t
a n x i e ty i s f e l t th a t the im p r e s s io n g iv e n might not be right.
T h e s tr e n g th of t h i s c o n c e r n i s s e e n in th e in d ig n i tie s th a t
h ig h - p la c e d p e rfo rm e rs are w illin g to su f fe r in o rd e r to com e
off well : C o n g r e s s m e n a llo w t h e m s e l v e s to be made up and
to be to ld w hat to w e a r ; p r o f e s s io n a l b o x e rs a b a s e t h e m s e l v e s
by g iv in g a d is p la y , in th e m a nner o f w r e s tle r s , i n s t e a d of a
bout. 1
1 S e e J o h n L a r d n e r 's w eek ly column in N e w s w e e k , F e b r u a ry 22, 1954, p. 59.
*44
 C i rc u m s p e c tio n on t h e p a rt of perfo rm ers w ill a l s o be
e x p r e s s e d in th e way th e y h a n d le r e la x a ti o n o f a p p e a r a n c e s .
When a team i s p h y s i c a l l y d i s t a n t from i t s i n s p e c t o r ia l a u d i e n c e
a n d a s u r p r i s e v i s i t i s u n lik e ly , then g r e a t r e la x a ti o n b e c o m e s
f e a s i b l e . T h u s we rea d th a t sm a ll A m erican N avy i n s t a l l a t i o n s
on P a c i f i c i s l a n d s d u rin g t h e l a s t w ar c o u ld b e run q u ite
inform ally, w h e r e a s a r e a d ju s tm e n t in th e d ire c tio n o f spit
an d p o lis h w a s r e q u ir e d when th e o u tf it moved to p l a t e s th a t
m e m b ers of th e a u d i e n c e were more l ik e ly to frequent. 1 When
i n s p e c t o r s h a v e e a s y a c c e s s to th e p l a c e w here a te am c a r r i e s
on i t s work, then th e am o u n t o f r e la x a tio n p o s s i b l e for the
team will depend on t h e e f f ic i e n c y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y of i t s w arning
sy ste m . It i s to be n o te d th a t thorough-go ing r e la x a tio n r e q u ir e s
not only a w arning s y s t e m but a l s o an a p p r e c ia b le tim e l a p s e
b e tw e e n w arning a n d v is i t, for t h e te am will be a b l e to r e la x
only to t h e d e g r e e th a t c a n be c o r r e c te d d u rin g s u c h a tim e
lapse. T h u s , when a s c h o o l t e a c h e r l e a v e s her c l a s s r o o m for
a moment, h e r c h a r g e s c a n r e la x into s lo v e n ly p o s t u r e s and
w h is p e re d c o n v e r s a ti o n s , for t h e s e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s c a n b e
c o r r e c te d in th e few s e c o n d s ' w arning t h e p u p i l s will h a v e
th a t th e te a c h e r i s abo u t to r e -e n te r, but it i s u n lik e ly th a t it
will be f e a s i b l e for the p u p ils to s n e a k a smoke, for th e sm ell
of sm oke c a n n o t be got rid of q u ic k ly . I n te r e s tin g ly enou gh,
p u p ils , lik e o th e r perform ers, will ‘ t e s t th e l i m i t s , ’ g le efu lly
m o vin g far e n o u g h aw ay from th e ir s e a t s s o th a t when the
w arning c o m e s th e y will h a v e to d a s h madly back to th e ir
proper p l a c e s so a s not to be c a u g h t o f f- b a se .
I would l i k e to m ention a final way in which, d ram a turg ica l
c i rc u m s p e c tio n i s e x e r c i s e d . When te a m s c o m e into e a c h
o th e r 's im m edia te p r e s e n c e , a h o s t of minor e v e n t s may o c c u r
th a t a r e a c c i d e n ta lly s u i t a b l e for c o n v e y in g a g e n e ra l im p r e s s io n
th a t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t with th e f o s te r e d o n e. T his ex p re ssiv e
tr e a c h e r o u s n e s s i s a b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f fa c e - to -f a c e in te r ­
ac tio n . O ne way of d e a lin g with t h i s p roblem i s , ^as p re v io u s ly
s u g g e s te d , to s e l e c t te a m - m a te s who are d is c i p l i n e d and will
not perform t h e i r p a r t s in a c lu m s y , g a u c h e , or s e l f - c o n s c i o u s
f a s h io n . A noth er m ethod i s to p r e p a r e in a d v a n c e for all
p o ssib le ex p re ssiv e con tin g en cies. O n e a p p l ic a tio n of th is
s t r a t e g y i s to s e t t l e on a c o m p le te a g e n d a before the ev e n t,
d e s i g n a t i n g who i s to do what and who i s to do what afte r
th a t. In t h i s way c o n f u s i o n s an d l u l l s ca n be avoided and
h e n c e the i m p r e s s i o n s th a t s u c h h i t c h e s in th e p r o c e e d in g s
m ight c o n v e y to th e a u d ie n c e ca n be a v o id e d too. A nother
a p p l ic a tio n of t h i s programming te c h n iq u e i s to a c c e p t th e
fact th a t p ic a y u n e e v e n t s s u c h a s who is to e n t e r a room f irs t
1 P age, op. cit., p. 92.
145
o r w ho i s to s i t n e x t to t h e h o s t e s s , e t c . , will be t a k e n a s
e x p r e s s i o n s o f r e g a rd a n d to a p p o rtio n t h e s e f a v o u r s c o n s c i o u s l y
on t h e b a s i s of p r i n c i p l e s o f ju d g m e n t to w hich no one p r e s e n t
will t a k e o f fe n c e , s u c h a s a g e , g r o s s s e n io r i ty in rank, s e x ,
te m porary ce re m o n ia l s t a t u s , e t c . T h u s in a n im p o rta n t s e n s e
p ro to c o l i s n o t s o m uch a d e v i c e for e x p r e s s i n g v a l u a t i o n s
du rin g i n t e r a c t i o n a s a d e v i c e for 'g ro u n d in g * p o te n tia lly
d i s r u p t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s in a way th a t will be a c c e p t a b l e ( a n d
u n e v e n tf u l) to a l l p r e s e n t . A third a p p l ic a tio n i s to r e h e a r s e
th e w hole r o u tin e s o th a t th e p erfo rm e rs c a n b e c o m e p r a c t i s e d
in t h e i r p a r t s and so th a t c o n t i n g e n c i e s th a t w ere no t p r e d ic te d
w ill o c c u r u n d er c i r c u m s t a n c e s in w h ich th e y c a n be s a fe ly
a t t e n d e d to . A fourth i s to o u tli n e b e fo reh a n d fo r th e a u d i e n c e
th e l i n e o f r e s p o n s e th e y a r e to ta k e to th e p erfo rm an ce . When
t h i s k in d o f b riefin g o c c u r s , o f c o u r s e , it b e c o m e s d if fic u lt to
d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n p e rfo rm e rs an d a u d i e n c e . T h i s ty p e of
c o l l u s i o n i s e s p e c i a l l y found w here t h e perform er i s o f highly
s a c r e d s t a t u s and c a n n o t t r u s t h im s e lf to t h e s p o n ta n e o u s
t a c t o f th e a u d i e n c e . F o r ex a m p le , in B r ita in , women who
a re to be p r e s e n t e d a t c o u r t (whom w e may th in k o f a s an
a u d i e n c e for t h e ro y al perform ers) a re c a r e f u lly s c h o o le d befo re­
h a n d a s to what to w ear, w h a t k in d o f l i m o u s in e to a rriv e in,
how to c u r ts e y , and w hat to sa y .

