Chapter 13 (13.1-13.

5)
Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in
Space

Note: These lecture notes are prepared from Chapter 13 of Thomas’ Calculus just to help the students.
The study material is expected to be useful but not exhaustive. For detailed study, the students are
advised to attend the lecture/tutorial classes regularly, and consult the text book.

Appeal: Please do not print these lecture notes unless it is really necessary. Note that these are
regularly updated. So always follow the latest version.

Dr. Suresh Kumar, Associate Professor,

Department of Mathematics, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan-333031, INDIA.
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

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Contents

SECTION 13.1 (Curves in space and their tangents) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Vector-valued functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Limit of a vector-valued function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Differentiation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Derivatives and motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SECTION 13.2 (Integrals of vector functions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
SECTION 13.3 (Arc length in space) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Length of a smooth curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Arc length parameter from a fixed point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Unit tangent vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
SECTION 13.4 (Curvature and normal vectors of a curve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Curvature of a plane curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Principal unit normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Circle of curvature for plane curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
SECTION 13.5 (Tangential and normal components of acceleration) . . . . . . . . . 11
Torsion and the unit binormal vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Derivation of the tangential and normal components of acceleration . . . . . . . . . . 13
SECTION 13.6 (Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates) . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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SECTION 13.1 (Curves in space and their tangents)

Vector-valued functions

Let x = x(t), y = y(t) and z = z(t) are continuous functions for t ∈ I. Then the points (x, y, z) trace a
−−→ −
curve C in space. Let OP = →r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂. Then →
−
r (t) is the position vector of an arbitrary
point P (x(t), y(t), z(t)) on the curve C, and defines a vector-valued function of the real variable t.
Ex. x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0, t ∈ [0, 2π]
are the parametric equations of a circle with centre at origin and radius 1 in the XY-plane. The corre-
sponding vector-valued function is →
−
r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ.
Ex. →
−
r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + t k̂, where t is any real number.
The graph of this vector-valued function is a helix. (See Figure 1)
Ex. →
−r (t) = (x0 + lt) î + (y0 + mt) ĵ + (z0 + nt) k̂, where t is any real number.
Its graph is a straight line with dr’s l, m, n and passing through the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ).

Figure 1: Blue curve is the helix ~r(t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + t k̂

Limit of a vector-valued function

→
−
The limit of a vector-valued function →
−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂ is l = l1 î + l2 ĵ + l3 k̂ as t → t0 if
→
−
lim |→
−
r (t) − l | = 0. Further,
t→t0
     
lim →
−
r (t) = lim x(t) î + lim y(t) ĵ + lim z(t) k̂ = l1 î + l2 ĵ + l3 k̂.
t→t0 t→t0 t→t0 t→t0

√ √
Ex. lim (cos t î + sin t ĵ + t k̂) = cos(π/4) î + sin(π/4) ĵ + (π/4) k̂ = (1/ 2) î + (1/ 2) ĵ + (π/4) k̂.
t→π/4

3
Continuity

A vector-valued function →−r (t) = x(t)î+y(t)ĵ+z(t)k̂ is said to be continuous at t = t0 if lim →−

r (t) = →
−
r (t0 ),
t→t0
that is, lim x(t) = x(t ), lim y(t) = y(t ), lim z(t) = z(t ). Thus, →
0 0 0
−
r (t) is continuous at t if and only if
0
t→t0 t→t0 t→t0
its component functions are continuous at t0 .
Ex. The function →
−r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + t k̂ is continuous for all real values of t.
Ex. The function →−r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + [t] k̂ is not continuous at any integer value of t since the
greatest integer function [t] is not continuous for integer values of t.

Differentiability

The derivative of vector-valued function →

−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂ at t = t0 , denoted by →
−
r 0 (t0 ) or
 −
d→

r
dt , is defined as
t=t0

→
−
r (t0 + ∆t) − →
−
r (t0 )
→
−
r 0 (t0 ) = lim .
∆t→0 ∆t

Geometrically, it is tangent vector to the curve →

−
r (t) at the point (x(t0 ), y(t0 ), z(t0 )), provided →
−
r 0 (t0 ) is
a nonzero vector. Also, it is easy to deduce that

→
−
r 0 (t) = x0 (t)î + y 0 (t)ĵ + z 0 (t)k̂.

