CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified according to the following factors:

1. Physical size & processing power.
2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE

Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size
as:
 Supercomputers.
 Mainframe computers.
 Minicomputers.
 Microcomputers.
 Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful
computers available.
They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a
fraction of a second.
Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split among the
processors for faster execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single
central processor.
Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems.
Sometimes, the whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to
provide cooling.
Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special
environmental conditions (i.e., in a special room).
They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by over
500 users at the same time.
Areas where supercomputers are used
Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve
many calculations & require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications
that use supercomputers include;
 Weather forecasting.
 Petroleum research.
 Defence and weapon analysis.
 Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a
very short time.
Examples of Supercomputers:
 CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

Mainframe computers
Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.
They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.
Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage. They also have a large
backing storage capacity.
Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly. -13-
They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between 5–
300 terminals).
They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users
at a time.
Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.
Areas where mainframe computers are used
Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations
and companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;
 In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.
 In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
 By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.
Examples of Mainframes:
 IBM 4381.
 ICL 39 Series.
 CDC Cyber series.

Minicomputers
A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the same
peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.
A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a
time. Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that the
users connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).
Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.
Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers.
They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes.
Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Areas where minicomputers are used

Minicomputers are used mainly in:
 Scientific laboratories & research institutions.
 Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
 Space industry.
 Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
 Smaller organizations as Network Servers.
Example of Minicomputer:
 PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

Microcomputers
Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small offices.
They are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used by one
person at a time.
They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices
(usually 1 or 2).
The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip
containing the Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).
Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their design is
based on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical
components into an IC.
They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that of
minicomputers.
Areas where microcomputers are used
Microcomputers are commonly used in:
 Training and learning institutions such as schools.
 Small business enterprises, and
 Communication centres as terminals.
Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:
1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.
2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.
Examples:
 IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks

A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on
his/her lap. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.
- Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a
briefcase; still leaving room for other items.
- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.
- Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).
- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.
- Have limited storage capacities.
Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop
computers because of the following reasons:
1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power since a
laptop can operate on rechargeable batteries).

Palmtops
Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being used.
- Have limited storage capacities.
- Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for
calculations, Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.
Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

Desktop computer
This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in
an office environment.
- They are not portable.
 Examples of desktop computers:
1) Home computer
This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use. It has
programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling family finances.
2) Personal computer (PC)
This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in
the home mainly for business purposes.
- A PC can support only 1 user at a time.
- PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting,
Word processing, Telecommunications, etc.
- A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the
user access the facilities offered by the larger machines.
3) Workstation
A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to
a network.
A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is
more advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:
i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit
microprocessors, while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.
ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other computers,
i.e., it is fully connected to a computer network as any other computer on the
network in its own right.
iii). It has high resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple applications at
the same time.

An Embedded computer
This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly. E.g.,
there are embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras & Video
recorders.

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:
 General-purpose.
 Special purpose
 Dedicated computers.

General-purpose computers
General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use
specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.
Example;
A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process the
Payroll, simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play games, among
others.
The programs used in a general-purpose computer are exchangeable. This means that, to
perform a particular task, the appropriate set of instructions required to perform that
particular task are loaded into the computer memory.
 E.g., if you want to play a game, the appropriate program is loaded into the computer’s
memory & the computer is instructed to execute the instructions which make up the game.
Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers &
Laptops used in most offices & schools.

Special-purpose computer
A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task only.
Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to do.
Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed (hard-wired)
at the time of manufacture.
For example;
In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the
communication of information between the various workstations and the host
computer.
A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly
& very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:
 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.
 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in Digital watches.
 Computers used in Petrol pumps.
 Computers used in Washing machines.
 An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
 A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office
documents, letters, etc.

Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer

 It is electronic.
 Has a screen.
 It has a Keypad.
 Has a Memory.
 It is programmable.

Dedicated computer
A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some processing
task; though capable of performing a variety of tasks in different application environments.
E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.

C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONALITY

Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data. Computers can be
classified according to the type of data they can process as either.
 Digital computers.
 Analogue computers, or
 Hybrid computers.

Digital computers
This is the most commonly used type of computers.
A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process both
numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A,B,C….