Protective Practices
I h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h r e e a t t r i b u t e s th a t team m em b ers m ust
h a v e if th e ir te a m i s to perform in s a f e t y ; lo y a lty , d i s c i p l i n e ,
a n d c i r c u m s p e c ti o n . E a c h of t h e s e c a p a c i t i e s i s e x p r e s s e d
in many s t a n d a r d d e f e n s iv e t e c h n i q u e s through w hich a s e t of
p e rf o rm e r s c a n s a v e th e ir own sho w . Som e of t h e s e te c h n i q u e s
o f im p r e s s io n m a n a g e m e n t w ere r e v ie w e d . O th e r s , s u c h a s
t h e p r a c t i c e of c o n t r o l lin g a c c e s s to back r e g io n s and front
r e g io n s , w ere s u f f i c ie n tly d i s c u s s e d in e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s . In
t h i s s e c t i o n I w ant to s t r e s s th e f a c t t h a t m o s t o f t h e s e
d e f e n s i v e t e c h n i q u e s o f i m p r e s s io n m a n ag e m en t h a v e a c o u n t e r ­
p a rt in t h e ta c tfu l t e n d e n c y o f th e a u d i e n c e and o u t s i d e r s to
a c t in a p r o te c tiv e way in o rd e r to help th e p erform ers s a v e
t h e ir own show . S i n c e th e d e p e n d e n c e o f the p erform ers on
t h e t a c t o f t h e a u d i e n c e an d o u t s i d e r s t e n d s to be under­
e s t i m a t e d , I sh a ll bring t o g e th e r h e r e som e o f the s e v e r a l
p r o t e c t i v e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t are commonly em p lo y ed a lth o u g h ,
a n a l y t i c a l l y sp e a k in g , e a c h p r o te c tiv e p r a c t i c e might b e t te r
b e c o n s i d e r e d in c o n j u n c ti o n with th e c o r r e s p o n d in g d e f e n s iv e
p ractice.
146
 F i r s t , i t s h o u ld be u n d e r s to o d t h a t a c c e s s to th e back
an d front r e g io n s o f a p erform an ce i s c o n tro lle d n o t only by
t h e p erform ers but by o t h e r s . I n d iv id u a ls volu n ta rily s ta y
aw ay from re g io n s into which they h a v e not been in v ite d .
( T h i s k in d o f t a c t in re g a rd to p l a c e i s a n a l a g o u s to
' d i s c r e t i o n , ’ w hich h a s a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d a s t a c t in
regard to f a c ts .) And when o u t s i d e r s find th e y are a b o u t to
e n t e r s u c h a r eg io n , th e y o fte n give t h o s e a lre a d y p r e s e n t
som e w arning, in th e form o f a m e s s a g e , or a knock, or a co u g h ,
so t h a t t h e in tru sio n c a n be put off if n e c e s s a r y o r the s e t t i n g
h u rrie dly pu t in order and proper e x p r e s s i o n s fixed on t h e
f a c e s o f t h o s e p r e s e n t. 1 T h i s kin d o f t a c t c a n bec om e n ic e ly
e l a b o r a te d . T h u s, in p r e s e n tin g o n e s e l f to a s tr a n g e r by m e a n s
o f a l e t t e r o f in tro d u c tio n , it i s thought proper to c o n v e y th e
le t t e r to th e a d d r e s s e e before a c tu a lly com ing into h i s im m e d ia te
p r e s e n c e ; th e a d d r e s s e e then h a s tim e to d e c id e w hat kind of
g r e e tin g th e ind iv id u al i s to r e c e i v e , and tim e to a s s e m b l e
t h e e x p r e s s i v e m anner a p p r o p r ia te to s u c h a g re e tin g . 2
We often find t h a t w hen in te r a c t io n m ust p ro c e e d in the
p r e s e n c e of o u ts i d e r s , o u t s i d e r s t a c tf u lly a c t in an u n in te r e s te d ,
un in v o lv e d , u n p e r c e iv in g f a s h io n , so t h a t if p h y s ic a l c l o s u r e
i s not o b ta in e d by w a ll s or d i s t a n c e , e f f e c tiv e c lo s u r e ca n at
l e a s t be o b ta in e d by c o n v e n tio n . T h u s when two s e t s o f p e r s o n s
find t h e m s e l v e s in n eig h b o u rin g b o o th s in a r e s ta u r a n t, i t i s
e x p e c te d th a t n e i th e r group will avail i t s e l f o f the o p p o r tu n iti e s
that a c tu a lly e x i s t for o v e r h e a r in g t h e other.
E t i q u e t t e a s r e g a r d s ta c tf u l in a tte n tio n , and t h e e f f e c tiv e
p riv a c y it p r o v id e s , v a r i e s , o f c o u r s e , from o n e s o c ie t y and
s u b c u ltu r e to an o th er. In m i d d l e - c l a s s A nglo-Am erican s o c ie t y ,
when in a p u b lic p l a c e , one i s su p p o s e d to k e e p o n e ’s n o s e
o u t of o th e r p e o p l e ’s a c tiv i ty and go about o n e ’s own b u s i n e s s .
It i s o nly w hen a woman d ro p s a p a c k a g e , or w hen a fellow -
m o to rist g e t s s t a l l e d in th e m iddle o f th e road, or when a
baby le ft a l o n e in a c a r r i a g e b e g i n s to sc re a m , th a t m i d d l e - c l a s s
p e o p l e feel it i s all righ t to break down m om entarily the w a lls
w hich e f f e c tiv e ly i n s u l a t e them. In the rural is l a n d c u ltu r e
stu d ie d by th e writer, d if fe r e n t r u l e s o b ta in e d . If any man
h a p p e n e d to find h im s e lf in th e p r e s e n c e of o th e rs who were
e n g a g e d in a t a s k , it w a s e x p e c t e d th a t he would lend a hand,
1 Maids a r e o f te n t r a i n e d to e n t e r a room w ith o u t k n o ck in g, or to k n o c k and
go right in, p r e su m a b ly on the th eo ry t h a t they arc n o n - p e r s o n s before
whom any p r e t e n c e or in t e r a c t i o n r e a d i n e s s on the p ar t o f t h o s e in the
room n e e d n o t be m a i n t a i n e d . F rie n d ly h o u s e w i v e s w i l l e n t e r e a c h o t h e r ’s
k i t c h e n s with s i m i l a r l i c e n c e , a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f h a v i n g n o th in g to
h id e from e a c h oth er.
* E sq u ire E t i q u e t t e , op. cit., p. 73-
147
e s p e c i a l l y if t h e t a s k w a s r e la tiv e ly b r ie f a n d r e la tiv e ly
s tr e n u o u s . Such c a s u a l m utual aid was ta k e n a s a m a tte r o f
c o u r s e and w a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f n o th in g c l o s e r than fellow-
isla n d e r statu s.
O n c e the a u d i e n c e h a s b e e n a d m itte d to a perform ance,
t h e n e c e s s i t y of b e in g ta c tfu l d o e s not c e a s e . We find th a t
th e re i s a n e l a b o r a t e e t i q u e t t e by w hich in d iv i d u a ls guide
them s e l v e s in th e ir c a p a c i t y a s m em bers o f the a u d i e n c e .
T h i s i n v o l v e s : th e giving of a p roper am ount of a tte n tio n and
i n t e r e s t ; a w i l l i n g n e s s to hold in c h e c k o n e 's own perfo rm an ce
so a s not to in tr o d u c e too many c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , in te r ru p tio n s ,
o r d e m a n d s for a t te n t io n ; th e in h ib itio n o f all a c t s or s t a t e m e n t s
th a t m ight c r e a t e a faux p a s ; th e d e s i r e , a b o v e *li e l s e , to
avoid a s c e n e . A u d ie n c e t a c t i s so g e n e r a l a th in g th a t we
may e x p e c t to find it e x e r c i s e d e v e n by in d iv i d u a ls , famous
for th e ir m is b e h a v io u r, who are p a t i e n t s in m ental h o sp ic a ls.
T h u s on e r e s e a r c h group r e p o r t s :
Ac a n o t h e r ti m e , th e s t a f f , w itho u t c o n s u l t i n g t h e p a t i e n t s , d e c i d e d
to g i v e them a V a l e n t i n e p arty . Many o f t h e p a t i e n t s d id n o t w i s h to
g o, but d id s o an y w ay a s th ey felc t h a t they sh o u l d n o t hurt the f e e l i n g s
o f che s t u d e n t n u r s e s who h a d o r g a n i z e d th e p arty . T h e g a m e s in tro d u c e d
by t h e n u r s e s w e r e on a very c h i l d i s h l e v e l ; many o f che pac iencs felt
s i l l y p l a y i n g them a n d w ere g l a d when the pa rty w as over a n d they
c o u l d go b ack to a c t i v i t i e s of t h e i r own c h o o s i n g . 1
We a l s o find that when perform ers make a s l i p of som e
kind, c l e a r l y e x h i b itin g a d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n the fo s te r e d
im p r e s s io n an d a d i s c l o s e d r e a lity , th e a u d i e n c e may ta c tfu lly
' n o t s e e ’ th e s lip or r e a d ily a c c e p t th e e x c u s e t h a t is o ffered
for it. F u r th e r , we find th a t a t m o m e n ts o f c r i s i s for the
perform ers, the w hole a u d i e n c e may com e in to t a c i t c o llu s io n
w ith th e p erfo rm ers in order to help them out. T h u s we le arn
t h a t in mental h o s p i t a l s w hen a p a t i e n t d i e s in s u c h a way a s
to r e f le c t upon th e im p re ssio n of u se fu l tre a tm e n t th a t th e
s ta f f is a t te m p tin g to m a in ta in , the oth e r p a t i e n t s , o rd in aiily
d i s p o s e d to give th e s t a f f tro u b le , will t a c tf u lly e a s e up their
w arfa re a n d w ith much d e l i c a c y help s u s t a i n th e q u ite fa l^ e
im p r e s s io n th a t they h av e not ab s o rb e d th e m eaning of what
h a s h a p p e n e d . 2 S im ilarly, at ti m e s of in s p e c t io n , w h eth e r in
s c h o o l, in b a r r a c k s , in the h o s p it a l, or a t home, th e a u d i e n c e
i s l ik e ly to b e h a v e i t s e l f in a model way so th a t th e perform ers
who a r e b eing i n s p e c t e d may put on an exe m pla ry show . At
'W i l l i a m C a u d i l l , F re d e r i c k C. Redlicli, H elen R. Gilm ore a n d Kugene B.
Bro d y , ‘S o c i a l S t ru c ru re and I n t e ra c ti o n P r o c e s s e s on a P s y c h i a t r i c
Ward,’ A m e r i c a n Jo u r n a l o f O r th o p s y c h i a t r y , XXII, 321-322.
2 S e e T a x e l , op. c i t . , p. 118. Vl'hen two t e a m s know an e m b a r r a s s i n g fact,
a n d e a c h t eam k n o w s the oth er t eam know s it, a n d y e t n c M i e r te a m open ly
a d m i t s i t s k n o w le d g e , we g e t an i n s t a n c e of w h at Robert b u b i n h a s c a l l e d
'o rg an izatio n al fictio n s.' S ee Dubin, op. c i t . , p p . 341-3^5-
148
s u c h tim e s , te am l i n e s a re a p t to s h i f t s l i g h t l y and m om entarily
s o th a t t h e i n s p e c t i n g s u p e r in t e n d e n t, g e n e r a l, d ir e c to r , or
g u e s t will be f a c e d by p erform ers a n d a u d i e n c e who a r e in
c o l lu s io n .
A lin a l i n s t a n c e of t a c t in h a n d lin g th e perform er may be
c i te d . When th e perform er i s known to be a b e g in n er, and
more s u b j e c t th a n o th e r w is e to e m b a r r a s s i n g m i s t a k e s , th e
a u d i e n c e , f re q u e n tly s h o w s e x tra c o n s i d e r a t i o n , re fra in in g
from c a u s i n g th e d i f f i c u l t i e s it m ight o t h e r w i s e c r e a t e .
I w ould l i k e to ad d a c o n c lu d in g f a c t a b o u t t a c t . Whenever
t h e a u d i e n c e e x e r c i s e s t a c t, th e p o s s i b i l i t y w ill a r i s e th a t
th e p e rfo rm e rs w ill le arn th a t th e y are b ein g ta c t f u l l y p r o te c te d .
When t h i s o c c u r s , t h e fu rth e r p o s s i b i l i t y a r i s e s th a t th e a u d i e n c e
w ill learn th a t th e perfo rm ers know they a re b ein g ta c tf u lly
p ro tec ted . And th en, in turn, it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e for the
perform ers to le a rn th a t the a u d i e n c e k now s th a t the perform ers
know t h e y are being p r o te c te d . Now w hen s u c h s t a t e s of
in fo rm a tio n e x i s t , a moment in th e p erfo rm an ce may com e
w h en th e s e p a r a t e n e s s of th e t e a m s w ill b reak down a n d be
m o m e n ta rily r e p l a c e d by a com munion of g l a n c e s through w hich
e a c h team o p e n ly a d m its to the o th e r i t s s t a t e of inform ation.
A t s u c h m o m e n ts th e w hole d r am a tu rg ica l s tr u c t u r e of s o c i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n i s s u d d e n ly an d p o ig n a n tly la id bare, an d th e lin e
s e p a r a t i n g th e t e a m s m om entarily d i s a p p e a r s . Whether t h i s
c l o s e v ie w of th in g s b rin g s sh a m e or la u g h te r , th e teams» are
l ik e ly to d raw r a p id l y b ack in to th e ir a p p o in te d c h a r a c t e r s .