Thus, →
−r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂ is differentiable if and only if its components are differentiable.
Ex. If →
−r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + t k̂, then →
−
r 0 (t) = − sin t î + cos t ĵ + k̂.

Differentiation rules

Let →
−
u and →
−
v be differentiable vector functions of a real variable t; →
−c be a constant vector; h be a scalar

constant and f be any differentiable scalar function of t. Then we have

d − d d→
−u
(1) (→ c ) = 0, (h → −u) =h
dt dt dt
d → − df →
− d→
−u
(2) (f u ) = u +f (Scalar multiple rule)
dt dt → dt
d − → d−u d→
−v
(3) (→ u ±− v)= ± (Sum/Difference rule)
dt →
− dt dt
d − → du → d→
−v
(4) (→ u .−
v)= .−v +→−u. (Dot product rule)
dt dt →
− dt
d − → du d→
−v
(5) (→ u ×− v)= ×→−v +→ −u × (Cross product rule)
dt dt
→
− dt
d − d u df
(6) [→ u (f (t))] = (Chain rule)
dt df dt

4
Ex. Show that a vector function → −r (t) is of constant length if and only if it is orthogonal to its first
d→
−r
derivative, that is, |→
−
r (t)| is constant if and only if → −r. = 0.
dt
d − → d→
−r
Sol. We have → −r .→
−
r = |→−r |2 = a2 (say) iff (→ r .− r ) = 0 iff →
−
r. = 0. Indeed, the orthogonality of →
−
r (t)
→
− dt dt
dr
and makes sense when both these vectors are non-zero.
dt
√ d→
−r
For example, consider → −r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + k̂. Then |→−r (t)| = 2. Also, →−r. = 0.
dt

Derivatives and motion

Let P and Q be the positions of a moving particle along a curve C at times t and t + ∆t, respectively as
−−→ − −−→ − −−→
shown in Figure 2. Let OP = → r (t) and OQ = → r (t + ∆t) so that P Q = ∆→ −r =→ −r (t + ∆t) − →
−
r (t). So
displacement of the particle in time ∆t is ∆→−r . Therefore, velocity of the particle at the point P is given
by
→
−
r (t + ∆t) − →
−
r (t) d→
−r
→
−
v = lim = ,
∆t→0 ∆t dt

the derivative of →
−
r with respect to t.

Figure 2: As ∆ → 0, the point P tends to point Q along the curve C. In the limit, the vector P~Q/∆t becomes the tangent
vector ~r 0 (t) at P .

If →
−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂, then

→
− d→
−r dx dy dz
v = = î + ĵ + k̂.
dt dt dt dt
d−
→
The curve traced by →
−
r (t) is said to be smooth if r
dt is continuous and non-zero for all values of t in
d−
→r
the interval under consideration. Further, the non-zero vector dt is along the tangent to the curve at
d−
→r
P . Therefore, dt is defined as the vector tangent to the curve at P . Thus, a smooth curve has a unique
tangent at each of its points.

5
 It would be useful to memorize the following formulas related to motion.
d→
−r
(1) Velocity: →
−v =
dt
d→−r
(2) Speed: |→
−v|=
dt
→
− d→
−v d2 →
−
r
(3) Acceleration: a = =
dt dt2 →
−v
(4) Unit vector in the direction of motion: n̂ = → −
→ |v|
−v

→
− →
−
∴ v =|v| → →
−
= | v | n̂ =(Speed)(Direction)
|−v|
Ex. A person on a hang glider is spiralling upward due rapidly rising air on a path →
−
r (t) = 3 cos t î +
3 sin t ĵ + t2 k̂. Find the velocity vector, acceleration vector, glider’s speed at time t, and the times when
the glider’s acceleration is orthogonal to its velocity.
Sol. We find
→
−
v = −3 sin t î + 3 cos t ĵ + 2t k̂.
→
−
a = −3 cos t î − 3 sin t ĵ + 2 k̂.
√
Glider’s Speed= |→−v | = 9 + 4t2 .
When →
−
v is orthogonal to →
−
a , we have →
−
v .→
−
a = 0, which gives t = 0.

