energies

Article
Numerical Investigation of the Thermal Performance of a
Hybrid Phase Change Material and Forced Air Cooling System
for a Three-Cell Lithium-Ion Battery Module
Van-Tinh Huynh, Kyoungsik Chang and Sang-Wook Lee *

School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 44610, Republic of Korea;

[email protected] (V.-T.H.); [email protected] (K.C.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The thermal performance of a lithium-ion battery module comprising three cells contained
within a casing was investigated at discharge rates of 3C and 5C with three different cooling strategies:
forced air, phase-change material (PCM), and a hybrid system using a combination of forced air
and the PCM. Three levels of fan speed (5000 rpm; 7000 rpm; and 9000 rpm) for cooling air flow
were considered. A numerical simulation of heat transfer was performed using the ANSYS Fluent
software. The electrochemical modelling of a battery was developed based on the NTGK approach,
and the phase-change phenomenon was treated as an enthesis–porosity problem. The composite
PCM, aluminum metal foam embedded in n-octadecane, had better heat dissipation performance
than forced air convection. The PCM is significantly more effective at heat dissipation than forced
air. Interestingly, when using a hybrid cooling system that combines forced air and a PCM, although
it meets the operational requirements for Li-ion batteries in regard to maximum temperature and
temperature uniformity at a 3C discharge rate, the airflow appears to have a negligible effect on
thermal management and yields an indiscernible change in temperature. This can be attributed to a
complex flow pattern that developed in a casing as a result of the suboptimal design of the inlet and
outlet. Further studies will be required for the optimal positioning of the inlet and outlet, as well as
Citation: Huynh, V.-T.; Chang, K.;
the effectiveness of combining liquid cooling methods.
Lee, S.-W. Numerical Investigation of
the Thermal Performance of a Hybrid
Phase Change Material and Forced
Keywords: lithium-ion battery; hybrid cooling system; phase-change material; forced air cooling;
Air Cooling System for a Three-Cell electric vehicle
Lithium-Ion Battery Module. Energies
2023, 16, 7967. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en16247967
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Hamidreza Behi,
Battery technology is considered to be the most crucial part of electric vehicles (EVs),
Reza Behi, Masud Behnia and
Danial Karimi
as the battery costs account for approximately 45% of the cost of EVs. Recently, different
types of batteries have been used in both pure and hybrid EVs, such as lead–acid (in the
Received: 13 September 2023 General Motors EV1), Li-ion (in the Tesla Roadstar), and nickel–metal hydride (in the
Revised: 4 December 2023 Toyota Prius) [1]. Batteries should have low cost, long life, and environmentally friendly
Accepted: 7 December 2023 characteristics, and provide the necessary energy for EVs in various operating conditions,
Published: 8 December 2023
especially load-point shifting, regenerative braking, and electric auxiliaries. Li-ion batteries
are far superior to the other types of batteries due to their relatively high specific power
and energy density.
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
During charging and discharging processes, chemical reactions inside batteries pro-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. duce a large amount of heat, resulting in an excessive rise and uneven temperature distri-
This article is an open access article bution within a cell. This significantly affects the performance and lifespan of the battery.
distributed under the terms and It has been reported that the optimum operating temperature ranges from 25 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C,
conditions of the Creative Commons with a temperature variation of less than 5 ◦ C [2]. A number of different types of battery
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// thermal management systems (BTMSs) have been studied to address these issues. Active
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ BTMSs, including forced air and liquid cooling, require additional power for fans and
4.0/). pumps. In contrast, the use of PCMs as a passive BTMS consumes no power and offers

Energies 2023, 16, 7967. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16247967 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 7967 2 of 19