Tact Regarding Tact

It h a s been a r g u e d th a t t h e a u d i e n c e c o n t r i b u t e s in a
s i g n i f i c a n t way to the m a in te n a n c e of a sh o w by e x e r c i s i n g
t a c t o r p r o t e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s on b e h a lf of th e perform ers. It i s
a p p a r e n t th a t i f th e a u d i e n c e i s to em ploy t a c t on th e perform er’s
b eh a lf, the p erfo rm er m u st a c t in s u c h a w ay a s to make the
re n d e rin g o f t h i s a s s i s t a n c e p o s s i b l e . T h i s w ill re q u ire
d i s c i p l i n e and c i r c u m s p e c t i o n , but of a s p e c i a l order. For
e x a m p le , it w a s s u g g e s t e d th a t ta c tf u l o u t s i d e r s in a p h y s ic a l
p o s it io n to o v e r h e a r a n i n te r a c t io n m ay o ffe r a s h o w o f
inatten tion . In o rd e r to a s s i s t in th is ta c tf u l w ith d ra w a l, th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s who feel i t i s p h y s i c a l l y p o s s i b l e for them to be
o v e rh e a rd may omit from th e ir c o n v e r s a ti o n and a c t i v i t y anythin g
t h a t would ta x t h i s ta c tf u l r e s o lv e of the o u t s i d e r s , and at
t h e s a m e tim e i n c lu d e e n o u g h s e m i- c o n f id e n t ia l f a c t s to sho w
t h a t th e y do not d i s t r u s t th e sh o w of w ith d raw a l p r e s e n te d by
th e outsid ers. S im ila rly, it a s e c r e t a r y i s to te ll a v is i to r
149
ta c tf u lly th a t th e man he w i s h e s to s e e i s out, it will be w ise
for the v i s i t o r to s te p bac k from th e in te r-o ffic e te l e p h o n e so
t h a t he c a n n o t h e a r w hat the s e c r e t a r y is being told by the
man who i s p re su m a b ly not th e re to te ll her.
I would l i k e to c o n c lu d e by m e n tio n in g tw o g e n e r a l
s t r a t e g i e s re g a rd in g t a c t with r e s p e c t to t a c t. F i r s t , th e
perform er m ust be s e n s i t i v e to h i n t s and rea dy to t a k e them,
for it i s through h i n t s that the a u d i e n c e c a n warn t h e perform er
t h a t h is show is u n a c c e p ta b le and th a t he had b e t te r modify
it q u ic kly if the s i t u a ti o n is to be s a v e d . S eco n d ly , if the
perform er i s to m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e f a c t s in a n y w ay, he m ust do
s o in a c c o r d a n c e with th e e t iq u e t te for m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; he
m ust not l e a v e h im s e lf in a p o sitio n from w hich e v e n the l a m e s t
e x c u s e and th e most c o - o p e ra tiv e a u d i e n c e c a n n o t e x t r i c a t e
him. In t e l l i n g an untruth, the perform er i s e n jo in e d to reta in
a sha dow of j e s t in h i s v o ic e so th a t, should he be caughc
out, he c a n d is a v o w an y claim to s e r i o u s n e s s and s a y th a t he
w as only joking. In m is r e p r e s e n t in g h is p h y s ic a l a p p e a r a n c e ,
th e performer is e n jo in e d to u s e a method w hich a l lo w s of an
in n o c e n t e x c u s e . T h u s b ald in g men who a f fe c t a h a t in d o o rs
an d out a re more or l e s s e x c u s e d , s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e that
th e y have a co ld , chat th e y , merely forgot to t a k e their h a t off,
o r th a t ra in c a n fall in u n e x p e c te d p l a c e s ; a to u p e e , however,
o f fe rs the w earer no e x c u s e an d th e a u d i e n c e no e x c u s e for
excuse. In fa c t th e re is a s e n s e in which the c a te g o ry of
im po stor, p re v io u s ly referre d co, c a n be d e fin e d a s a p erso n
who m a k e s it im p o s s ib le for h i s a u d i e n c e to be ta c tf u l abo u t
o b s e rv e d m is r e p r e s e n t a ti o n .

aranniD

In s p i t e of th e f a c t th a t perform ers and a u d i e n c e em ploy

a ll of t h e s e te c h n i q u e s of im p r e s s io n m anagem ent, and many
o t h e r s a s w ell, we know, of c o u r s e , th a t i n c i d e n t s do o c c u r
a n d that a u d i e n c e s are in a d v e r ta n t ly given g lim p s e s behind
t h e s c e n e s of a perfo rm ance. When s u c h a n in c id e n t o c c u rs,
t h e m em bers of an a u d ie n c e so m e tim e s le a rn a n im portant
l e s s o n , more im portant to them th a n the a g g r e s s i v e p le a s u r e
th e y c a n o b ta in by d i s c o v e r in g so m e o n e ’s dark. • P Q f'i^ red.
i n s i d e , or sc ra te g ic s e c r e t s . T h e members of the a u d i e n c e
may d is c o v e r a fun d am e n tal d em o crac y th a t is u s u a lly well
h idden. Whether th e c h a r a c t e r th a t i s being p r e s e n te d i s so b e r
o r c a r e f r e e , of high s ta tio n or low, th e in d iv id u a l who perform s
th e c h a r a c t e r will be s e e n for w hat he la rg e ly i s , a s o lita r y
p la y e r involved in a h arried c o n c e rn for h is p rod uction. Behind
150
many m a s k s and many c h a r a c t e r s , e a c h perform er te n d s to
w ea r a s i n g l e look, a n ak e d u n s o c ia liE e d look, a look o f co n ­
c e n tr a tio n , a look of one who i s p riv ately e n g a g e d in a d ifficult,
t r e a c h e r o u s ta s k . De B eau v o ir, in h e r book on women, p r o v id e s
an i l l u s t r a t i o n :
And in sp ic e o f a l l h e r p r u d e n c e , a c c i d e n t s will h a p p e n ; wine i s
sD ilied on h er d r e s s , a c i g a r e t t e b u r n s i t ; t h i s mar ks the d i s a p p e a r a n c e
of t h e l u x u r io u s a n d f e s t i v e c r e a t u r e who bore h e r s e l f w ith s m ilin g
o ride in t h e ballroom, fo t s h e no w a s s u m e s the s e r i o u s and s e v e r e
look o f th e h o u s e k e e p e r ; it b e c o m e s a l l a t o n ce e v i d e n t t h a t h e r t o i l e t t e
w a s n o t a s e t p i e c e l i k e f ire w o r k s, a t r a n s i e n t burst of s p l e n d o r, i n t e n d e d
for the l a v i s h illu m in a tio n of a m om ent. It i s r a t h e r a r i c h p o s s e s s i o n ,
c a p i t a l g o o d s , an i n v e s t m e n t ; i t h a s m e a n t s a c r i f i c e ; i t s l o s s i s a real
disaster S po ts, r e n t s , b o t c h e d d r e s s m a k i n g , bad h a i r d o s ar e c a t a ­
s t r o p h e s s t i l l more s e r i o u s t h a n a bur nt r o a s t o r a broken v a s e ; fo r n o t
o nlv d o e s th e wom an o f f a sh io n p r o j e c t h e r s e l f into t h i n g s , s h e h a s
c h o s e n to make h e r s e l f a t h in g , a n d s h e f e e l s d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n e d i n
rhe wor ld H er r e l a t i o n s with d r e s s m a k e r a n d m illin e r, her f id getin g,
h er s t r i c t d e m a n d s - a l l t h e s e m a n i f e s t h er s e r i o u s a t t . t u d e and h e r
s e n s e of i n s e c u r i t y . 1 _______________ __________________
i de B e auv o ir, op. c i l . , p. 536.