SECTION 13.2 (Integrals of vector functions)

Note: Projectile motion is excluded from this section.

→
−
A differentiable function R (t) is said to be an antiderivative of a vector function →
−r (t) on an interval
→
−
I if
dR
=→ − −c is any constant vector, then →
r (t) for all t ∈ I. If →
−
R (t) + →
−c is also an antiderivative of
dt
→
−r (t), which we define as indefinite integral of →
−r (t) on I and we write

→
−
Z
→
−
r (t)dt = R (t) + →
−c .

If the components of →−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂ are integrable over [a, b], then so is →
−
r (t) and the definite
integral of →
−
r (t) from a to b is Further,
Z b Z b  Z b  Z b 
→
−
r (t)dt = x(t)dt î + y(t)dt ĵ + z(t)dt k̂.
a a a a

For example,
Z π Z π  Z π  Z π 
(cos t î + ĵ − 2tk̂)dt = cos t dt î + dt ĵ + 2t dt k̂ = π ĵ − π 2 k̂.
0 0 0 0

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SECTION 13.3 (Arc length in space)

Length of a smooth curve

The length of a smooth curve →

−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂, a ≤ t ≤ b, that is traced exactly once at t
increases from a to b, is
s
Z b →
d−
Z b  2  2  2 Z b
dx dy dz r
L= + + dt = dt = |→
−
v | dt
a dt dt dt a dt a

Ex. A glider soaring upward along the helix →

−
r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + t k̂. How far does the glider travel
along its path from t = 0 to t = 2π.
Z 2π p √
Sol. L = (− sin t)2 + (cos t)2 + 12 dt = 2π 2.
0

Arc length parameter from a fixed point

The length from a fixed point P (t0 ) to any point Q(t) is given by
Z t
s(t) = |→
−
v (τ )| dτ.
t0

From this relation, we can obtain t in terms of the arc length s. So → −r (t) = →−r (t(s)).
Ex. Find the arc length parameter along the helix → −r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ + t k̂ from t0 = 0.
Z t Z tp √
Sol. s(t) = |→
−
v (τ )| dτ = (− sin τ )2 + (cos τ )2 + 12 dt = 2t.
0 0
Therefore t = √s ,
and the helix in terms of the arc length parameter s reads as
2
     
→
− s s s
r (s) = cos √ î + sin √ ĵ + √ k̂.
2 2 2
Z t
Rk. By fundamental theorem of calculus, the relation s(t) = |→
−
v (τ )| dτ gives
t0
ds
= |→
−
v (t)| ,
dt
which is the speed of the particle at time t. Notice that it is independent of t0 .

Unit tangent vector

d→
−r →
−
v
Since →
−v = is tangent to the curve →
−
r (t), so T̂ = → − is unit tangent vector to it.
dt |v|
d→−r d→
−r dt →
−
v
Also, = = → − = T̂ .
ds dt ds |v|
So the unit tangent vector to the smooth curve → −r (t) is
d→
−r →
−v
T̂ = = → − .
ds |v|
Ex. For counterclockwise motion around the circle → −
r (t) = cos t î+sin t ĵ, we find →
−
v (t) = − sin t î+cos t ĵ
and |→
−
v (t)| = 1. So unit tangent vector is T̂ = − sin t î + cos t ĵ.

7
SECTION 13.4 (Curvature and normal vectors of a curve)

Curvature of a plane curve

d→
−r
The curvature of a smooth curve → −r (t) is defined as the rate at which the unit tangent vector T̂ =
ds
turns per unit length along the curve. It is denoted by κ.

dT̂ dT̂ dt 1 dT̂

∴ κ= = = →− .
ds dt ds | v | dt

It is the mathematical measure of bending of curve.

