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January 11, 2020 46 min read

ITIL

Knowledge management: ITIL 4 Practice Guide

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This document provides practical guidance for the knowledge management practice.

Table of Contents
1. About this document 5. Information and technology

2. General information 6. Partners and suppliers

3. Value Streams and processes 7. Important reminder

4. Organizations and people 8. Acknowledgements

1. About this document

It is split into five main sections, covering:

general information about the practice

the practice’s processes and activities and their roles in the service value chain the organizations and

people involved in the practice

the information and technology supporting the practice

considerations for partners and suppliers for the practice.

1.1 ITIL 4 QUALIFICATION SCHEME

Selected content from this document is examinable as a part of the following syllabuses:

ITIL Specialist: Create, Deliver and Support

ITIL Specialist: Direct, Plan and Improve

Please refer to the respective syllabus documents for details.

2. General information

2.1 PURPOSE AND DESCRIPTION

Key message

The purpose of the knowledge management practice is to maintain and improve the effective, efficient, and convenient use of information
and knowledge across the organization.

The knowledge management practice is a way of transforming information and organizational intellectual capital into persistent value for
employees and service consumers. This practice aims to provide the right information to the right people at the right moment to build an
evolutionary environment where:

absorptive capacity is continually improved

people are eager to learn new knowledge, unlearn old knowledge, and gain and share their experience and insights

decision-making capabilities are improved

an adaptive change culture exists

performance improves, supporting the organizational strategy

 data-driven and insight-driven approaches are used throughout the organization.

This is achieved by establishing integrated and systematic processes for knowledge asset management, building a high interoperability
knowledge environment and empowering people to develop and share knowledge. This includes knowing and using modern technologies,
data/information/knowledge management methods, approaches for training and mentoring according to the organizational vision and needs.

The knowledge management practice contributes to every component of the ITIL service value stream. This practice incorporates the following
premises:

Knowledge is processed and used in the context of value streams. This practice is integrated into value streams and ensures that
information is provided effectively and on time to meet the stakeholders’ expectations.

This practice should focus on discovering and providing high-quality information (available, accurate, reliable, relevant, complete, timely,
and compliant in a defined scope).

2.2 TERMS AND CONCEPTS

There are several concepts that are important for establishing an effective knowledge management practice in an organization. These concepts
have been developed from scientific studies and practical management experience. The concepts are recommended for organizations aiming
to increase value from the information assets that they have access to.

2.2.1 Absorptive capacity

The ability to learn is an important aspect of a person or an organization. In the case of an organization, it is enabled and limited by the
organization’s absorptive capacity. Absorptive capacity stands for an organization’s ability to recognize the value of new information, to embed
it into an existing knowledge system, and to apply it to the achievement of business outcomes. In order to be innovative and adaptive to
change organizations should continually develop absorptive capacity. Absorption of new knowledge from
outside of an organization and integrating it into the knowledge system is complex and should occur simultaneously on various levels
(external, organizational, teams, and individual). It should also consider the four dimensions of service management1.

2.2.2 Data and knowledge management

To represent the relationship between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom, the data, information, knowledge, wisdom pyramid (DIKW),
also known as the knowledge pyramid, is usually used. However, the divisions in the management of each of the levels are not clearly defined.
The organization chooses how to name the related activities, and whether data management should be considered a part of knowledge or
information management or a separate entity focused on the management of raw data. In addition, wisdom is usually vaguely described and
not included in the description of structured processes. In this guide the term wisdom is not discussed, apart from implying that organizations
should aim to use knowledge for value co- creation.

Organizations should define and agree the definitions and taxonomy for the knowledge management practice to gain effective outcomes.
These definitions may vary depending on the type of data involved and the industry.

Valuable knowledge for decision-making may be obtained from outside of an organization, as well as from inside. This may include information
from articles and posts in social and corporate media; data from surveillance and web cameras, audio recordings, and Internet of Things (IoT)
devices. Much of this data is unstructured2.

Big data management systems have emerged to work with the huge volumes of raw and often unstructured data, and to analyse it for
predictive insights. Big data analytics (BDA) introduces both challenges and opportunities for knowledge management3.

Big data is often defined by three words, known as the 3Vs of big data: volume, velocity, and variety. However, there are more Vs available, for
example value, veracity, validity, and so on. The first 3 Vs are essential to understanding whether an organization is dealing with big data or
more traditional forms of data.

One of the Vs is variety; which is the range of sources and the formats of the raw data, and the criteria that may impact the knowledge
management practice the most as it represents the challenge that big data brings to the practice. A variety of sources results in both a
technical challenge and a risk to the veracity and validity of the connected data.

To be able to trust the analysed information and accept potential knowledge, the techniques and algorithms used for connecting data need to
be carefully verified and validated.

The value of data, information, and knowledge is determined by the outcomes that it produces for stakeholders and consumers. Knowledge
does not have an intrinsic value. Knowledge should be only be considered valuable and effective when it leads to the desired outputs and
outcomes. Outcomes may be assessed in terms of the organization’s goals and strategy, consumer satisfaction, improved practices, and so on,
depending on the context4.

1 Mikhailava, I., (2011). Absorptive capacity: towards a practice based view. PhD, Lancaster University Management School, Lancaster, UK.

2 L. Uden et al. (Eds.), (2014). Knowledge management in organizations, Santiago: Springer International Publishing pp. 1–10

3 Crane, Lesley & Self, Richard. (2014). Big Data Analytics: A Threat or an Opportunity for Knowledge Management? [Accesses on 28/10/2019]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265531901_Big_Data_Analytics_A_Threat_or_an_Opportunity_for_ Knowledge_Management

4 https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/05/31/ten-things-you-need-to-know-about-managing-
knowledge/#bf6da2d118f2 [Accessed on 28/10/2019]

2.2.3 Knowledge assets and multi-base knowledge management environment

Organizations manage many different information assets including documents, records, databases, and so on. These assets are also
connected to many external information sources with various levels of access to the information. Many of these assets and sources are specific
to service management activities and are useful in an organization’s development and realization of an organization’s mission and strategy.
Record management and the general administration of information assets are often the responsibilities of specific teams that are driven by
respective practices. For example, financial records are managed as a part of the service financial management practice, and configuration
records are managed as a part of the service configuration management practice.

Knowledge asset

This is an organization's specific information resource that is important for that organization's operations and value co-creation.

