Course name - Research, research ethics and rural development programmes

Course code -BHS 502

MEANING OF RESEARCH

1. Research is a derivative of the French word; „Researche‟ means quest, search, pursuit and search for
truth. 2. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. 3. It is a careful investigation or
inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. 4. It is systematized effort to
gain new knowledge. 5. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. 6. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of
Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art.” 7. Research is, an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement. It is the detection of truth with the help of study, observation,
comparison and experiment. 8. Research is the systematic approach concerning generalisation and the
formulation of a theory. 9. The research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalisations for some theoretical formulation. 10. Research means mission, search, hunt, and
exploration for truth. The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions or problems through
the application of scientific procedures. 11. Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomenon. 12. Research is a careful, critical and disciplined enquiry, varying in technique and
method. 13. According to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, research is directed
towards clarification or/and resolution of the problem. The purpose of research is to discover answers
to questions or problems through the application of scientific procedures.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings: 1. To gain familiarity with a
phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulative research studies); 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies); 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); 4. To test a
hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible
motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: 1. Desire to get a research
degree along with its consequential benefits; 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of
doing some creative work; 4. Desire to be of service to society; 5. Desire to get respectability. 6.
Curiosity about unknown 7. Desire to understand the cause and effect of wide spread social problems 8.
Appearance of novel and unanticipated situations 9. Desire to discover new and test old scientific
procedure as an efficient way to gain useful and fundamental knowledge. However, this is not an
exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many more factors such as
directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand
causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times
compel) people to perform research operations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH THE BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items
as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also
include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The
methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlation methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to
use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.

2. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to
basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge‟s sake is
termed „pure‟ or „basic‟ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete
social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether
certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research
are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research,
on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour
(i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of „Motivation Research‟, an important
type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word
association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to
behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated,
however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while
doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On
the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard
for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a
research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first
provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get
enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he
thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter‟s control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is
appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support
possible for a given hypothesis.
 5. Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above
stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case
the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory
research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study
methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into
the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data
gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of
exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events
or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion
oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is
prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision
maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own
inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific
method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations
under their control.

RESEARCH APPROACHES

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.

1. The quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further
subclassified into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research.  The inferential
approach’s purpose is to research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has
the same characteristics.  Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables.  Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour
of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term „simulation‟ in the context of
business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents
the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous
variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.”5 Simulation
approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future conditions.

2. Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher‟s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length in chapters that
follow.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and
inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of research
can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research inculcates
scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organisation. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational problems.
Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for government and
business. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government‟s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and
on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable
revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative
policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives. Decision-making may
not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of the policy maker.
Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the country‟s existence and
most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of cultivators, the
problems of big and small business and industry, working conditions, trade union activities, the
problems of distribution, even the size and nature of defense services are matters requiring research.
Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation‟s resources. Another area
in government, where research is necessary, is collecting information on the economic and social
structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes
are taking place. Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a
variety of research problems. These days nearly all governments maintain large staff of research
technicians or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic structure
through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of
the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments. Research
has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and
industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are considered
crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions. Market research is
the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose of formulating efficient
policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the application of
mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost
minimization or of profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization problems.Motivational
research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics.
In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market)
behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for taking
business decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business.
Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its
supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become an integral tool
of business policy these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss
account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in turn depend on business research. Once sales
forecasting is done, efficient production and investment programmes can be set up around which are
grouped the purchasing and financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by
more logical and scientific decisions. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction
of knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social
scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.
Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for
what it can contribute to practical concerns. “This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in
the case of social science. On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of
principles that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for
practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations. In addition to what has been
stated above, the significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master‟s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social structure; (b) To professionals in research methodology,
research may mean a source of livelihood; (c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the
outlet for new ideas and insights; (d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development
of new styles and creative work; (e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations
of new theories. Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social
problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in
one‟s field in a better way.

RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and research
methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers
*At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods. Research
techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as
making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods
refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique. For
instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data collection can better be understood
from the details given in the following chart use in performing research operations. In other words, all
those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are
termed as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive
at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be
related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put
into the following three groups: 1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned
with the collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not
sufficient to arrive at the required solution; 2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques
which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns; 3. The third group
consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained. Research
methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of
research. Type Methods Techniques 1 Library research i. Analysis of Historical records Recording of
notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film listening and analysis ii. Analysis of documents Statistical
compilations and manipulations, reference and abstract guides, contents analysis. 2 Field Research i.
Non-participant direct observation Observational behavioural scales, use of score cards, etc ii.
Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders, photo graphic techniques
iii. Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using independent observers in public places.
iv. Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of respondents. v. Opinionnaire
Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of socio-metric scales. vi. Personal interview
Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and closed questions. vii Focused interview Interviewer
focuses attention upon a given experience and its effects. viii Group interview Small groups of
respondents are interviewed simultaneously. ix. Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for
information and for discerning opinion; may also be used as a follow up of questionnaire. x. Case study
and life history Cross sectional collection of data for intensive analysis, longitudinal collection of data of
intensive character. 3 Laboratory Research Small group study of random behaviour play and role
analysis Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of observers, etc From what has been stated above,
we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods that generate techniques. However, in
practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and when we talk of research methods we do, by
implication, include research techniques within their compass. Research methodology is a way to
systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research
is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in
studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to
know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need
to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or
the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to
know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they
mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various
techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and
procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is necessary
for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to
problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his
decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects particular size, number and location
of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in
research the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented.
He has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that
they can be evaluated by others also. From what has been stated above, we can say that research
methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when
we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a
particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been
undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been
formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why
particular technique of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually
answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or study