151
 CHAPTER Vil

CO N CLU SIO N

The Framework

A s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t i s any p l a c e s u rro u n d e d by fixed

b a r r i e r s to p e r c e p tio n in w hich a p a r ti c u la r kind of a c tiv i ty
r e g u la r l y t a k e s p l a c e . I h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t an y s o c i a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t may be s tu d i e d p ro fita b ly from th e point of
v ie w of im p r e s s io n m a n a g e m e n t. Within the w a l l s of a s o c i a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t we find a te am of p erform ers who c o - o p e r a te to
p r e s e n t to an a u d i e n c e a g iven defin itio n of the s i t u a t i o n .
T h i s will i n c lu d e th e c o n c e p t i o n of own te am an d of a u d i e n c e
a n d a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n in g the e t h o s th a t is to b e m a in ta in e d
by r u l e s of p o l i t e n e s s a n d decorum . We often find a d iv is io n
into b a c k reg ion, w here th e p erfo rm an ce o f a r o u tin e i s p rep a re d ,
an d front r eg io n , w here th e p erfo rm an ce is p r e s e n te d . We
find th a t a c c e s s to t h e s e r e g io n s i s c o n tro lle d in order to
p r e v e n t th e a u d i e n c e from s e e in g b a c k s t a g e and to p rev e n t
o u t s i d e r s from com ing into a p erfo rm an ce th a t i s not a d d r e s s e d
to them. Among m e m b ers of th e team w e find th a t fam iliarity
p r e v a ils , that s o li d a r i t y i s l i k e l y to d e v e lo p , an d th a t s e c r e t s
t h a t could g iv e th e s h o w aw a y a r e s h a re d and kep t. A ta c it
a g r e e m e n t i s m a in ta in e d b e t w e e n perfo rm ers an d a u d i e n c e to
a c t a s if a g iv e n d e g r e e of o p p o s i t i o n and of a c c o rd e x i s te d
b e t w e e n them . T y p ic a lly , but not a l w a y s , a g r e e m e n t i s s t r e s s e d
a n d o p p o s itio n i s u n d e r p la y e d . We find th a t th e r e s u lt in g
w o rk in g c o n s e n s u s te n d s to be c o n t r a d ic t e d by the a t t i t u d e
to w ard th e a u d i e n c e w hich t h e perfo rm ers e x p r e s s in th e
a b s e n c e o f th e a u d i e n c e aijd by c a r e f u lly c o n t ro l le d co m m u n ic a­
tio n out of c h a r a c t e r co n v e y e d by the perform ers while th e
audience is present. We find th a t d i s c r e p a n t r o le s d e v e lo p :
so m e of th e in d i v i d u a l s who a r e a p p a r e n tly te a m -m a te s , or
a u d i e n c e , o r o u t s i d e r s a c q u ir e inform ation abo u t th e p erfo rm an ce
a n d r e l a t i o n s to th e team w h ich are not a p p a r e n t and which
c o m p l i c a t e th e problem o f p u ttin g on a show. We find th a t
so m e tim e s d is r u p t i o n s o c c u r through u n m e ant g e s t u r e s , faux
p a s , and s c e n e s , t h u s d i s c r e d i t i n g o r c o n t r a d ic t in g t h e
d e f in itio n o f the s i t u a t i o n th a t i s b e in g m a in ta in e d . We find
th a t th e m ythology o f the te a m w ill dw ell upon t h e s e d is r u p t i v e
ev e n ts. We find th a t pe rfo rm e rs, a u d i e n c e , and o u t s i d e r s all
152
u ti l i z e te c h n i q u e s for s a v in g th e show, w hether by avoid ing
lik e ly d i s r u p tio n s or by c o r r e c tin g for u n a v o id e d o n e s , or by
m aking it p o s s i b l e for o th e r s to do so. T c e n s u re th a t t h e s e
te c h n i q u e s will be em ployed, we find that th e te a m will te n d
to s e l e c t m em bers who are lo y a l, d is c i p l i n e d , an d c irc u m s p e c t,
a n d to s e l e c t an a u d i e n c e th a t i s ta c tf u l. T h e s e f e a tu r e s and
e le m e n ts , th en, c o m p rise th e framework 1 c la im to be c h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c of much s o c i a l in te r a c t io n a s it o c c u r s in natu ra l s e t t i n g s
in our s o c ie t y .
T h is framework i s formal and a b s t r a c t in th e s e n s e th a t it
c a n be a p p lie d to any s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t ; it i s not, how ever,
m erely a s t a t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . T h e framework b e a r s upon
dynam ic i s s u e s c r e a t e d by th e m otivation to s u s t a i n a d e fin itio n
of th e s i t u a ti o n w hich h a s bee n p ro je c te d before o th e rs .