The knowledge management practice adds a knowledge focused view on an organization’s information sources and assets. From this
perspective, information assets are evaluated and managed as knowledge assets. The importance of knowledge assets can be characterized by
its criticality, rarity, and appropriability:

Critical knowledge assets have a significant impact on an organization’s performance and strategy realization.

Rare knowledge assets are hard to find and hard to replace in the event of a loss.

Appropriate knowledge assets can be transferred from one organization to another without a significant loss in value.

The knowledge management practice aims to identify the most important knowledge assets across the organization and ensure that they are
effectively managed and utilized (see section 3.2.3 for details). It is also important to ensure that an organization’s knowledge assets are
effectively integrated into a knowledge management system, where information can be accessed and used in the most effective and efficient
way.

Usually, organizations use multiple independent and dependent, internal and external data sources (databases, clouds, and so on) for
knowledge management. An organization’s knowledge management system should consider multiple heterogeneous, autonomous, and
distributed data sources, and provide high interoperability across multiple information sources. This depends on the architecture of the
information and supporting information systems (see the architecture management practice guide), but also requires agreed process and
standards for information and knowledge asset management.

An organization’s knowledge management system consists of knowledge assets and information management systems, including, for example,
configuration management database, reports and monitoring records, tickets system storage, financial reports, and other repositories. These
repositories are handled as part of the respective practices such as: portfolio management, service financial management, IT asset
management, service catalogue management, and so on. These repositories are managed according to the common approach defined in the
knowledge management practice to ensure high interoperability and the effective use of information across the organization.

2.2.4 SECI model of knowledge dimensions

To provide informational support for innovations and an adaptive change culture, organizations should continuously develop their absorptive
capacity through creating and using new knowledge. A knowledge management models that can be used for this purpose is the SECI model5.

The socialization, externalization, combination, internalization (SECI) model of knowledge dimension was developed by Ikujiro Nonaka and
refined by Hirotaka Takeuchi. It is used to described knowledge sharing and the transformation process at any level of an organization.

The model is based on two types of knowledge, explicit and tacit:

Explicit knowledge can be transferred to others, codified, assessed, verbalized, and stored. It includes information from books,
databases, descriptions, and so on.
 Tacit knowledge is difficult to transfer to others, difficult to express, codify, and assess. It is based on experience, values, capabilities,
and skills.

It also considers two dimensions for knowledge creation:

The conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and vice versa.

The transfer of knowledge from an individual to groups/organizations.

The SECI model identifies four ways of how knowledge is combined, transferred, accepted, and shared.

Table 2.1 How knowledge is used according to the SECI model

Knowledge Description Example

sharing type

Socialization Sharing knowledge face-to-face or A specialist could share their ideas based on his/her technical experience from
(tacit to tacit). through experiences, such as coaching, previous cases with peers during an incident or problem
meetings, and so on. investigation.

Externalization Describing the experience or A specialist documents a solution in a knowledge base article, or a manager
(tacit to formulating the process/guidelines. describes a procedure for
explicit). the team to follow.
 Combination Combining, analysing, and presenting A vendor’s solutions are published, assessed, and adopted in the organization’s
(explicit to data from inside and outside an solution base.
explicit). organization to form new knowledge. ITIL best practice recommendations are adopted by the organization and
included in their practice guidelines. This can be supported by
large-scale databases and AI.

Internalization An individual develops their knowledge A specialist develops his own routine by systematically following the
(explicit to independently or through formal organization’s guidelines and vendor recommendations in the diagnosis and
tacit). training. repair of a configuration item, or by attending formal training.
The development of knowledge is
transformed into organizational
knowledge assets.

The use and exchange of knowledge is a continual process. Figure 2.1 includes a spiral to represent the continuity and evolution of knowledge.
Knowledge sharing supports organizations and individuals by providing them with data for data-driven decisions. It also helps to accumulate,
combine, and share knowledge to make insight-driven decisions.
Figure 2.1 The development of knowledge sharing
2.2.5 Data-driven and insight-driven decisions
An organization’s existing knowledge system is a key factor in the development of new knowledge. Data is at the core of the personal and
organizational decision-making process and evolution. Yet, data is not the only source of knowledge used in decision-making. In fact, the term
data-driven often implies that data equals or includes insight6.

6 [Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www.bts.com/blog-article/business-insight/creating-an-insight-driven- organization

If data is assembled from facts, statistics, quantities, symbols, and so on, the exclusive use of a data-driven approach may limit an
organization’s potential to evolve and prove to be unwise7. The reasons for this include:

Data is merely a partial reflection of reality. The interpretation of the data relies heavily on an individual’s experience. Different people
can come to different conclusions based on the same data, or to the same conclusion based on different data.

Any amount of data is still insufficient. There is always missing data. Sometimes the missing data is irrelevant for the decision, sometimes
it is extremely important.

Certain data needs to be interpreted by an individual who possesses the relevant expertise, and who has the motivation and ability to
learn and use the data8. Otherwise, the data may not bring enough or any value.
 The available knowledge may limit innovations. There is a risk of functional fixedness, where the adopted patterns and context prevent
individuals from acting in a creative manner. Instructions and habits may create biases about situations and objects. Many people find it
hard to overcome biases, making it difficult to find new perspectives and develop innovative ideas.

Too much overlapping or conflicting data may cause overthinking and lead to conclusions too complex or made too late. This is
sometimes referred to as analysis paralysis.

Insight is the ability to gain an accurate and deep understanding of a subject. It may be interpreted as knowing and feeling the underlying
nature of things. Insights are a result of human intelligence (emotions, experience, and feelings). Insights are a supplementary component of
the data and are a result of an individual’s experience and personality. Thus, the greater the experience and expertise of an individual, the
more useful their insights will be9. Insights cannot be completed by artificial intelligence.

For an organization to become insights-driven they must use all four methods from the SECI model to work with knowledge and focus on both
tacit and explicit information.

Techniques such as ALOE (asking, listening, observing, empathizing) and the development of emotional, social, and system intelligence,
support an organization’s performance and evolution1 (see the organizational change management practice and the relationship management
practice for more information).