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 Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore, any
data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form.
Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.
Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in
different areas for data processing.
Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.
Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the facilities
provided are generalized.
Examples:
 A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.
 Digital watches.
 Calculators.
 Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.

Analogue computers
An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.
They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs in
physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed, currents, pressure,
length, temperature, humidity, etc.
An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a single task.
For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
- Scientific or engineering experiments,
- Military weapons,
- Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace temperatures
and pressures.
- Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud speed,
temperature, etc.
The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a plotting pen
or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.
Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give information
about another physical characteristic, such as weight.
Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a single task.
They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.

Hybrid computers
Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They
combine both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.
Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital computer
& analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable interfacing
circuitry.
Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Example;
In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the
functioning of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements
may then be converted into numbers and send to a digital device, which may send an
immediate signal to the nurses’ station if any abnormal readings are detected.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are
used for data processing functions. Some of the advantages are:
1) Computers process data faster:
 The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like typewriters &
calculators is far much higher.
2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:
Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data
are entered. They also have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.
3) Computers are more efficient:
A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or
other machines.
4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.
6) Computers occupy very little office space.
7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) Computers are flexible:
A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
9) Computers are cheap:
They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which
are meant for individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.
10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information:
Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).
13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:
14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical plants,
where human life is threatened:

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.
2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to
operate a computer.
4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes it
difficult to control the contents of the computer’s master file.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or
machine breakdown.
7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own, but
can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.
9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers could
be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.
 In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related
facilities to become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are
now being used to perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.
11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer
criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring
them out of their company accounts illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in
running the companies.

AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:
1. Supermarkets.
- Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them
manage their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what is
out of stock. The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are
running out of stock and need to be reordered.
- For calculating customer’s change.
- For production of receipts.
- It can be used as a barcode reader.

2. Industries
The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:
 To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled devices
called Robots. A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks
that are unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.
 For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.
 By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new products
& services. They also help industries form new relationships with suppliers and therefore,
enable the producers maintain a competitive edge against their competitors.
 For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.

3. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:
 To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit &
withdrawal services.
 For processing of Cheques.
 For preparation of Payrolls.
 For better record keeping and processing of documents.
 To provide electronic money transfer facilities.

4. Process control
Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical &
mechanical processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs & each
computer is designed to do a specific job.
5. Hospitals
Computers are used in hospitals:
 To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.
 For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening
& monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians
to properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.
 In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.
 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).
 To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour,
thus reducing the transportation of patients & professionals.

6. Offices
 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.
 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.

7. Government Institutions
Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:
 To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would
make information recovery extremely difficult.
 To produce bills & statements.
8. Education
Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching using
computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching
(CAT).
 Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e.
to help in teaching various subjects.
E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a
special program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called Simulation.
 To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the
Open University Concept.
 To analyze academic data.
 Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to monitor
the control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically change the
environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.

9. Research
Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
 Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.
 Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
 Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.
 They are used to study the movement of stars.
 They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to launch space
vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around them.
10. Communication industry
The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and
reception of messages very fast and efficient.
 They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
 For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to
a computer network.

11. Transport industry

Computers are used in:
 Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets &
communication.
 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar
equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.
12. Police (Law enforcement agencies)
 Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep databases
on fingerprints and also analysed them.
 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis,
which help them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.
The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other
identification details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.

13. Defence
 Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting
and tracking of targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
 Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets,
Bombers, etc.
14. Multimedia applications
 Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide
shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe
the product.
 Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.
 In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound &
digital video clips, which make games more realistic.
 In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types
of subjects.
15. Domestic and Entertainment systems
Computers are used at homes:
 For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
 For storing personal information.
 For calculating and keeping home budgets.
  For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as their
prices. They also provide electronic money transfer facilities.
 In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.

16. Library services

Computers can be used in a library:
- To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other
library materials.
- To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
17. Employment
The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many people.