Ex. Show that curvature of a straight line is 0.

Sol. For a straight line, T̂ always point in the same direction. So T̂ has constant components and
1 dT̂
consequently κ = |−
→ = 0, as expected, since a straight line has no bending at any point.
v | dt

Ex. Find the curvature of the circle →

−
r (t) = a cos t î + a sin t ĵ.
Sol. We have
→
− d→
−r
v = = −a sin t î + a cos t ĵ and |→
−v | = a.
dt
→
−
v dT̂
∴ T̂ = → − = − sin t î + cos t ĵ and = − cos t î − sin t ĵ.
|v| dt
1 dT̂ 1
Finally, κ = → = .
|−
v | dt a
We see that curvature of circle is constant, as expected, since circle has uniform bending at all the points.
It can be proved that

|→
−
r 0 (t) × → −
r 00 (t)|
κ= →
− , |→
−
r 0 (t)| =
6 0.
| r 0 (t)|3

It is a useful formula to find curvature.

Ex. Find the curvature of the helix →
−
r (t) = a cos t î + a sin t ĵ + bt k̂, a, b ≥ 0, a2 + b2 6= 0.
Sol. κ = a/(a2 + b2 ).
Ex. Find curvature of the plane curve y = f (x).
Sol. The curve y = f (x) in the vector form is

→
−
r (x) = x î + f (x) ĵ,

with the variable parameter x. So the curvature is given by

|→
−
r 0 (x) × → −
r 00 (x)| |(î + f 0 (x) ĵ) × (0î + f 00 (x) ĵ)| f 00 (x)
κ= →
− = = .
| r 0 (x)|3 |î + f 0 (x) ĵ|3 [1 + (f 0 (x))2 ]3/2

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 dT̂
Figure 3: The vector ds
is normal to the curve, and points in the direction of turning of T̂ .

Principal unit normal

Since T̂ has constant length (unity), we have T̂ . ddsT̂ = 0. So dT̂

ds is orthogonal to T̂ and points in the direction
dT̂
in which T̂ turns as we face in the direction of increasing arc length. At a point, where κ = ds 6= 0, we
define principal unit normal vector for a smooth curve as

1 dT̂
N̂ = .
κ ds
We can write
dT̂ dT̂ dt dT̂ →
−
v
ds dt ds dt
N̂ = = = , where T̂ = →− .
dT̂ dT̂ dt dT̂ |v|
ds dt ds dt

Note. There can be infinitely many normal vectors at a point of a 3D curve. But the principal unit
normal vector at a given point is unique, and points towards concave side of the curve since by definition
the principal unit vector has the direction of the vector T̂ (t + ∆t) − T̂ (t) in the limit ∆t → 0. Note that
T̂ (t + ∆t) − T̂ (t) (being addition of the vectors T̂ (t + ∆t) and −T̂ (t) by parallelogram law) points towards
concave side of the curve. So, in the limit ∆t → 0, the vector T̂ (t + ∆t) − T̂ (t) gives a unique normal
vector at the point t pointing towards concave side of the curve.
For example, in case of a 2D curve, if the unit tangent vector T̂ (t) makes an angle φ(t) with positive
x-axis, then it is given by

T̂ (t) = cos φ(t)î + sin φ(t)ĵ.

It implies that

T̂ 0 (t) = [− sin φ(t)î + cos φ(t)ĵ]φ0 (t) = [cos(π/2 + φ(t))î + sin(φ(t) + π/2)ĵ]φ0 (t) = N̂ φ0 (t).

If the curve concave towards left at t, then φ(t) increases with t, so φ0 (t) > 0. If the curve concave towards
right at t, then φ(t) decreases with t, so φ0 (t) < 0. Thus, in either case, the principal unit normal vector
points towards the concave side of the curve.