2.2.6 People and knowledge management

There is tremendous amount of explicit knowledge both discovered and hidden, structured and unstructured, within organizations.
Nevertheless, the tacit knowledge owned by an organization is also very large. Each individual in an organization is a valuable source of
information. Yet, if this tacit knowledge is not properly

7[Accessed 30/10/2019] https://medium.com/microsoft-design/if-you-want-to-be-creative-dont-be-data- driven-55db74078eda

8 [Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www2.deloitte.com/ca/en/pages/deloitte-analytics/articles/becoming-an- insight-driven-organization.html

9 [Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/05/31/ten-things-you-need-to- know-about-managing-
knowledge/#bf6da2d118f2

managed, each time an individual leaves an organization there will be a loss of valuable knowledge, or possibly a security breach.

The knowledge management practice aims to create an environment where it will be possible to discover who knows what, who needs to know
what, how the organization may benefit from the individuals’ knowledge, how to make it sharable, and how to respect the individuals’ privacy.
Code of conducts, ethical concerns, and inspiring people to transform tacit knowledge into explicit can support these objectives.

Key message

Dave Snowden has proposed a series of knowledge management principles that can help in dealing with employees’ knowledge across the
organization. They include10:

Knowledge can only be volunteered; it cannot be forced.

You cannot make someone share their knowledge as you can never measure what they know.

We only know what we know when we need to know it.

Human knowledge is deeply contextual and requires stimulus for recall.

The way we know things is not the way we report we know things.

Failure facilitates learning better than success.

 We always know more than we can say, and we will always say more than we can write down.

No matter how experienced and capable a person is their possibilities are still limited. Diverse teams build a stronger knowledge system when
they cooperate and collaborate openly. The greater the team’s diversity in terms of background, perspective, culture, and education, the
greater the opportunity for decisive action. Generally, a homogeneous team is more efficient but less creative.

One method to increase a team’s diversity is to empower social networking both inside and outside the organization. Virtual connection and
knowledge exchange may help to overcome the limits caused by location, organizational structure, and culture.

Social networks may be used as one of the tools to support the knowledge management practice and collaboration inside and outside an
organization. It also can be supported by mobile technologies, sensors, and notification systems to build systems of awareness. For example,
smart offices where a screen shows the location of other employees and if they are available for a meeting with a colleague11. Social networks
help to create communities of knowledge or practices, that may improve knowledge exchange within teams and organizations. Social networks
also reveal the knowledge that an individual possesses and who can be approached in each situation.

When building social networks and engaging people in the knowledge management practice, it is vital to consider ethical concerns and the risk
of interruptions caused by the exposure of knowledge. (For more information about ethics please see section 3.2.1.1 of ITIL® 4: High-velocity IT

10 [Accessed 30/10/2019] https://cognitive-edge.com/blog/rendering-knowledge/

11 [Accessed 30/10/2019] http://files.gk-facfil.webnode.com/200000004-ecf7fedf15/groth-ecscw03-ws.pdf

2.2.7 Organization learning and knowledge management

Nowadays, individuals do not stay in a specific role for very long as there are a lot of horizontal movements between roles, and career choices
are not always connected to an individual’s professional education. To develop absorption capacity, organizations should also have a continual
process of learning and capabilities development. This is possible through empowering people to identify and build on their skills to make their
own job meaningful and value driven.

The knowledge management practice, together with the workforce and talent management practice, aims to motivate and facilitate employees
to discover new, develop, enhance, and better use their capabilities. The learning capabilities of an organization should be driven by business
needs, values, and priorities. Learning in an incremental and agile way is important for modern development teams. It may be beneficial to
transition from an annual training calendar, to scheduling training and development programmes when required. In relation to training,
organizations should also prioritize competencies for effective knowledge usage.

Employees should be taught to discover and process information in the most efficient and valuable way.

Even when the most modern technologies and digital inventions are used for the knowledge management practice, there is still a risk that
critical data will be underutilized due to the lack of skills in processing and managing the information. These skills need to be developed as they
do not emerge alongside the fast evolution of data management technologies.

2.2.8 Consumers and knowledge management

There are at least two perspectives when considering a service consumers’ involvement in the knowledge management practice: consumers as
participants and requestors of knowledge management activities; and a consumers’ organizations as a source of information for the service
provider.

The integration of technology between service consumers and service providers creates an immense amount of unstructured and structured
data in operational activities. This data, if used properly, has a potential to maximize stakeholders’ value, improve organizations’ performance,
increase meaningful user and customer journeys, and strengthen enduring relationships. For example, the analysis of information requested
by users can help organizations identify areas where the user journey may be improved or identify areas for additional training or instruction.

Relationships between service consumers and service providers may involve various levels of integration and formality (see Table 3.1 of ITIL®
Foundation: ITIL 4 Edition for more information about relationships between organizations). Whether or not a service consumer’s
representatives are directly involved in the service provider’s knowledge management activities depends on the level and form of the service
relationship.

The knowledge management practice together with the portfolio management, strategy management, and service level management practices
aims to design methods that will be used to capture, store, access, and analyse data regarding service consumers to improve sales, consumers
retention, and engagement (For more information about the service consumers’ journey, see ITIL® 4: Drive Stakeholder Value).

2.3 SCOPE
The knowledge management practice supports all value streams and can be used with any other practice as they all create and use data and
knowledge. The knowledge management practice includes data/information/knowledge collection, research, processing, analysis,
improvement, presentation, and technical assistance. This practice is also aligned with training, skills development, learning, as well as
innovation and research initiatives. The scope of the knowledge management practice includes:

Establishing an organization wide environment for effective information exchange and knowledge management, including culture,
techniques and procedures, and tools and skills.

Understanding knowledge assets and providing recommendations for their effective management and use.

Monitoring and improving effectiveness of knowledge use across the organization.

Discovering and providing information on demand, where no readily available knowledge is available.

Table 2.2 Activities related to the knowledge management practice that are described in other practice guides
Activity Practice guide

Knowledge assets use, processing and management All other practices

Knowledge management methods and tools application All other practices

Defining organization’s requirements for knowledge Strategy management Risk management

management Workforce and talent management Relationship management Organizational
change management Portfolio management
Service catalogue management Service configuration management

Implementation of knowledge management methods and Relationship management Organizational change management Workforce
tools at all levels of the organization and talent management Strategy management
Continual improvement
Project management

Change of IT infrastructure related to the knowledge Change enablement Release management Business analysis Deployment
management digitization management
Software development and management Service validation and testing
Portfolio management
Service catalogue management
Service configuration management

Knowledge risks assessment and control Risk management

Costs control, financial evaluation of knowledge related Service financial management

 activities

Managing access to data, information and knowledge Information security management

in compliance to security requirements

Automation of data storage, transfer, archiving Infrastructure and platform management

Software development and management

2.4 PRACTICE SUCCESS FACTORS

Practice success factor

A complex functional component of a practice that is required for the practice to fulfil its purpose

A practice success factor (PSF) is more than a task or activity; it includes components from all four dimensions of service management. The
nature of the activities and resources of PSFs within a practice may differ, but together they ensure that the practice is effective.