STARTING-UP (BOOTING) A COMPUTER

1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly connected,
and that the computer is connected to an active power source.
2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected to a
constant voltage Stabilizer or an uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on after
switching the main supply.
3. Turn on the switches on the System unit and the Monitor. Switch on the power button on the
Monitor first, then followed by that of the System unit.
After the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process called Booting.
Booting is a term used to describe the starting up of a computer. It is the entire process that
makes the computer ready for use.

Types of Booting
There are 2 types of booting, namely;
a). Cold booting
b). Warm booting
Cold booting
This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the
power button on the system unit.

Warm booting
This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the Restart
button on the System unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard (Ctrl+Alt+Del).
In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box to
perform a warm boot.
When Power is switched on, the computer starts by checking all its components to determine
whether they are available for use and whether they are functioning correctly. It does this by
executing a small program called the Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is permanently stored
in ROM.
POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests
when booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is
operating correctly; check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive controller
& the Keyboard.
During this process, some monitors display information showing the status of each device being
tested. If a problem is found, e.g., in case one of the devices is faulty or missing, the process will
halt and display an appropriate error message on the screen indicating to the user where the
problem is located. Sometimes, an error code is displayed with the message, or an abnormal
number of beeps are sounded.
The special program that directs the POST process is called the Basic Input Output
System (BIOS).
Shutting down a computer
After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure of shutting
down the computer in order to ensure that loss of data, damage of programs and computer
components does not occur.
1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be currently
running.
2. Remove any floppy disk you might have inserted in the computer.
3. Follow the proper shut-down procedure required before switching off the computer.

For example;
To turn off any computer running Windows operating systems:
a). Click the Start button on the screen, then select Shut Down from the list.
b). In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then press the Enter key on the
keyboard.
c). After a few seconds, the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer” appears on
the screen. Switch off the System unit, then the Monitor.
Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case, press the
button on the Monitor to turn off the screen.
4. Press the button on the monitor to turn off the screen.
5. Switch off your Printer and any other output devices.

KEYBOARD
The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions is typed into the
computer memory.
It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.

Types of Keyboard
1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.
2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.

KEYBOARD LAYOUT
The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the
usual range of alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other symbols frequently used to
represent data items. However, it has some command keys for giving special instructions to the
computer.

Data & programs are input into the computer by pressing the appropriate keys. When you type
data into the Keyboard devices, it converts it into machine-sensible forms.
SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD
Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups: -

(a). Function/ Command keys

These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to F12. They are
used to issue commands into the computer.
Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various application
packages, e.g., F1 is used in most applications for help.
Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary
with different programs, and are therefore sometimes called Programmable Keys.

(b). Alphanumeric keys

This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys are mostly used for
typing of text.
It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital letters, and
Number keys arranged in their natural order from 0 – 9. Along with these keys are
Punctuation marks (comma, full-stop, etc) and some Symbols.
At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used to separate
words or sentences from each other (or to create a blank space after typing each word).

(c). Numeric Keypad keys

It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard. It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9 marked
on them in rows from the bottom upwards.
The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys. They include: the
multiplication sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition sign (+), division sign (/) & the
decimal point (.).
The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.
Note. The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is
turned on.
(d). Directional (or Cursor positioning) keys
They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application.
They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow Keys.
 Arrow keys:
To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing document, press the
Right arrow key; to move the cursor one character to the left, press the Left arrow key.
To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the cursor one
line down, press the Down arrow key.
 Page Up & Page Down:
To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages, press the Page
Up key; to move the cursor down one page, press the Page Down key.
 Home & End keys:
To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home key; to move the
cursor to the end of the current line, press the End key.
 Editing keys
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
i). Backspace key

It has a backward arrow ( ) marked on it.
√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the
same line).
When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the
immediate letter or number to the left is erased.
ii). Delete (Del) key
It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
iii). Insert (Ins) key
√ Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode & Overtype mode.
When pressed, it helps the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence or replace
a character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the text).

(e). Special PC operation keys

They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform
special functions/tasks, or to give special instructions to the computer.
Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.

TAB key ( )
It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text cursor or a
certain text at set intervals on the same line to the required position on the screen, e.g.,
10mm, 20mm, etc.
A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the
next character to be typed will appear.