The Analytical Context

T h i s report h a s b e e n c h ie f ly c o n c e r n e d with s o c i a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a s r e la tiv e ly c l o s e d s y s t e m s . I t h a s been
a s s u m e d th a t th e r e la tio n of o n e e s ta b l is h m e n t to o t h e r s i s
i t s e l f a n in te l l i g i b l e a r e a of s tu d y a n d ought to be tr e a te d
a n a l y t i c a l l y a s part of a d iffe ren t o rder of f a c t —th e o rd e r of
i n s t itu ti o n a l in te g r a tio n . It might be well here to try to p la c e
th e p e r s p e c t i v e ta k e n in th is report in th e c o n t e x t of o th e r
p e r s p e c t i v e s w hich seem to be th e o n e s c u r r e n tly em ployed,
im p lic itly or e x p l ic i tly , in the stu d y of s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s
a s c l o s e d s y s t e m s . F o u r s u c h p e r s p e c t i v e s may be te n ta t iv e l y
s u g g e s te d .
An e s ta b l is h m e n t may be vie w e d ' t e c h n i c a l l y , ’ in te rm s
o f i t s e f f ic ie n c y and in e ff ic ie n c y a s an in te n tio n a lly o rg a n iz e d
sy s te m o f a c tiv i ty for the a c h ie v e m e n t o f p re-d efin ed o b j e c t i v e s .
An e s t a b l is h m e n t may be v iew ed ‘ p o l i t i c a l l y , ’ in te rm s o f the
a c t i o n s w hich e a c h p a r ti c ip a n t (or c l a s s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s ) ca n
dem and of other p a r t i c i p a n t s , the k in d s of d e p r iv a tio n s and
i n d u lg e n c e s which c a n be meted out in order to e n fo rce t h e s e
de m a n d s, and the k in d s of s o c i a l c o n t r o l s which guide t h i s
e x e r c i s e of command and u s e of s a n c ti o n s .
An e s t a b l i s h m e n t may be v ie w e d ' s t r u c t u r a l l y , ’ in te rm s
o f th e h o rizontal and v e r ti c a l s t a t u s d i v i s i o n s and the k in d s
o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w hich r e l a t e t h e s e s e v e r a l grou p in g s to
o n e an o th er. F i n a l l y , an e s t a b l i s h m e n t may b e v ie w e d
' c u l t u r a l l y , ’ in te rm s of the moral v a l u e s w hich in f lu e n c e
a c t i v i t y in the e s t a b l i s h m e n t —v a l u e s p e r ta in in g to f a s h io n s ,
c u s to m s , and m a tte rs of t a s t e , to p o l i t e n e s s and decorum , to
u ltim a te e n d s and n o rm ative r e s t r i c t i o n s on m e a n s, e tc . It i s
153
t' Se n o te d th a t all th e f a c t s t h a t ca n be d i s c o v e r e d a b o u t an
e ^ a b l i s h m e n t a re r e l e v a n t to e a c h of th e four p e r s p e c t i v e s
but th a t e a c h p e r s p e c t i v e g i v e s i t s own priority a n d o rd e r to
th e se facts.
It s e e m s to me tb a t t h e d r a m a tu r g ic a l ap p ro a c h may
c o n s t i t u t e a fifth p e r s p e c t i v e , to be a d d e d to the t e c h n ic a l ,
p o l it ic a l, s tr u c t u r a l, and c u l tu r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . 1 T h e dram a­
tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e , lik e e a c h o f th e o th e r four, c a n be
em p lo y ed a s the e n d -p o in t of a n a l y s i s , a s a final way of order­
in g f a c t s . T h i s would l e a d us to d e s c r i b e th e t e c h n i q u e s of
i m p r e s s io n m a n ag e m en t e m p lo y ed in a g iv e n e s t a b l i s h m e n t ,
t h e p r in c ip a l p r o b le m s o f i m p r e s s io n m a n ag e m en t in the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t , and the id e n t i t y and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f the
s e v e r a l perform ance t e a m s w hich o p e r a te in th e e s ta b l is h m e n t.
But, a s w ith the f a c t s u t i l i z e d in e a c h of th e o th e r p e r s p e c t i v e s ,
the f a c t s s p e c i f i c a l l y p e r t a i n i n g to im p r e s s io n m anagem ent
a l s o pla y a part in the m a tte r s t h a t a re a c o n c e r n in a l l the
o th e r p e r s p e c t i v e s . It may be u se fu l to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s b riefly.
T h e t e c h n i c a l and d r a m a tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t e r s e c t
m ost c l e a r ly , p e r h a p s , in re g a rd to s t a n d a r d s of work. Important
for both p e r s p e c t i v e s i s th e f a c t t h a t one s e t of in d iv i d u a ls
will be c o n c e rn e d w ith t e s t i n g th e u n a p p a r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and q u a l i t i e s of the w o rk - a c c o m p lis h m e n ts of a n o t h e r s e t of
in d iv i d u a ls , and th is o th e r s e t will be c o n c e r n e d with givin g
th e im p r e s s io n th a t th e ir work e m b o d ie s t h e s e h id den a t tr ib u te s .
T h e p o l i t i c a l and d r a m a tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t e r s e c t c l e a r ly
in reg a rd to th e c a p a c i t i e s of o n e in d iv id u a l to d ir e c t the
a c t i v i t y of an o th e r. F o r o n e th in g , if an in d iv id u a l is to d ir e c t
a n o th e r , or o th e r s , he w ill often find it u se fu l to k eep s t r a t e g i c
s e c r e t s from them. F u rth e r, if one in d iv id ual a t te m p ts to
d ire c t th e a c t i v i t y o f o th e r s by m e a n s of exa m ple , en lig h te n m e n t,
p e r s u a s i o n , e x c h a n g e , m a n ip u la tio n , au th o rity , th r e a t, p u n is h ­
ment, or c o e r c io n , it will be n e c e s s a r y , r e g a r d l e s s of h is
po w er p o s it io n , to c o n v e y e f f e c t i v e l y w hat he w an ts d one and
w hat he i s p rep ared to do to get it d one arid w hat he will do
if it i s not done. P o w e r of a n y kind must be c lo th ed in e f f e c tiv e
m e a n s of d is p l a y in g it, and it will hav e d iffe re n t e f f e c t s d e p e n d ­
in g upon how it is d r a m a tiz e d . (Of c o u r s e , the c a p a c i t y to
c o n v e y e f f e c tiv e ly a d e f in itio n of the s i t u a t i o n may be of
l i t t l e u se if one i s not in a p o s it io n to give exam ple, e x c h a n g e ,
p u n ish m e n t, e t c . ) T h u s th e most o b je c ti v e form of n ak e d
pow er, i . e . , p h y s ic a l c o e r c io n , i s o f te n n e i th e r o b je c tiv e nor
C o m p a r e the p o s i t i o n t a k e n by O s w a l d H all in regard to p o s s i b l e
p e r s p e c t i v e s for t h e s t u d y o f c l o s e d s y s t e m s in h i s ' M etho ds a nd
T e c h n i q u e s o f R e s e a r c h in Human R e l a t i o n s ' (A pril, 1952), r ep o rted in
E. C- H u g h e s e t a l., C a s e s on F i e l d Work, forthcoming.
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naked but ra th e r f u n c tio n s a s a d i s p l a y for p e r s u a d in g the
a u d i e n c e ; it i s often a m eans o f co m m unic ation, not merely a
m e a n s of ac tio n . T h e s tr u c tu ra l and d r a m a tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s
seem to i n t e r s e c t m o s t c le a rly in regard to s o c i a l d is t a n c e .
T h e im a g e th a t one s t a t u s grouping is a b l e to m aintain in the
e y e s of an a u d ie n c e of other s t a t u s g ro u p in g s will depend
upon th e p erfo rm e rs’ c a p a c i t y to r e s t r i c t co m m u n ic ativ e c o n tac t
with the a u d ie n c e . T h e cu ltu ral and d ra m a tu rg ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s
i n t e r s e c t most c l e a r ly in regard to th e m a in te n a n c e of moral
s ta n d a r d s . T h e c u ltu ra l v a l u e s of a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t will
determ in e in d e ta il how th e p a r t i c i p a n t s are to feel about
many m a tte rs and a t the s a m e tim e e s t a b l i s h a framework of
a p p e a r a n c e s th a t m ust be m a in ta in ed , w h eth e r or not there i s
fe e lin g behind th e a p p e a r a n c e s .

Personolity-lnteroction-Sociefy
In r e c e n t y e a r s there have been e l a b o r a t e a t te m p ts to
bring into one framework the c o n c e p t s an d fin d in g s derived
from t h r e e d iffe re n t a r e a s of in q u ir y : the in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity ,
s o c ia l in te r a c tio n , and s o c ie ty . I would like to s u g g e s t here
a sim ple a d dition to th e s e in te r - d is c ip li n a r y a tte m p ts .
When an in d iv id u a l a p p e a r s before o th e rs , he w ittingly
and unw ittin g ly p r o je c ts a d e fin itio n of the s it u a ti o n , of w hich
a c o n c e p tio n of h im s e lf is an im portant p art. When an e v e n t
o c c u r s which i s e x p r e s s i v e l y in c o m p a tib le w ith th is fo ste re d
im p r e s s io n , s ig n i f i c a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e s i m u lta n e o u s ly felt
in th r e e l e v e l s o f s o c i a l rea lity , e a c h o f w hich in v o lv e s a
d ifferent point o f referen c e and a d iffe re n t order of fact.
F ir s t, the s o c i a l in te r a c tio n , tr e a te d here a s a d ia lo g u e
betw e en two te am s, may com e to an e m b a r ra s s e d an d con fu se d
h a l t ; the s it u a ti o n may c e a s e to be d e fin e d , p r e v io u s p o s it io n s
may bec om e no lo n g e r te n a b le , and p a r t i c i p a n t s may find
t h e m s e l v e s w ithout a c h a r te d c o u r s e of a c tio n . T he p a r ti c ip a n ts
t y p ic a l ly s e n s e a f a l s e no te in th e s i t u a ti o n and com e to feel
aw kw ard, f lu ste re d , and, lite r a ll y , out of c o u n t e n a n c e . In
o th e r w ords, the m inute s o c ia l s y s t e m c r e a te d and s u s t a in e d
by orderly s o c i a l in te r a c t io n b e c o m e s d is o r g a n i z e d . These
a re th e c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t th e d isru p tio n h a s from the point
o f view of s o c i a l in te r a c tio n .
S econdly , in ad d itio n to t h e s e d is o r g a n i z in g c o n s e q u e n c e s
for a c tio n a t the moment, perfo rm an ce d is r u p tio n s may h a v e
c o n s e q u e n c e s of a more far-rea ch in g kind. A u d ie n c e s tend to
a c c e p t the s e l f projecced by the in d ividual performer during
any cu rren t perform ance a s a r e s p o n s i b le r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
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h is c o l le a g u e - g r o u p in g , of h i s te am , a n d of h i s s o c i a l
establish m ent. A u d ie n c e s a l s o a c c e p t th e in d iv i d u a l’s
p a r ti c u la r p erform ance a s e v i d e n c e of h is c a p a c i t y to perform
th e ro u tin e and eve n a s e v i d e n c e of h i s c a p a c ity to perform any
routine. In a s e n s e t h e s e la r g e r s o c i a l u n i t s —te a m s , e s t a b l i s h ­
m ents, e t c . —becom e c o m m itted e v e ry tim e th e in d iv id u a l
perform s h i s r o u tin e ; with e a c h p erform ance th e le g itim a c y of
th e s e u n i t s will te n d to be t e s t e d an ew an d th e ir p erm a nent
r e p u ta tio n put at s t a k e . T h i s kind of com m itm ent i s e s p e c i a l l y
s tr o n g d u rin g som e p erfo rm a n c e s. T h u s, w hen a s u r g e o n an d
h i s n u r s e both turn from th e o p e r a tin g ta b l e and th e a n e s t h e t i z e d
p a t i e n t a c c i d e n t a l l y r o lls off the ta b l e to h i s d e a th , not only
i s th e o p e r a tio n d is r u p te d in an e m b a r r a s s i n g way, but the
r e p u ta tio n of th e d o cto r, a s a d o cto r an d a s a man, and a l s o
t h e r e p u ta tio n o f the h o s p it a l may be w e a k e n e d . T h e s e are
th e c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t d i s r u p tio n s may have from th e point of
v iew of s o c i a l s tr u c t u re .
F in a ll y , we o f te n find th a t the in d iv id u a l may d ee p ly involve
h i s ego in h is i d e n tif ic a tio n w ith a p a r tic u la r role, e s t a b l i s h ­
ment, an d group and in h is s e lf - c o n c e p t io n a s so m e o n e who
d o e s not d is r u p t s o c i a l in te r a c t io n or le t down the s o c ia l
u n i t s w hich dep e n d upon th at in te r a c tio n . When a d isru p tio n
o c c u r s , then, we may find th a t the s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s around
w h ich he h a s b u ilt h is p e r s o n a lity may bec o m e d i s c r e d ite d .
T h e s e are c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t d is r u p t i o n s may h av e from the
po in t o f view o f in d iv id u al p e r s o n a lity .
P e r fo r m a n c e d is r u p tio n s , th e n , h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s at
t h r e e l e v e l s of a b s t r a c t i o n : p e r s o n a lity , in te r a c t io n , and s o c i a l
s tr u c t u r e . While th e lik e lih o o d of d is r u p tio n will vary w idely
from i n te r a c t io n to in te r a c t io n , a n d w h ile the s o c i a l im p o rta n ce
of l ik e ly d is r u p t i o n s w ill vary from in te r a c t io n to in te r a c tio n ,
s ti ll it s e e m s th a t th e re i s no in te r a c t io n in w hich th e p a r t i c i ­
p a n t s do not ta k e an a p p r e c i a b l e c h a n c e o f b e in g s li g h tly
e m b a r r a s s e d or a s li g h t c h a n c e o f being d e e p ly h u m ilia te d .
L if e may not be much of a g am b le, but in te r a c t io n is . F u rth e r,
in s o far a s in d iv i d u a ls make e ff o rts to a v o id d is r u p t i o n s or
to c o r r e c t for o n e s not a v o id e d , t h e s e e f f o rts , too, will have
s i m u lta n e o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s a t the th ree l e v e l s . H ere, then,
we h a v e o n e s im p le way o f a r t i c u l a t i n g t h r e e l e v e l s of
a b s tr a c t io n and th r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s from w hich s o c i a l life h a s
been s tu d ie d .