The knowledge management practice includes the following PSFs:

 creating and maintaining valuable knowledge and transferring and using it across an organization

effectively using information to enable decision-making across an organization.

2.4.1 Creating and maintaining valuable knowledge and transferring and using it across
an organization
The culture of effective knowledge sharing and application is a system of beliefs, attitudes, values, and expectations shared by people in an
organization about knowledge, including data and information. It determines the people’ ability to identify, understand, use, analyse, learn,
unlearn, transfer, present, and discuss information in a way that supports an organization’s vision and strategy.

The knowledge management practice describes techniques and tools that can only be effective when used within the correct cultural context,
in the correct way, at the right moment, and with commitment from the stakeholders. The knowledge management practice culture varies
between organizations and may be a source of a competitive advantage. When developing a knowledge transfer strategy and culture, an
organization should find a way to overcome each of these barriers according to its needs.

The culture of knowledge transfer can be established by stressing the value and importance of sharing knowledge and creating an open
atmosphere both within and across the teams. In essence, an organization must create a work environment that encourages people to:

task questions

challenge existing knowledge and consider alternative perspectives

hear others and be heard

learn and unlearn

 increase intelligence in the areas where needs have been identified (conversational, emotional, social, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and
so on)

help people overcome their fear of punishment due to their mistakes

help people overcome their fear of judgement when asking or documenting data

help people overcome their worry about being replaced if they share knowledge

set a priority for sharing knowledge in a complicated operational routine (due to a lack of time or meeting places for sharing).

This change in culture will not only impact internal relationships but will also affect cooperation with service consumers, partners, and
suppliers.

It is important to use such practices as workforce and talent management, organizational change management, relationship management,
strategy management, continual improvement, and supplier management to assist the knowledge management practice with establishing a
culture of effective knowledge sharing and application.

2.4.2 Effectively using information to enable decision-making across an organization

The knowledge management practice includes the identification and usage of methods and tools to create a knowledge management system
to support decision-making across the organization. Organizations that are more successful in implementing the knowledge management
practice develop both technology and people- oriented aspects (like developing a learning culture and focusing on the competencies to use,
collect, and share information throughout the organization).

According to surveys results12 there are three important areas where information systems should be used to improve decision-making:
 getting the right information at the right time

ensuring access to information in multiple places (location, means, and time)

sending instant alerts when things go wrong.

The quality of information is also vitally important for the knowledge management practice. There are several factors which affect the quality
of information, that should be considered when designing and maintaining knowledge management systems13:

errors in the information collected (for example customers or employees enter inaccurate data, service desk agent enter incomplete data
to save time), data collection design (for example asking the wrong questions or the wrong respondents)

information from different external and internal systems are not aligned in the entry standards and format

poor system design which causes information loss

potentially valuable information is not shared and is lost in an organization’s unstructured data

loss of information in the migration from one system to another

loss of information in poorly integrated systems

ineffective presentation or hard to use interfaces

Information about the past is available through databases, web-based resources, and other data sources. To predict the future, those making
decisions should rely on an insight-based approach, which uses intuitive and

12 Xu J., Quaddus M. (2013) Using Information Systems for Supporting Decision Making. In: Managing Information Systems. Atlantis Press, Paris
13 Mayer & Schaper 2010; Chui & Fleming 2011; Bloomberg Businessweek Research Services 2011 Milley & Wood 2010; Haag, Baltzan &
Phillips 2008, p. 388

Information Systems that Really Support Decision-Making by Gio Wiederhold, Journal of Intelligent Information Systems March 2000, Volume
14, Issue 2–3, pp 85–94

creative thinking, combined with forecasting tools and intelligent data analysis. These tools may also assess the effects of alternative decisions.

The knowledge management practice is crucial for the shift-left approach, that can support, for example, the incident management, service
request, service validation and testing, and release management practices.

Within these practices the knowledge management practice is an input for the shift-left approach.

The knowledge management practice should identify improvement opportunities for the knowledge management system, processes, tools, or
other resources, with the aim of improving the practice and the associated stakeholders’ experience.

It is important to ensure that improvements are not only initiated but also effectively implemented. An approach to implementing
improvement is described in the continual improvement practice guide. It is also important to use multiple practices in the context of value
streams to maintain the momentum of continual improvement.

2.5 KEY METRICS

The effectiveness and performance of the ITIL practices should be assessed within the context of the value streams to which each practice
contributes. As with the performance of any tool, the practice’s performance can only be assessed within the context of its application.
However, tools can differ greatly in design and quality, and these differences define a tool’s potential or capability to be effective when used
according to its purpose. Further guidance on metrics, key performance indicators (KPIs), and other techniques that can help with this can be
found in the measurement and reporting practice guide.
Key metrics for the knowledge management practice are mapped to its PSFs. They can be used as KPIs in the context of value streams in order
to assess the contribution of the practice to the effectiveness and efficiency of those value streams. Some examples of metrics are given in
Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Examples of key metrics for the practice success factors

Practice success factors Key metrics

Creating and maintaining valuable knowledge and transferring and Compliance of the knowledge management practice culture with
using it across an organization formally stated requirements
Stakeholders’ satisfaction with the knowledge management practice
culture adoption and acceptance
Absorption capacity
Adoption of the knowledge management practice across the
organization

Effectively using information to enable decision-making across an Stakeholder satisfaction with the informational support for decision
organization making
Compliance of information with formally stated requirements,
according to audit reports
Information quality (accuracy, completeness, consistency, uniqueness,
and timeliness)
Knowledge management tools effectiveness
Users’ satisfaction with knowledge management tools
There are several methods for measuring an organization’s intangible assets which can be applied to the knowledge management practice14.