CAPS Lock
Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase) letters.
When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right hand corner of
the Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear in capital letters. When pressed off, all the
text typed will appear in small letters.

SHIFT key ( )
This special key works in combination with other keys.
√ It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key & press an alphabet
key to get the letter in its capital form.
√ It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the symbols on
top of certain keys especially on the alphanumeric section.
To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a
certain key; press & hold down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.
ENTER key (↵)
√ It is used as a RETURN key. When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a
word processor, it forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of the next line or
paragraph.
√ It is used to issue completion commands to the computer. It is used to instruct the
computer to carry out (execute) a command that has been typed or selected on the
screen.
 ESCAPE (ESC) key
It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you want to
quit doing some task, i.e. escape from or to cancel a task.

CONTROL (CTRL) key

It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used to
give the command for saving the text/object.

Commonly confusing keys

Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you are
working on may not work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine what is
wrong.
The I, 1, l and o, O, 0 keys
Look closely to spot the difference between capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”), and
between small “o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.
The Slash (/) and Backslash (\) keys
The slash (“/”) is used as:
- A division symbol when writing a formula.
- A command key to get into the menus in Lotus 1-2-3.
- To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.
The backslash (“\”) is used:
- In Lotus 1-2-3 to fill a cell with a character.
- In MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.
The Space, Hyphen ( -) and Underscore ( _ ) Keys
The Space is entered using the Spacebar on the keyboard.
Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code, and is
printed on the screen in the same manner as any other character.
The Hyphen key (dash or minus) & the Underscore (underline) are on the same physical
key top. To get the underscore, use the SHIFT.
The Underscore is often used in places where a space is needed to separate individual words,
but is not legal in the context. E.g., the filename TAX 1990 is illegal in MS-DOS because of
the blank space between TAX and 1990, but TAX_1990 is legal. The Underscore takes the
places of the blank space.
Single & Double quote, Accent grave, and Tilde
Single quote (‘) & Double quote (“)
Both symbols are on the same physical key top. To get the double quote, use the SHIFT.
Accent grave (`) & Tilde (~) are found on the same key top. The Tilde is used in
Mathematics, foreign languages, or in UNIX operating system to indicate the
home subdirectory.
The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], & Curly braces { }
Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are running.
Mathematical symbols (+, -, *, /, ^)
Slash (/) - used for division,
Asterisk (*) - for multiplication,
Plus (+) symbol - for addition,
Minus (-) symbol - is used for subtraction,
Up carat (^) - indicates exponential (raising to a power).
MOUSE
A Mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by
controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
A Mouse consists of 4 parts: -
1). A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.
2). A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the cursor to
move on the screen as required.
3). The Sensor Buttons (Right & Left) – used for making selections.
4). A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.

Using the Mouse

To use a mouse, hold it in your hand and move it across a flat surface or on top of a table. When
you move the mouse, an arrow-shaped pointer called the Mouse pointer moves across the
computer screen in the same direction. The pointer is usually controlled by moving the mouse.
To select an option/ item on the screen;
 Position the tip of the pointer (cursor) over the item to be selected;
 Press a button on the mouse to make your selection.
When using the mouse, observe the following rules:
a). Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.
b). Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two rightmost fingers.
c). The index finger should rest on the left button, while the middle finger rests on the right
button.

Terminologies associated with the use of a Mouse

Point: - this means moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over the
item you want to select.
To select an item on the screen, point the item, then press a mouse button. Use the Left button
(Primary button) for most tasks or the Right button (Secondary button) to quickly accomplish
common tasks.
Clicking: - pressing & releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an
object/item on the screen.
Double-clicking: - pressing the left button twice in a row (in a quick succession) without
moving the mouse. Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.
Right-clicking: - pressing the right mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of the
right mouse button).
A right click usually displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection. This
list of commands is called a Shortcut menu or Context-sensitive menu. This is because; the
commands on this menu apply to the specific item that has been right-clicked.
Shortcut menu:
 A list of commands that appears when you right-click an object.
 A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular right-clicked item.

Drag and drop: This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen to
another.
To move an item on the screen by dragging;
1. Point to the item you want to drag.
2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while still
holding down the mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.