Comporisons and Study

In th is report, u s e h a s been made of i l l u s t r a t i o n s from

s o c i e t i e s o th e r th a n our A nglo-A m erican o n e . In doing th is I
1 56
did n o t m ean to imply that the framework p r e s e n t e d here i s
c u l tu r e - fr e e or a p p l ic a b le in th e s a m e a r e a s o f s o c i a l life in
non-W estern s o c i e t i e s a s in our own. We le a d an indoor s o c ia l
life . We s p e c i a l i z e in fixed s e t t i n g s , in k e e p in g s t r a n g e r s
o u t, and in givin g th e perform er some p r iv a c y in w h ich to
p r e p a re h im s e lf for the show . O nce we begin a perform ance,
we are in c lin e d to f in is h it, an d we a re s e n s i t i v e to jarring
n o t e s w hich may o c c u r during it. If we a r e c a u g h t out in a
m is r e p r e s e n t a ti o n we feel d e e p ly h u m iliated . G iven our general
dram a tu rg ica l r u le s a n d i n c l i n a t i o n s for c o n d u c tin g ac tio n ,
we must not overlo o k a r e a s of life in o th e r s o c i e t i e s in which
o t h e r r u l e s a r e a p p a r e n tly follow ed. R e p o rt s by Western
tr a v e l l e r s are fille d with i n s t a n c e s in w hich th e ir d ram a turgica l
s e n s e w a s offended or su r p ris e d , an d if w e are to g e n e r a liz e
to o th e r c u l t u r e s we m u st c o n s id e r t h e s e i n s t a n c e s a s well
a s more f a v o u r a b le o n e s . We m ust be r ea d y to s e e in C h in a
t h a t w h ile a c t i o n s a n d d e c o r may be w onderfully harm on io us
and c o h e r e n t in a p r iv a te tea-room , ex tre m e ly e l a b o r a te m e a ls
m ay be s e r v e d in ex tre m e ly plain r e s t a u r a n t s , and s h o p s that
look lik e h o v e ls s ta f f e d with surly, f am iliar c l e r k s may c o n ta in
within th e ir r e c e s s e s , w rapped in old brown pap e r, w onderfully
d e l i c a t e b o l t s of s i l k . 1 And am ong a p e o p l e s a i d to be careful
to s a v e e a c h o t h e r ’s f a c e , we m ust be p repared to read t h a t :
1‘o rtu n n ie ly the C h i n e s e do not b e l i e v e in the p r i v a c y of a home a s
w e do. T h ey do not mind h a v i n g th e w h o le d e t a i l s of t h e i r d a i l y e x p e r ­
i e n c e se e n by e v ery o n e t h a t c a r e s to look . How th ey liv e, w hat th ey
c a t , an d e ven the fam ily j a r s t h a t we try 10 h u sh up from the p u b lic are
t h i n g s th.it s e e m to be common p ro p erty , an d no t to b e lo n g e x c l u s i v e l y
to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r family who are m o st c o n c e r n e d . 2
And we m ust be p repared to s e e th a t in s o c i e t i e s with s e ttle d
in e q u a l i t a r i a n s t a t u s s y s t e m s and s tr o n g r e li g io u s o rie n ta tio n s ,
in d i v i d u a l s are so m e tim e s l e s s e a r n e s t ab o u t th e whole civic
drama th a n we are, and will c r o s s s o c i a l b a r r ie r s with brief
g e s t u r e s th a t give more r e c o g n itio n to th e man b ehind the
mask than we might find p e rm is s ib le .
F u rth e rm o re , we m ust be very c a u t i o u s in any effort to
c h a r a c t e r i z e our own s o c i e t y a s a whole with r e s p e c t to drama­
tu r g ic a l p r a c t i c e s . F or example, in c u r r e n t m anagem en t-labour
r e l a t i o n s , we know th a t a team may e n t e r jo in t c o n s u lta tio n
m e e ti n g s with th e o p p o s itio n with th e kn o w led g e th a t it may
b e n e c e s s a r y to g iv e th e a p p e a r a n c e o f s ta lk in g out of the
m e e tin g in a huff. D iplom atic t e a m s a r e s o m e tim es required
to s t a g e a s im ila r show . In o th e r w ords, while t e a m s m our
s o c ie t y are u s u a lly o b lig e d to s u p p r e s s th e ir r a g e b ehind a
w orking c o n s e n s u s , th e re are tim e s when te a m s are o b lig e d
1 Macflowan, np. c i t t> pp. 178-179»
3 //n</ , pp. 180-181.
157
to s u p p r e s s ev e n the a p p e a r a n c e of s o b e r o p p o s itio n behind
a d e m o n stra tio n of o u tr a g e d f e e l i n g s . S im ilarly, there are
o c c a s i o n s when i n d iv i d u a ls , w hether th e y w ish to or not, will
feel o b lig e d to d e s tro y an in te r a c t io n in o rd e r to s a v e th e ir
honour an d th e ir fac e. It would be more prudent, then, to
begin with s m a lle r u n its , with s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s or c l a s s e s
of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , or with p a r ti c u la r s t a t u s e s , . and docum en t
c o m p a r is o n s a n d c h a n g e s in a m o d e s t way by m e an s of th e
c a s e - h i s t o r y method. F o r e x a m p le , we hav e th e follow ing
k in d o f inform ation ab o u t the s h o w s that b u s in e s s m e n are
l e g a l l y a llo w e d to put o n :
T h e l a s t h alf-cc n tu ry h a s s e e n a m a r k e d c h a n g e in the a t t i t u d e o f
t h e c o u r t s tow ard t h e q u e s t io n o f j u s t i f i a b l e r e l i a n c e - E a rl i e r d e c i s i o n s ,
u nd er the i n f l u e n c e o f the p r e v a l e n t d o c t r i n e of ' c a v c a t em p tor,' laid
g r e a t s t r e s s up on t h e p l a i n t i f f ’s * d u t y ’ to p r o t e c t h i m s e l f and d i s t r u s t
h i s a n t a g o n i s t , and h eld t h a t he w as no t e n t i t l e d to rely e v e n upon
p o s i t i v e a s s e r t i o n s of f a d made by one with whom h e w a s d e a l i n g at
a r m ’s l e n g t h . It w a s a s s u m e d t h a t a n y o n e may be e x p e c t e d to o v er re ach
a n o t h e r in a b arg ain if he c a n , a n d t h a t only a fool will e x p e c t common
h o n e s t y . T h e r e f o r e the p l a i n t i f f m ust m ake a r e a s o n a b l y i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
a n d form h i s own ju dcm en t. T h e r e c o g n itio n of a n e w st a n d a r d of
b u s i n e s s e t h i c s , d e m a n d i n g t h a t s t a t e m e n t s o f fact be a t l e a s t h o n e s t ly
a n d c a r e f u l ly m ad e, an d in many c a s e s t h a t they be w arranted to be
tru e, h a s l e d to an a l m o s t c o m p l e t e sh i f t in t h i s p o i n t of view.
I t i s now h e l d t h a t a s s e r t i o n s of f a c t a s t o the q u a n tity or qu ality
o f land o r g o o d s s o l d , the f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n s , and
si m i l a r m a t t e r s i n d u c i n g com m ercial t r a n s a c t i o n s , may j u s t i f i a b l y be
r e l i e d o n w i t h o u t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , no t only w h ere s u c h i n v e s ti g a t i o n
would be b u rd en so m e and d i f fi c u l t , a s where land w hich i s so l d l i e s
a t a d i s t a n c e , but l i k e w i s e where t h e f a l s i t y of th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