The correct aggregation of metrics into complex indicators will make it easier to use the data for the ongoing management of value streams,
and for the periodic assessment and continual improvement of the knowledge management practice. There is no single best solution. Metrics
will be based on the overall service strategy and priorities of an organization, as well as on the goals of the value streams to which the practice
contributes.

14 [Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270092694_Knowledge_Management_Metrics_A_Review_and_Dire

ctions_for_Future_Research

3. Value Streams and processes

3.1 VALUE STREAM CONTRIBUTION

Like any other ITIL management practice, the knowledge management practice contributes to multiple value streams. It is important to
remember that a value stream is never formed from a single practice. The knowledge management practice combines with other practices to
provide high-quality services to consumers. The main value chain activities to which the practice contributes are:

improve

deliver and support.

The contribution of the knowledge management practice to the service value chain is shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 The contribution of the knowledge management practice to the service value
chain

3.2 PROCESSES
Each practice may include one or more processes and activities that may be necessary to fulfil the purpose of that practice.

Process

A set of interrelated or interacting activities that transform inputs into outputs. A process takes one or more define inputs and turns them
into defined outputs. Processes define the sequence of actions and their dependencies

Knowledge management activities form three processes:

establishing and maintaining the knowledge management environment

on demand information discovery

information model management and integration

3.2.1 Establishing and maintaining the knowledge management environment
The process ensures the existence and improvement of the environment where all stakeholders understand the nature of knowledge and are
willing to create, use, and transfer it15. The process is focused on:

changing obsolete patterns of knowledge usage

building and the continual improvement of the organizational culture that enables valuable knowledge usage and transfer

empowering the learning environment within an organization

continual improvement of knowledge management practice in general

identifying the knowledge asset within an organization

identifying the way to create and transfer knowledge and manage knowledge assets (tacit to explicit, structured and unstructured).

When developing the principles of the knowledge management practice culture and building the knowledge management capabilities, an
organization should consider all four dimensions of service management as well as external factors. (See ITIL® Foundation: ITIL 4 Edition,
Chapter 3 for more information.)

15 [Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235320642_Doing_knowledge_management

Table 3.1 Inputs, activities, and outputs of establishing and maintaining the knowledge
management environment process
Key inputs Activities Key outputs

Knowledge management stakeholder’s Understand current culture of Knowledge Management approach

satisfaction assessment knowledge usage and knowledge Scope of Knowledge management assets
Previous improvement results Policies and knowledge management practice improvement
sharing
regulatory requirements Financial guidelines and Review external and internal plan
Templates, instructions and guidance for
constraints requirements and factors of
Improvements proposals from relationship, knowledge management lifecycle management
influence Recommendations and approach for knowledge
workforce and talent management practices, Optimize response, identify
system building and maintenance
organizational change, other practices improvements Data and information quality guidelines
Risk information Promote and empower usage of Change requests
knowledge management practice Materials for knowledge management trainings and
across the organization learning environment
Review knowledge management empowerment
practice application and initiate Requirements and information for organizational
improvements change management, workforce and talent
management, relationship management

Figure 3.2 Workflow of the establishing and maintaining the knowledge management
environment process
Table 3.2 Example of activities for management of nurturing organizational culture of
knowledge usage and sharing process
*Requirements and recommendations for knowledge

management for relevant industries (like GDPR, ISO 30401, ISO 900, and so on)

Data analysing techniques and methods

Other valuable information for supporting a knowledge sharing environment

Activity Example
Understand current Knowledge manager together with management team, service owners, and others relevant to the stakeholders
culture of knowledge review and analyse:
usage and knowledge
sharing Organizational information and knowledge flows

Results and progress of knowledge management practice improvement and requests for knowledge
management improvement from other practices

Employees, customers, and partners satisfaction

Other information that may help to understand if the organization knowledge management is up to date and
meets the needs of the organization

This is done regularly (interval-based, for example once or twice per year) or as a response to a significant change
of the inputs (event-based).
The knowledge manager with the support of the management team nominates people and assigns the roles of the
knowledge management team members.

Review external and The knowledge manager and knowledge management team members continually review and analyse:
internal requirements
and factors of External factors that impact knowledge system
influence
Available emerging practices for data, information and knowledge management

Requirements and recommendations for knowledge management for relevant industries (like GDPR, ISO
30401, ISO 900, and so on)

Data analysis techniques and methods

 Other valuable information for supporting a knowledge sharing environment

Optimize response and Based on the outputs of the previous steps, the knowledge manager together with the knowledge management
identify improvements team members should identify the optimal response of the knowledge management approach to organizational
strategy. (It is important to keep in mind that not all best practices and new approaches should be implemented
and used immediately. The organization should only use those that suits its vision.)

Review initiatives and The knowledge manager reviews the practice and registers all of the required and identified knowledge
initiate improvements management related to the improvement initiatives via the continual improvement register. The relevant members
of the organization processes it with the
involvement of the continual improvement practice.

Promote and empower

usage of knowledge The knowledge manager and knowledge management team members create relevant guidance, training materials
management practice (text, videos, podcasts, and so on), and share information via the relevant channels, conduct training, and support
across the organization members in their knowledge management activities.
Information about adoption of the promoted patterns and stakeholders’ satisfaction is used as input for the
organization
process.

3.2.2 On-demand information discovery

This process focuses on the discovery and provision of new information in response to unusual and non-routine requests. It requires extra
effort and competencies in the investigation and integration of findings into an organization’s knowledge system. This process is used when a
unique or rare request for information is raised, and the information requested cannot be obtained via the available information systems and
patterns.

Examples of scenarios where this process is used include:

non-standard business analysis to validate a hypothesis

assessment of emerging technology or business practice

assessment of other external influences, such as new regulations

complex requests that are rare, and therefore have not been standardized or automated.

The process supports these knowledge needs by accessing resources and the people with the required information inside and outside the
organization.

Table 3.3 Inputs, activities, and outputs of the on-demand information discovery process.