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Ex. Find T̂ and N̂ for →
−
r (t) = t î + t2 ĵ.
−
→ dT̂
Sol. T̂ = v
= √ 1 î + √ 2t ĵ, N̂ = dt
= √ −2t î + √ 1 ĵ
|−
→
v| 1+4t2 1+4t2 dT̂ 1+4t2 1+4t2
dt

Circle of curvature for plane curves

The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point P of a plane curve where κ 6= 0 is the circle in the
plane of the curve that
(i) has the same tangent line at P the curve has
(ii) has the same curvature the curve has at P
(iii) lies towards the concave or inner side of the curve.
The radius of curvature ρ of the curve at P is defined as the radius of the osculating circle at P . Then
centre of the osculating circle is defined as the centre of curvature of the curve at P .

Figure 4: Left: The osculating circle at P (x, y). Right: The osculating circle for the parabola y = x2 at the origin.

Ex. Find the osculating circle of the parabola y = x2 at the origin.

Sol. The parametric form of the given parabola is
→
−
r (t) = t î + t2 ĵ.
1 dT̂
The origin corresponds to t = 0. We find κ = → − = 2 at t = 0. So radius of curvature is
| v | dt
ρ = 1/κ = 1/2. It is easy to assess that the centre of the osculating circle is (0, 1/2) that lies on Y-axis.
So equation of the osculating circle is x2 + (y − 1/2)2 = 1/2.

10
SECTION 13.5 (Tangential and normal components of acceleration)

Torsion and the unit binormal vector

As we have seen T̂ points in the direction of motion, and N̂ points in the direction of turning of the path
of motion. The tendency of the motion to “twist” out of the plane created by T̂ and N̂ is the direction
perpendicular to this plane and is given by the vector B̂ = T̂ × N̂ , known as the binormal vector. The
moving right-handed vector frame formed by the vectors T̂ , N̂ and B̂, known as Frenet frame, playsan
important role in calculating the paths of particles moving through space.

Figure 5: Left: The TNB frame of mutually orthogonal unit vectors travelling along a curve in space. Right: The three
planes in TNB frame.

Since B̂ = T̂ × N̂ , so we have
dB̂ dT̂ dN̂ dN̂ dT̂
= × N̂ + T̂ × = T̂ × . (∵ and N̂ have same direction.)
ds ds ds ds ds
dB̂ dB̂
It implies that ds is orthogonal to T̂ . Also, B̂ is of constant length, so ds is orthogonal to B̂. Hence B̂
is orthogonal to T̂ and B̂ and therefore parallel to N̂ .

dB̂
∴ = −τ N̂ ,
ds
where minus sign is conventional. The scalar τ is called torsion along the curve. Also, we notice that

dB̂
.N̂ = −τ N̂ .N̂ = −τ.
ds
dB̂
∴ τ =− .N̂
ds

Since T̂ , N̂ and B̂ constitute a right-handed frame, there are three planes determined by T̂ , N̂ and
B̂. The plane of T̂ and N̂ is called osculating plane; the plane of N̂ and B̂ is called normal plane, and

11
 dT̂
the plane of B̂ and T̂ is called rectifying plane. The curvature κ = ds can be thought of as the rate at
which the normal plane turns as the point P moves along its path. Similarly, the torsion τ = − ddsB̂ .N̂ is
the rate of turning of osculating plane about T̂ as P moves along its path. Torsion measures the twist of
the curve.
If we think of the curve as the path of a moving body, then the curvature of the curve (object path)
dT̂
ds tells us how much the path turns to the left or right as the object moves along. The torsion − ddsB̂ .N̂
tells how much the body’s path rotates or twists out of its plane of motion as the body moves along.
Every moving body travels with a TNB frame that characterizes the geometry of its path of motion.
(See Figure 6)

Figure 6:

A useful formula for the torsion is

ẋ ẏ ż
ẍ ÿ z̈
... ... ...
x y z
τ= → , |→
−
r 0 (t) × →
−
r 00 (t)| =
6 0.
|−
r 0 (t) × →
−r 00 (t)|2

Here an over dot denotes the derivative with respect to t.