might be d i s c o v e r e d with l i t t l e e ffo rt by m e a n s e a s i l y at hand. 1
And w hile f r a n k n e s s may be i n c r e a s i n g in b u s i n e s s r e la tio n s ,
w e h a v e som e e v i d e n c e th a t m a rria g e c o u n s e l l o r s a r e i n ­
c r e a s i n g l y a g r e e d th a t a n in d iv id u a l ought not to feel o b lig e d
to tell h is or her s p o u s e ab o u t p r e v io u s ' a f f a i r s , 1 a s th is
m ight o nly le a d to n e e d l e s s s tr a i n . O ther e x a m p le s may be
ciced. We know, for e x a m p le , th a t up to ab o u t 1830 p u b s in
B r ita in p r o v id ed a b a c k s t a g e s e t t i n g for workmen, l i t t l e
d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from th e ir own k itc h e n s , an d th a t a f te r th a t
d a t e th e gin p a l a c e su d d e n ly b u r s t upon th e s c e n e to provi le
much th e sa m e c l i e n t e l e with a f a n c i e r front region than chey
c o u l d dream of. 2 We have r e c o r d s of the s o c ia l h isto ry of
p a r ti c u la r A m erican tow ns, t e l l i n g u s of th e r e c e n t d e c lin e in
th e e l a b o r a t e n e s s of d o m e s tic and a v o c a t io n a l fro n ts o f the
lo c a l upper c l a s s e s . In c o n t r a s t, so m e m a teria l is a v a i l a b l e
w hich d e s c r i b e s the r e c e n t i n c r e a s e in e l a b o r a t e n e s s of the
s e t t i n g that union o r g a n i z a t i o n s e m p l o y , 3 and the in c r e a s i n g
1P ro sse r, op. c i t . t pp . 7 49 -7 5 0 .
2 M. Gorham a n d H. D u n n e tt, Inside th e P ub ( L o n d o n : T h e A rc h i t e c t u ra l
P r e s s , 1950), p p . 23-24.
3 See, for e x a m p le , H u n ter, op. c i l , , p. 19.
158
te n d e n c y to ' s t o c k ’ th e s e t t i n g with a c a d e m ic a ll y - tr a in e d
e x p e r t s who provide an a u ra o f th ought an d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . 1
We can tr a c e c h a n g e s in the p la n t la y o u t of s p e c i f i c in d u s tria l
and com m ercial o r g a n i z a t i o n s and sh o w an in c r e a s e in front,
both a s r e g a rd s th e e x te rio r of th e h e a d -o ffic e b u ild in g and
a s r e g a r d s th e c o n f e re n c e room s, main h a l l s , and w aiting
room s of t h e s e b u ild in g s. We can tr a c e in a p a r ti c u la r c r o f tin g
com munity how th e barn for a n i m a l s , o n c e b a c k s t a g e to th e
k itc h e n and a c c e s s i b l e by a sm all door n e x t th e s to v e , h a s
l a te l y b een rem oved a d i s t a n c e from th e h o u s e , an d how th e
h o u s e i t s e l f , on ce s e t down in a n u n p r o te c te d way in th e midst
o f garden, cro ft equ ipm en t, g a rb a g e , and g ra z in g s t o c k , i s
becom ing, in a s e n s e , p u b lic - r e la t io n s o rie n te d , with a front
yard fenc ed off and kept s o m e w h at c l e a n , p r e s e n tin g a d r e s s e d -
up s id e to the com m unity w hile d e b r i s i s s tre w n a t random in
t h e u n f e n c e d back r e g io n s . And a s t h e c o n n e c t e d b y re
d i s a p p e a r s , an d t h e s c u lle r y i t s e l f s t a r t s to becom e l e s s
fre q u e n t, we ca n o b s e r v e th e u p -g ra ding of d o m e s tic e s t a b l i s h ­
m e n ts, w herein the k itc h e n , w hich o n c e p o s s e s s e d i t s own
b a c k r e g io n s , i s now com ing to be th e l e a s t p r e s e n t a b l e region
o f th e h o u se w hile at th e s a m e tim e b ec o m in g more and more
presentable. We c a n a l s o tr a c e th a t p e c u lia r s o c i a l movement
w hich led som e f a c to r i e s , s h ip s , r e s t a u r a n t s , an d h o u s e h o ld s
to c l e a n up th e ir b a c k s t a g e s to su c h an e x t e n t th a t, l i k e monks,
C o m m u n ists , or G erman alderm en, th e ir g u a r d s a r e a l w a y s up
a n d th e re i s no p la c e where th e ir front i s down, w hile at the
s a m e tim e m em bers o f th e a u d i e n c e bec om e s u f f i c ie n tly
e n tra n c e d with th e s o c i e t y ’s id to explore th e p l a c e s th a t
had b e e n c l e a n e d up for them. P a i d a t t e n d a n c e a t symphony
o r c h e s t r a r e h e a r s a l s i s o nly o n e of th e l a t e s t e x a m p le s . We
c a n o b s e r v e what Mr H u g h e s c a l l s c o l l e c t i v e mobility, through
which th e o c c u p a n t s of a s t a t u s a tte m p t to a l t e r the bundle of
t a s k s perform ed by them so th a t no a c t will be req u ired which
i s e x p r e s s i v e l y i n c o n s i s t e n t with th e im age o f s e l f th a t t h e s e
in c u m b e n ts are attem p tin g to e s t a b l i s h for t h e m s e lv e s . And
we ca n o b s e r v e a p a r a lle l p r o c e s s , w hich might be c a lle d
' r o l e e n t e r p r i s e , ’ within a p a r ti c u la r s o c i a l e s ta b lis h m e n t,
w hereby a p a r ti c u la r member a t t e m p t s not so much to move
into a h ig h e r p o sitio n a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d a s to c r e a t e a new
p o s it io n for h im self, a p o s itio n invo lv in g d u t i e s .which s u ita b ly
e x p r e s s a t t r i b u t e s that a re c o n g e n ia l to him. We c a n exam ine
the p r o c e s s of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , w h ereby many perform ers com e
1S ee \Wlcnsky, op. c i t . 7 c h a p . ivt for a d i s c u s s i o n o f the 'w i n d o w - d r e s s i n g
fu nction o f s t a f f e x p e r t s . Fo r r e fe re n c e to t h e b u s i n e s s c o u n te r p a r t ol
t h i s movem ent s e e K ie s m a n , op. c i t . , pp. 138-139.
159
to m a k e b rief com m unal u s e of very e l a b o r a t e s o c i a l s e t t i n g s ,
b e in g c o n t e n t to s l e e p a l o n e in a c u b i c l e of no p r e te n s io n .
We c a n follow t h e d if fu s io n of c r u c ia l f r o n ts —s u c h a s th e
la b o ra to r y c o m p lex of g l a s s , s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , rubber g lo v e s ,
w h ite t il e , an d la b c o a t —which a llow a n i n c r e a s i n g number of
p e r s o n s c o n n e c t e d with u n se e m ly t a s k s a way o f s e l f ­
p u r ific a tio n . And, f in a lly , s t a r t i n g w ith th e te n d e n c y in highly
a u t h o r i t a r i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n s for o n e team to be required to
sp e n d i t s tim e in f u s in g a r ig o ro u s ly o rd ered c l e a n l i n e s s in
t h e s e t t i n g th e o th e r team w ill perform in, we can t r a c e , in
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s s u c h a s h o s p i t a l s , Air F o r c e b a s e s , and large
h o u s e h o ld s , a c u r r e n t d e c l i n e in th e h y p e r tr o p h ic s t r i c t n e s s
of s u c h s e t t i n g s .