Key inputs Activities Key outputs

Information request Registration of information request A set of information in

Access to internal and external sources of information Research and data collection requested format
Information security policies Information processing and presentation Updated internal knowledge
Financial guidelines and constraints Policies and Information acceptance Knowledge
storages
regulatory requirements integration and review Information usage rEPORTS
Figure 3.3 shows a workflow diagram of the on-demand information discovery process

Figure 3.3 Workflow of the on-demand information discovery process

The process’s activities are outlined in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Activities of the on-demand information discovery process

Activity Example

Registration of The knowledge manager or assigned knowledge management team member accepts information request in agreed
information format (usually includes: area of information, purpose of requested information, currently available sources, requested
request format, timing, and so on)
Research and The knowledge manager or knowledge management team member identifies roles and people that are likely to be
data collection involved in the research and assigns (or requests resource allocation) them to work on the request.
Assigned specialists and analysts:
Agree on time that they devote for the research and expected outputs of the research.
Agree on data selection criteria
Obtain and review available data and information according to the requested area and purpose in internal and external
sources, in accordance with the agreed procedures and constraints
Interview people and support tacit-to- explicit knowledge transfer

Information Assigned members of the knowledge management team analyse and structure the collected data and presents it in the
processing and agreed format.
presentation Resulting outputs are provided to the agreed group of stakeholders.

Information Agreed stakeholders (information requester and/or other intended recipients) review the research output and confirm
acceptance acceptance, including:

information quality

outputs format

timeliness of the presentation.

If the information is not accepted, the request can be returned to research step of the processed, or cancelled (if not
relevant anymore, or cannot be
viably fulfilled).

Knowledge Accepted information is reviewed to assess opportunities for integration into organization’s knowledge management
integration and systems.
review Based on the assessment results, the information may be:
 Stay in exclusive possession of the intended recipients (unique one-off requests, or classified information)

Integrated into an organization’s knowledge management system and published (subject to classification and
access policies)

A decision to standardize the information request and make the information available on a permanent basis can be
initiated (to be assessed and acted upon using the process of establishing and maintenance of knowledge management
environment described in section 3.2.1.

3.2.3 Knowledge asset management

The process is focused on the management of knowledge assets throughout their lifecycle and the effective integration of the knowledge asset
into an organization’s knowledge management practice environment.

Knowledge assets may represent the collective and individual, structured and unstructured, tacit and explicit data and information. Examples
include incidents records, applications source code, service level agreements, technical documentation, and so on. The scope and level of
specification of knowledge assets are defined as part of the ‘establishing and maintenance of knowledge management environment’ process in
conjunction with architecture management, information security management, service configuration management and other practices.

Table 3.5 Inputs, activities, and outputs of knowledge assets management

Key inputs Activities Key outputs

Information assets used by the Knowledge asset discovery New and updated knowledge assets
 organization Knowledge assets analysis and classification Knowledge assets management
Information security policies Development of knowledge asset management guidelines
Data and information quality guidelines guidelines Knowledge asset management
Information about errors in knowledge Guideline assignment and communication assignments
system Knowledge asset management assignment Knowledge asset management reports
Stakeholders feedback and satisfaction acceptance
data Knowledge asset review and improvement initiation

Figure 3.4 Workflow of the knowledge asset management process

Table 3.6 Activities of the knowledge asset management process

Activity Examples

Knowledge asset The knowledge manager and members of the knowledge management team analyses the information assets of the
discovery organization. This activity is performed regularly, or can be triggered by:

introduction of new information assets

feedback of knowledge users

knowledge asset management review findings

request from a stakeholder.

Information about new or changed knowledge assets is passed to relevant team members for analysis and classification.

Knowledge Assigned members of the knowledge management team evaluates the importance of the knowledge assets and identifies
assets analysis the appropriate management guidelines and the responsible team or role to assign the knowledge asset management
and responsibilities to.
classification If no applicable guideline has been identified (in case of new type of knowledge asset discovery or because the guideline
library is incomplete), the development of a new management guideline is initiated.
Development of The knowledge manager is assisted by relevant specialists who develop the guidelines for the management of the newly
knowledge asset discovered knowledge asset. This includes assessment of the applicable policies. Wherever possible, available guidelines
management are reused. Agreed guidelines should include recommendations on who should take responsibility for the management
guidelines of the information asset.
When a guideline is agreed, it is assigned to the appropriate team or person to manage the information assets.

Guideline When applicable guideline is identified, it is assigned to appropriate team or person to manage the information assets.
assignment and
communication

Knowledge asset The specialist team or person reviews the assignment and accepts or rejects it. Rejections should be explained in enough
management detail to facilitate reanalysis and re-assignation.
assignment If the assignment is accepted, the team or person responsible for the management of the information asset follows the
acceptance guideline as part of their usual work in the context of value streams and
practices where the information asset is used.

Knowledge asset The knowledge manager performs a review of the information asset management to assess the applicable key metrics of
review and the practice and initiate improvements in the information asset management process and the practice in general.
improvement Improvement initiatives are communicated to the relevant stakeholders and
initiation managed through the continual improvement practice.

4. Organizations and people

4.1 ROLES, COMPETENCIES, AND RESPONSIBILITIES

The practice guides do not describe the practice management roles such as practice owner, practice lead, or practice coach. They focus instead
on the specialist roles that are specific to each practice. The structure and naming of each role may differ from organization to organization, so
any roles defined in ITIL should not be treated as mandatory, or even recommended. Remember, roles are not job titles. One person can take
on multiple roles and one role can be assigned to multiple people.

Roles are described in the context of processes and activities. Each role is characterized with a competency profile based on the model shown
in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Competency codes and profiles

Competency Competency profile (activities and skills)

code

L Leader Decision-making, delegating, overseeing other activities, providing incentives and motivation, and evaluating
outcomes

А Administrator Assigning and prioritizing tasks, record-keeping, ongoing reporting, and initiating basic improvements

C Coordinator/communicator Coordinating multiple parties, maintaining communication between stakeholders, and running
awareness campaigns

М Methods and techniques expert Designing and implementing work techniques, documenting procedures, consulting on
processes, work analysis, and continual improvement
 Т Technical expert Providing technical (IT) expertise and conducting expertise- based assignments

4.1.1 Knowledge manager

The knowledge manager role can be performed by a dedicated person or the responsibilities can be taken by the person or team responsible
for the specific knowledge management practice area and is capable enough to coordinate it efficiently.