Ex. Find the torsion of the helix →

−
r (t) = a cos t î + a sin t ĵ + bt k̂, a, b ≥ 0, a2 + b2 6= 0.
Sol. τ = b/(a2 + b2 ).

12
Derivation of the tangential and normal components of acceleration
d→
−r d→
−r ds ds
We have →
−
v = = = T̂ .
dt ds dt dt

d→
−  2
→
− v d2 s ds dT̂ d2 s ds dT̂ ds d2 s ds
∴ a = = 2 T̂ + = 2 T̂ + = 2 T̂ + κ N̂ ,
dt dt dt dt dt dt ds dt dt dt
dT̂
where = κN̂ .
ds

d2 s d −
∴ Tangential component of → −
a = aT = 2 = (|→ v |).
 2 dt dt
ds
Normal component of → −
a = aN = κ = κ|→−v |2 .
dt
Obviously, →
−
a = aT T̂ + aN N̂ and |→
−
a |2 = |aT |2 + |aN |2 .

Figure 7: The tangential and normal components of acceleration.

Ex. Without solving T̂ and N̂ , find acceleration vector of the motion →

−
r (t) = (sin t − t cos t) î + (cos t +
t sin t) ĵ.
−
→ −
→
Sol. We have → −v = ddtr = t sin t î + t cos t ĵ and ddtv = (sin t + t cos t) î + (cos t − t sin t) ĵ.
∴ |→
−v | = t and aT = dtd →
(|−
v |) = 1.
−
→ √ q
Also, |→
−a | = d v = t2 + 1. So a = |→
dt N
−a |2 − a2 = t.T

SECTION 13.6 (Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates)

Consider a particle moving along a curve in the polar coordinate plane with position at P (r, θ) at time t.
We shall express its velocity, and acceleration in terms of the moving unit vectors

ûr = cos θî + sin θĵ, ûθ = − sin θî + cos θĵ

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 −−→
shown in Figure 8. The vector ûr points along the position vector OP so that →
−
r = rûr . The vector ûθ ,
orthogonal to ûr points in the direction of increasing θ. We find that

Figure 8:

dûr
= (− sin θî + cos θĵ)θ̇ = θ̇ûθ ,
dt
dûθ
= (− cos θî − sin θĵ)θ̇ = −θ̇ûr .
dt
Therefore velocity vector →−v can be expressed as

→
− d→
−r d(rûr ) dûr
v = = = ṙûr + r = ṙûr + rθ̇ûθ
dt dt dt
as shown in Figure 9. The acceleration vector →
−
a can be expressed as

Figure 9:

→
− d→
−v d dûr dûθ
a = = (ṙûr + rθ̇ûθ ) = r̈ûr + ṙ + ṙθ̇ûθ + rθ̈ûθ + rθ̇
dt dt dt dt
= r̈ûr + ṙθ̇ûθ + ṙθ̇ûθ + rθ̈ûθ + rθ̇(−θ̇ûr ) = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )ûr + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)ûr .

To extend these equations of motion to space, we add z k̂ to the right-hand side of the equation →
−
r = rûr .
Then, in these cylindrical coordinates, we have

→
−
r = rûr + z k̂,

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 →
−
v = ṙûr + rθ̇ûθ + ż k̂
→
−
a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )ûr + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)ûr + z̈ k̂.

The vectors ûr , ûθ and k̂ make a right-handed frame (see Figure 10) in which

ûr × ûθ = k̂, ûθ × k̂ = ûr , k̂ × ûr = ûθ .

Figure 10:

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SUMMARY
It would be helpful to focus on the following key points.

• →
−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂, a ≤ t ≤ b, is the vector equation of a curve in 3D space with the
starting point (x(a), y(a), z(a)) and end point (x(b), y(b), z(b)) as t varies from a to b in the interval
[a, b]. For example, →−
r (t) = cos tî + sin tĵ + tk̂, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π is the circular helix with the starting
point (1, 0, 0) and end point (1, 0, 2π).

d−
→ →
− →
−
• Geometrically r
dt is the tangent vector to the curve r (t). In case r (t) is the path of a moving
d−
→r →
− →
− d−
→v
particle, then dt is the velocity v of the particle, and a = dt is the acceleration of the particle.