The Role of Expression is conveying

Impressions of Self
P e r h a p s a moral n o te c a n be perm itted a t th e end. In
t h i s rep o rt the e x p r e s s i v e com p o n en t of s o c i a l life h a s been
t r e a t e d a s a s o u r c e of i m p r e s s i o n s given to or ta k e n by o th e rs.
I m p re s s io n , in turn, h a s bee n tr e a te d a s a s o u r c e of inform ation
ab o u t u n a p p a r e n t f a c t s and a s a m e a n s by w hich the r e c i p i e n t s
c a n gu id e th e ir r e s p o n s e to the inform ant w ithout h aving to
w ait for th e full c o n s e q u e n c e s of the in fo rm an t’s a c t i o n s to
be felt-. E x p r e s s i o n , th e n , h a s been tr e a t e d in te rm s o f the
c o m m u n ic a tiv e r o le it p la y s d u rin g s o c i a l in te r a c t io n and not,
fo r ex am ple, in te rm s of co n su m m a to ry or t e n s i o n - r e l e a s e
fu n c tio n i t might h a v e for the e x p r e s s e r . 1
U n d erly in g all s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n th e re s e e m s to b e a
fun d am e n tal d i a l e c t i c . When one in d iv id u a l e n t e r s the p r e s e n c e
o f o th e rs , he w ill w ant to d i s c o v e r th e f a c t s o f th e s it u a ti o n .
Were he to p o s s e s s t h i s inform ation, he c o u ld know, and make
a l l o w a n c e s for, w h a t w ill co m e to h a p p e n an-.l he c o u l i g iv e
t h e o t h e r s p r e s e n t a s much o f th e ir d u e a s i s c o n s i s t e n t with
h i s e n l ig h te n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t . T o u n co v e r fully the fa c tu a l
n a tu re of the s it u a t i o n , it would be n e c e s s a r y for the in d ividual
to know a ll th e r e l e v a n t s o c i a l d a t a ab o u t th e o th e rs . It would
a l s o be n e c e s s a r y for the in d iv id u a l to know th e a c tu a l outcom e
or end -p ro d u ct of th e a c t i v i t y of th e o th e r s d u rin g the in te r ­
a c tio n , a s well a s th e ir in n e rm o st f e e lin g s tow ard him. F u ll
in fo rm atio n o f t h i s o rd e r is rarely a v a i l a b l e ; in i t s a b s e n c e ,
th e in d iv id u a l t e n d s to employ s u b s t i t u t e s —c u e s , t e s t s , h in ts ,
J A r e c e n t t r e a tm e n t of t h i s kind may be found in T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , R o b e rt K.
B a l e s , a n d E d w ard A. S h i l s , Working P a p e r s in th e T h e o r y o f A c t io n
( G l e n c o e , 111.: T h e F r e e P r e s s , 1953). c h a p . i i , ' T h e T h e o ry o f S ymbo lism
in R e l a t i o n t o A c t i o n . ’
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ex p re ssiv e g estu res, s t a t u s s y m b o ls, e t c . —a s p r e d i c t i v e
devices. In s h o rt, s i n c e th e r e a l i t y th a t th e in d iv id u a l i s
c o n c e r n e d with i s u n p e r c e iv a b le a t t h e moment, a p p e a r a n c e s
m ust be r e li e d upon in i t s s t e a d . And, p a r a d o x ic a lly , th e
m ore th e in d iv id u a l i s c o n c e r n e d with th e r e a lity th a t i s not
a v a i l a b l e to p e r c e p tio n , th e more must h e co n c e n tra c e h is
a t te n t io n on a p p e a r a n c e s .
T h e in d iv id u a l t e n d s to t r e a t the o th e rs p r e s e n t on th e
b a s i s of th e im p r e s s io n they g iv e now a b o u t th e p a s t and the
fu tu re . It i s h ere th a t co m m u n ic a tiv e a c t s a r e t r a n s l a t e d into
moral o n e s . T h e i m p r e s s i o n s th a t th e o th e r s g ive te n d to be
tr e a te d a s c l a i m s and p r o m is e s th e y h a v e im p licitly made,
and c l a i m s and p r o m is e s te n d to h a v e a moral c h a r a c te r . In
h i s mind th e ind iv id u al s a y s : "I am u s in g t h e s e i m p r e s s io n s
o f you a s a way of c h e c k i n g up on you an d your a c tiv ity , an d
you ought not to l e a d me a s t r a y . ” T h e p e c u lia r th in g ab o u t
t h i s i s th a t th e in d iv id u a l te n d s to t a k e t h i s s ta n d eve n though
h e e x p e c t s th e o t h e r s to be u n c o n s c i o u s o f many of th e ir
e x p r e s s i v e b e h a v io u r s and e v e n though h e may e x p e c t to ex p lo it
th e o t h e r s on th e b a s i s of th e inform ation he g l e a n s a b o u t
them. S in c e th e s o u r c e s of im p re ssio n u s e d by the o b s e rv in g
in d iv id u a l in v o lv e a m u ltitu d e of s t a n d a r d s p e r ta in in g to p o lit e ­
n e s s an d decorum , p e r ta in in g both to s o c ia l in te r c o u r s e an d
ta s k -p e rfo rm a n c e , we c a n a p p r e c i a t e a f r e s h how d a i ly lif e i s
e n m e s h e d in moral l i n e s of d isc rim in a tio n .
L e t u s s h i f t now to t h e point o f v ie w o f the o th e rs. If
t h e y are to b e g e n tle m a n ly , and p la y t h e in d iv i d u a l’s gam e,
th e y w ill g iv e l i t t l e c o n s c i o u s heed to th e fa c t th a t im p r e s s i o n s
a r e b ein g formed a b o u t them but ra th e r a c t w ith o u t g u ile or
c o n t riv a n c e , e n a b lin g th e in d iv id u a l to r e c e i v e v a l id i m p r e s s ­
io n s a b o u t them and th e ir e ffo rts. And i f th e y h a p p e n to g iv e
thought to t h e f a c t th a t th ey a r e b e in g o b s e rv e d , they w ill no t
a llow t h i s to in f lu e n c e them unduly, c o n t e n t in the b e l ie f
th a t th e in d iv id u a l w ill o b ta in a c o r r e c t im p r e s s io n an d g ive
them th e ir du e b e c a u s e o f it. Should th e y be c o n c e rn e d w ith
in flu e n c in g th e tr e a tm e n t th a t the in d iv id u a l g iv e s them, and
th is is p roperly to be e x p e c t e d , th e n a g e n tlem an ly m e a n j
will be a v a i l a b l e to them. T h e y n e e d only g u id e th e ir a c tio n
in the p r e s e n t so t h a t i t s future c o n s e q u e n c e s w ill be th e
kind th a t would le a d a j u s t in d iv id u a l to t r e a t them now in a
way th e y want to be t r e a t e d ; on ce th is i s done, th e y h a v e
only to rely on the p e r c e p t i v e n e s s a n d j u s t n e s s of the in d ividu al
who o b s e r v e s them.
S o m etim es t h o s e who a re o b s e rv e d do, of c o u r s e , employ
t h e s e proper m e a n s of in f lu e n c in g the w ay in w hich th e o b s e rv e r
161
t r e a t s them . B u t th e re i s a n o t h e r way, a s h o r te r and more
e f f ic i e n t way, in w h ich th e o b s e r v e d c a n in f lu e n c e th e o b se rv e r.
I n s te a d of a l lo w in g an im p r e s s io n of th e ir a c tiv i ty to a r i s e a s
a n i n c id e n t a l by-product of th e ir a c tiv i ty , th e y ca n re o r ie n t
th e ir frame o f r e f e r e n c e an d d e v o t e th e ir e f f o r t s to th e c r e a tio n
o f d e s i r e d im p r e s s i o n s . I n s t e a d of a ttem p tin g to a c h i e v e
c e r ta in e n d s by a c c e p t a b l e m e a n s , th e y ca n a tte m p t to a c h i e v e
t h e im p r e s s io n th a t th e y a r e a c h i e v i n g c e r ta in e n d s by
a c c e p t a b l e m e a n s. It i s a l w a y s p o s s i b l e to m a n ip u la te th e
im p r e s s io n th e o b s e r v e r u s e s a s a s u b s t i t u t e for r e a l i t y b e c a u s e
a s ig n for th e p r e s e n c e of a th in g , not being th a t thing , ca n
be e m p lo y ed in th e a b s e n c e of it. T h e o b s e r v e r ’s n e e d to
r e ly on r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of th in g s i t s e l f c r e a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
of m is r e p r e s e n t a ti o n .
T h e r e are many s e t s o f p e r s o n s who feel they c o u ld not
s t a y in b u s i n e s s , w h a te v e r th e ir b u s i n e s s , if they lim ited
t h e m s e l v e s to t h e g e n tle m a n ly m e a n s o f i n f lu e n c in g t h e
in d iv id u a l who o b s e r v e s them. At som e point or oth e r in the
round of th e ir a c t i v i t y they feel it i s n e c e s s a r y to band to g e th e r
an d d ir e c tly m a n ip u la te the im p r e s s io n th a t th e y give. T he
o b s e r v e d b ec o m e a perform ing team and th e o b s e r v e r s becom e
th e a u d i e n c e . A c ti o n s w hich a p p e a r to be d o n e o n o b j e c t s
b ec o m e g e s t u r e s a d d r e s s e d to th e a u d i e n c e . T h e round of
a c t i v i t y b e c o m e s d r a m a tiz e d .
We com e now to th e b a s ic d i a l e c t i c . In th e ir c a p a c i t y a s
perform ers, i n d i v i d u a l s w ill be c o n c e r n e d with m ain ta in in g
th e im p r e s s io n t h a t th e y a re liv in g up to th e many s t a n d a r d s
by w hich th e y and th e ir p r o d u c t s are ju d g e d . B e c a u s e t h e s e
s t a n d a r d s are s o num erous an d s o p e r v a s iv e , the in d iv i d u a ls
who a re perfo rm ers dw ell more th a n w e might think in a moral
world. But, qua p erfo rm e rs, in d iv i d u a ls a re c o n c e r n e d noc
w ith th e moral i s s u e of r e a l i z i n g t h e s e s t a n d a r d s , but with
th e am oral i s s u e o f e n g i n e e r in g a c o n v in c in g im p r e s s io n th a t
t h e s e s t a n d a r d s a r e b e in g r e a l i z e d . Our a c tiv ity , then, i s
la r g e ly c o n c e r n e d w ith moral m a tte r s , but a s perform ers we
do n o t h a v e a moral c o n c e r n in t h e s e moral m a tte rs . As
p e rfo rm e rs we a r e m e r c h a n ts o f m orality . O u r d ay i s given
ov er to in tim a te c o n t a c t w ith th e good s w e d is p i a y an d our
m in d s are fille d w ith in tim a te u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of th e m ; but it
may well be th a t th e more a t te n t io n w e give to t h e s e g o o d s,
t h e more d i s t a n t we feel from them a n d from th o s e who are
b e l ie v i n g eno ugh to buy them. T o u s e a d iffe ren t imagery,
th e very o b lig a tio n a n d p r o fit a b li lity o f a p p e a r in g a l w a y s in
a s te a d y moral lig h t, of b ein g a s o c i a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r , f o r c e s
u s to be th e s o r t o f p e r s o n who is p r a c t i c e d in th e w ay s of
the s t a g e .
T H E KND