The role of the knowledge manager should focus less on coordinating and completing actions through knowledge asset management, but
rather to create a knowledge management culture and competencies for the organization’s evolution. The role is typically responsible for:

co-ordinating the knowledge management culture and capabilities building process

defining and assigning knowledge team roles

ensuring that the knowledge asset management process is known and run in relevant SVS parts according to the organizations structure,
strategy, and needs

empowering, mentoring, and leading the knowledge team

formally communicating decisions through the knowledge management practice lifecycle to the stakeholders and affected parties

monitoring and reviewing the activities of the teams that are involved in the knowledge management practice

conducting regular and ad hoc practice analyses, and initiating improvements to the practice, procedures, used methods, and tools
 developing the organization’s expertise in the methods and approaches for the knowledge management practice

creating an environment permeated by psychological safety, mutual respect, and trust where employees choose to learn, unlearn, use
and share knowledge in agreed way

holding the knowledge team accountable and empowering commitment.

The competency profile for these roles is LACMT, though the importance of each of these competencies varies from activity to activity.
Examples of the roles which can be involved in knowledge management activities are listed in Table 4.2, together with the associated
competency profiles and required skills.

4.1.2 Knowledge management team

The knowledge management team is a team of people with different competencies who work together and lead the knowledge management
practice to achieve the desired outcomes. The shared leadership is a set of shared practices that should be executed by people at all levels of
the organizational structure. The role can be assigned to people all over an organization depending on their experience, competencies, and
according to a specific project/process/task.

The knowledge management practice team together with the knowledge manager are responsible for the definition, communication, and
execution of the knowledge management strategy, plans, and guidelines. It is expected that the knowledge management team will apply its
ingenuity and contribute ideas and efforts to the effective knowledge management practice across the organization.

4.1.3 Other roles involved in organizational knowledge management activities

Table 4.3 Examples of roles with responsibility for organizational knowledge management activities

Knowledge of the services and products

Activity Responsible roles Competency profile Special skills

Establishing and Establishing and Establishing and Establishing and maintenance of knowledge
maintenance of knowledge maintenance of knowledge maintenance of knowledge management environment
management environment management environment management environment

Understand current culture Knowledge manager CAT Knowledge and understanding of an

of knowledge usage and Management team organization’s strategy and structure.
HR director and team
knowledge sharing Service owner Knowledge of the services and products
Product owner Analytical skills

Relationship manager
Supplier manager

Review external and internal AC Knowledge of data management methods,

requirements and factors of Knowledge manager
Management team BDA trends, other knowledge management
influence related information.
HR team
Information security team Information processing
Product owner Analysis skills
Service owner

Optimize response, identify Knowledge manager AMCT Knowledge of an organization’s strategy,

improvements Risk manager structure, and goals
 Information security Understanding of the knowledge
manager management methods and tools
Financial manager Knowledge of the services and products
Service owner
Product owner
Relationship manager
Supplier manager

Review initiatives and initiate Knowledge manager AMC Knowledge of social networks
improvements Knowledge management communication methods
team Presentational skills
Continual improvement Mentoring, consultancy, and coaching
manager Knowledge of conversational intelligence and
Organizational change nonviolent communication methods
manager
HR manager

Promote and empower CL

usage of knowledge Knowledge manager Knowledge of continual improvement
Management team method
management practice Service owner
across the organization Product owner
HR team

On-demand information On-demand information

discovery On-demand information discovery On-demand information discovery
discovery

Registration of information TA Understanding of knowledge management

request Knowledge manager practice and registration procedures
 Knowledge management
team

Research and data collection Knowledge management ATC Knowledge of data research and analysis
team methods
Product owner
Service owner
Relationship manager
Supplier manager
Business analyst
Technical specialists

Information processing and Knowledge management ACT Analytical skills

presentation team Presentational skills
Product owner Knowledge in a related to a request area
Service owner
Relationship manager
Supplier manager
Business analyst
Technical specialists

Information acceptance Any role in the organization TA Understanding of the purpose and context
of the information request
Analytical skills

Knowledge integration and Knowledge manager MTC Analytical skills

review Knowledge management Understanding of knowledge management
team practice
 Service owner Product Knowledge and understanding of
owner organization’s strategy and structure.
Configuration manager
Risk manager
Information security team

Knowledge assets Knowledge assets Knowledge assets management

management Knowledge assets management
management

Knowledge asset discovery Knowledge manager AT Good knowledge of the organization’s

Knowledge management informational environment, analytical skills
team

Knowledge assets analysis Knowledge manager AT Good knowledge of the knowledge

and classification Knowledge management management guidelines and procedures
team Analytical skills
Service owner Product
owner
Configuration manager Risk
manager
Information security team

Development of knowledge Knowledge manager ACT Good knowledge of the knowledge

asset management Knowledge management management guidelines and procedures
guidelines team Analytical skills
Service owner Product Good knowledge of the organization’s
owner management practices, organizational
Configuration manager Risk structure and responsibilities
manager Communication skills
 Information security team

Guideline assignment and Knowledge manager C Communication skills

communication Knowledge management Good knowledge of organizational structure
team and responsibilities

Knowledge asset Any specialist or manager AT Analytical skills

management assignment role in the organization Good knowledge of own and related
acceptance responsibilities and associated roles
Knowledge of the products, services and
information resources

Knowledge asset review and Knowledge manager Service ATMC Good knowledge of the knowledge
improvement initiation owner Product owner management guidelines and procedures
Configuration manager Analytical skills
Risk manager Good knowledge of the organization’s
Information security management practices, organizational
manager structure and responsibilities
Communication skills

4.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES AND TEAMS

The knowledge manager role may be associated with a formal job title, but it is common practice to have a dedicated person within an
organization who oversees the knowledge management practice. However, such structures are more likely to be found in larger organizations
with a complex management system or where the knowledge management practice is mature, and the importance of the knowledge assets
are recognized.
Formal teams for the practice may include a knowledge management team and temporary teams assigned for a specific knowledge
management activity or project. The most common and effective practice is to identify the people responsible for the knowledge management
practice in every team: product, functional, or management. The knowledge management practice should be integrated into every activity and
every practice, instead of being kept isolated within a dedicated formal structure.

5. Information and technology

5.1 INFORMATION EXCHANGE

The effectiveness of the knowledge management practice is based on the quality of the information used. This includes, but is not limited
to, information about: organizational strategy and values organizational structure

knowledge management methods and tools

services and their architecture

partners and suppliers

policies and requirements which regulate organizational structure

requested knowledge, including:

expected benefits for the employees and the organization as whole

estimated time and cost of information and knowledge research, use, share
 regulations affecting the information and knowledge stakeholder satisfaction with the practice.