• Length L of the curve →

−r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂, a ≤ t ≤ b, is given by
Z b →
d−
Z b
r
L= dt = |→
−
v (t)| dt.
a dt a

• The arc length s(t) of the curve →

−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂ from a fixed point (x(t0 ), y(t0 ), z(t0 ))
to any point (x(t), y(t), z(t)), is given by
Z t
s(t) = |→
−
v (t)| dt.
t0

It is called the arc length parameter. We notice that

ds d→
−r
= |→
−
v (t)| = .
dt dt

• The unit tangent vector T̂ to the curve →

−
r (t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂, is given by
d−
→ d−
→
r
dt
r
dt d→
−r
T̂ = = = .
d−
→r ds ds
dt dt

−
→ d−
→
• If →
−
r (t) is a vector of constant magnitude, then →
−
r . ddtr = 0. It implies that →
−
r and r
dt are perpen-
dicular to each other.

• The principal unit normal vector N̂ to the curve →

−
r (t) is given by
−
→
d T̂
dt
N̂ = −
→ .
d T̂
dt

• The binormal vector B̂ is given by

B̂ = T̂ × N̂ .

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Figure 11: Left: The TNB frame of mutually orthogonal unit vectors travelling along a curve in space. Right: The three
planes in TNB frame.

• The three unit vectors T̂ , N̂ and B̂ constitute a right-handed frame, and there are three planes
determined by T̂ , N̂ and B̂. The plane of T̂ and N̂ is called osculating plane; the plane of N̂ and
B̂ is called normal plane, and the plane of B̂ and T̂ is called rectifying plane.

• The deviation of the path →

−
r (t) (from the tangent line) in the osculating plane is quantified by the
parameter, called curvature, given by

dT̂ |→
−
r 0 (t) × → −
r 00 (t)|
κ= = , |→
−
r 0 (t)| =
6 0.
ds |→
−r 0 (t)|3

It measures the bending of the curve →

−
r (t).

• The deviation of the path →

−
r (t) from the osculating plane (twist in the path) is quantified by a
parameter, called torsion, given by

ẋ ẏ ż
ẍ ÿ z̈
... ... ...
dB̂ x y z
τ =− .N̂ = → , |→
−
r 0 (t) × →
−
r 00 (t)| =
6 0.
ds |−
r 0 (t) × →
−r 00 (t)|2

Here an over dot denotes the derivative with respect to t. Note that for any plane curve, B̂ does
not change with respect to the arc length s. So τ is 0 for the plane curve.

• In the motion of a particle along the space curve →

−
r (t), the tangent vector T̂ points in the direction
of motion; the normal vector N̂ points in the direction of the turning of the path in the osculating
plane; the binormal vector B̂ points in the direction of the twist of the path from the osculating

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 plane; the curvature κ quantifies the deviation of the path from the tangent line in the osculating
plane, and the torsion τ quantifies deviation of the path from the the osculating plane or twist in
the path.

• Every moving body travels with a TNB frame that characterizes the geometry of its path of motion.

Figure 12:

• The velocity and acceleration with tangential and normal components are given by

→
− ds
v = T̂ + 0.N̂ ,
dt
 2
→
− d2 s ds
a = 2 T̂ + κ N̂ .
dt dt

• The velocity and acceleration with radial and transverse components are given by

→
−
v = ṙûr + rθ̇ûθ ,

→
−
a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )ûr + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)ûr .

• A curve →
−r (t) is smooth curve if there exists a unique tangent at its every point. Mathematically
speaking, the curve →
−r (t) is smooth if →
−
r 0 (t) is non-zero and continuous at every point. For example,
the unit circle described by →
−
r (t) = cos t î + sin t ĵ, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, is a smooth curve.

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