This information may take various forms. The key inputs and outputs of the knowledge management practice are listed in section 3.

To avoid losing valuable knowledge through organizational changes and onboarding/offboarding new customers, employees, and partners
organizations should consider the knowledge management practice as an important participant through OCM, customer journey, and supplier
management.

5.2 AUTOMATION AND TOOLING

Data science technology, software platforms, virtual reality, artificial intelligence, machine learning, IoT (internet of things), and other new
approaches continually evolve to leverage knowledge management strategies.

In most cases, the work of the knowledge management practice can significantly benefit from automation. This may involve the solutions
outlined in Table 5.1 when automation is both possible and effective.

Table 5.1 Automation solutions for organizational change management activities

Process activity Means of automation Key functionality Impact on the effectiveness of the
practice

Establishing and maintaining Establishing and Establishing and maintaining the Establishing and maintaining the
the knowledge management maintaining the knowledge knowledge management environment knowledge management
environment management environment environment
Understand the current Social software, analytical Data analysis, information presentation, High, especially in a big size
culture of knowledge usage, and reporting tools and sharing. organization with complex structure
and knowledge sharing Talent management and
HR tools
Knowledge search tools
Knowledge visualization
tools

Review external and internal Collecting best practices, new High

requirements and factors of Knowledge search tools approaches, requirements, and other
Data Science Techniques
influence Big data tools information outside the organization
External analytical portals
and libraries
Social software (including
platforms for experience
exchange between
organizations)
Legal information portals

Optimize response, identify Data analysis, decision making and Medium

improvements Analytical and solution presentation to stakeholders
modelling tools
Knowledge visualization
tools

Review initiatives and initiate Knowledge visualization Information presentation and sharing Medium to high, especially in a big
improvements tools through organization size organization with complex
Social software structure
 Communication tools

Promote and empower Communicating, and initiating Medium to high, especially in a big
usage of knowledge Project management tools, improvement actions size organization with complex
management practice across communication systems, structure
the organization collaboration systems

On demand information On demand information discovery On demand information discovery

discovery On demand information
discovery

Registration of information Enabling and controlling knowledge High, especially for large volumes of
request Ticketing and workflow management process workflow; requests for information support
systems, knowledge search prioritization of backlog and workflow
tools management;
workflow visualization

Knowledge search tools Enabling data research, efficient choice Very High
Research and data collection Content repositories and collection
Decision support tools
Big data tools
Data Science Techniques
External analytical
informational portals and
libraries
 External professional social
network
Legal information portals

Knowledge visualization Formalization and structuring research High, especially for large volumes
Information processing and tools results in a requested format. of requests for information support
presentation Decision support tools Presenting outputs to stakeholders
Data analytics tools

Information acceptance Ticketing and workflow Enabling efficient way to get feedback Low to medium
systems from stakeholder. Quick and traceable
remote acceptance/rejection of
information

Knowledge integration and Content repositories Integrate new information and High, especially for large volumes of
review Knowledge search tools knowledge into existing knowledge requests for information support
Knowledge visualization
system and communicate changes to
tools
stakeholders
Social software
Communication tools

Information model Information model Information model management and Information model management
management and integration management and integration and integration
integration

Knowledge asset discovery Content repositories Review and find requested knowledge Very high
Knowledge search tools asset
 Knowledge visualization
tools

Social software

Knowledge assets analysis Content repositories Create, add, update knowledge asset Very high
and classification Knowledge search tools
Knowledge visualization
tools

Social software

Development of knowledge Knowledge visualization Analysis, formalization and structuring High

asset management tools, of knowledge assets
guidelines Decision support tools Data
analytics tools

Knowledge visualization
tools

Guideline assignment and Knowledge visualization Presenting outputs to stakeholders Medium to high especially for
communication tools, organizations with complex
structure and/or large volumes of
Social software knowledge flows
Communication tools

Knowledge asset Ticketing and workflow Enabling efficient way to get feedback Low to Medium
management assignment systems from stakeholder. Quick and traceable
acceptance
 remote acceptance/rejection of
information

Knowledge asset review and Content repositories Knowledge assets usage in a right High
improvement initiation Knowledge search tools moment in a convenient way
Knowledge visualization
tools

Social software

6. Partners and suppliers

Very few services are delivered using only an organization’s own resources. Most, if not all, depend on other services. These are often provided
by third parties (see section 2.4 of ITIL®
Foundation: ITIL 4 Edition for a model of a service relationship).

An organizations’ absorption capacity increases both from involving suppliers to enable the knowledge management practice activities and
from recognizing partners as a source of information (even those suppliers and partners who are not related to the practice’s support
function). Information and knowledge exchange are vital for any actions and where it interacts and cooperates with external stakeholders in
the SVS.

Related risks should be considered when planning the cooperation and knowledge sharing interfaces with partner organizations. For example,
the risk of losing expertise. Any activity outsourced to a partner organization results in the loss of key in-house expertise and knowledge. Yet,
to mitigate this risk an organization should include knowledge management practice actions with partners in onboarding/off-boarding
procedures.

Where organizations aim to ensure fast and effective knowledge management practice, they usually try to agree to close cooperation with their
partners and suppliers, removing formal bureaucratic barriers in communication, collaboration, and decision-making. All parties in such
relationships should aim for mutual transparency and visibility of the changes that may affect the other parties (see the supplier management
practice guide for more information).

7. Important reminder

Most of the content of the practice guides should be taken as a suggestion of areas that an organization might consider when establishing and
nurturing their own practices. The practice guides are catalogues of topics that organizations might think about, not a list of answers. When
using the practice guides, organizations should always follow the ITIL guiding principles:

focus on value

start where you are

progress iteratively with feedback

collaborate and promote visibility

think and work holistically

keep it simple and practical

optimize and automate.

More information on the guiding principles and their application can be found in section 4.3 of

ITIL®
Foundation: ITIL 4 Edition.

8. Acknowledgements

AXELOS Ltd is grateful to everyone who has contributed to the development of this guidance. These practice guides incorporate an
unprecedented level of enthusiasm and feedback from across the ITIL community. In particular, AXELOS would like to thank the following
people.

8.1 AUTHORS
Antonina Klentsova, Julie Mohr.

8.2 REVIEWERS
Roman Jouravlev.

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