intriguing cooling performance by utilizing latent heat during phase transition. They also
have a low weight and simple structure. However, they have the drawbacks of low thermal
conductivity and volumetric expansion over the phase-change process. In addition, when
the material completely changes its phase, the temperature control becomes difficult to
operate continuously [3].
Composite PCMs have been designed and studied for thermal conductivity enhance-
ment through the use of macroscale and nanoscale additives. Akula et al. [4] investigated
the thermal management of fins and expanded graphite (EG) combined with eicosane
for a Panasonic NCR18650BD battery. It was reported that a combination of simple heat
sinks and PCM-EG produced much better thermal performance than complex heat sinks
integrated with pure PCM. A design with 130 fins and 30% EG provided significantly more
temperature reduction at various discharge rates compared to 260 fins filled with eicosane.
Wu et al. [5] investigated the effects of different EG mass fractions embedded in paraffin on
the thermal behavior of prismatic cells under extreme operating conditions, and showed
that the EG mass fraction in the range of 15% to 20% had the best thermal performance. In
addition, a PCM with a pyrolytic graphite sheet (PCM-PGS), which has a convective heat
transfer coefficient of 50 W/m2 ·K, performed similarly to the 200 W/m2 ·K PCM module.
Zhang et al. [6] showed that the mixture of paraffin with EG, aluminum nitride (AlN),
and epoxy resin resulted in a substantial 19.4% reduction in battery temperature, with a
temperature variation of less than 1 ◦ C.
Liquid cooling has been known to have a high specific heat and fast heat transfer
rate. For this reason, many researchers have developed hybrid systems with liquid and
PCM cooling to obtain higher thermal performance than a single method. Cao et al. [7]
carried out experiments to explore the influences of water temperature, flow rate, and
kinds of PCMs on the temperature of 20 cylindrical cells. This thermal management system
achieved the greatest performance if the water temperature was kept under 40 ◦ C, as close
as possible to ambient temperature, if the flow rate was maintained as low as 100 mL/min,
or if an EG-based composite PCM with 67 wt% RT44HC was applied. Kong et al. [8]
proposed a potential design that could reduce the temperature of 21,700 batteries to 41.1 ◦ C,
and the temperature uniformity remained under 4 ◦ C at the end of 3C discharge. Plus, the
efficiency of heat dissipation would be inconsiderable if the cell-to-cell distance exceeded
5 mm. An et al. [9] realized that a flow velocity of 0.08 m/s was ideal to achieve the best
thermal performance in temperature rise and temperature difference. Over 0.08 m/s, a
higher liquid velocity resulted in lower heat improvement. Moreover, the maximum and
initial temperature remained unchanged at a velocity of 0.04 m/s and an EG of 6 wt%,
which met the requirements for battery operation.
Both heat pipes and PCMs have benefits and drawbacks; BTMSs can operate more
productively based on the combination of these two techniques. In line with this idea,
Jiang et al. [10] considered essential factors that influence the temperature of 3.2 V-8 Ah
prismatic batteries during the charging and discharging processes. They reported that the
melting point of the PCM is roughly 3 ◦ C higher than ambient temperature, the phase-
change ratio is nearly 0.55, the thickness ratio is 0.17, and the heat transfer coefficient should
range from 30 W/m2 ·K to 60 W/m2 ·K, which kept batteries safe in operating conditions.
Putra et al. [11] proved that the maximum battery temperature rapidly dropped by 33.42 ◦ C
in the case of heat pipes associated with RT44HC. Compared with beeswax, RT44HC
was more outstanding because its melting point is in the battery working temperature.
Chen et al. [12] indicated that there were several methods to decrease the maximum battery
temperature; however, they expanded the temperature uniformity, including a rising
convective heat transfer coefficient, a declining environmental temperature, or increasing
the latent heat and thickness of the PCM. There was a remarkable decrease of 30% in the
temperature difference after optimization.
Much attention has been paid to a novel BTMS that integrates air cooling and PCM.
The thermal behavior of six cylindrical batteries in a 1S6P array at different ambient temper-
atures was evaluated by Jilte et al. [13]. The maximum battery temperature was less than
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 3 of 19

5 ◦ C, even under the most severe conditions. The temperature uniformity was less than
0.05 ◦ C and 0.12 ◦ C at 2C and 4C discharge rates, respectively. Singh et al. [14] investigated
the effect of airflow velocity and PCM thickness on SONY 18,650 cells. The battery tempera-
ture decreased significantly by 30 K and 45 K under 1C and 5C discharge rates in the case of
a 1 mm thick PCM. In addition, the diamond-shaped battery organization produced better
thermal performance than the square shape, which can achieve a temperature reduction of
3 K to 4 K in the absence of a PCM. Akkurt et al. [15] carried out transient simulations of
a BTMS for three cylindrical batteries in a rectangular pack, considering different battery
spacing and airflow velocity. Khan et al. [16] found that the cylindrical Li-ion batteries in
a triangular chamber had the lowest temperature and largest heat transfer coefficient at
airflow velocities of 0.005 m/s and 0.02 m/s among various PCM shapes, such as circular,
lozenge, hexagonal, and square chambers. The heat transfer coefficient of the cooling
system was enhanced by 65% by incorporating graphene nanoparticles at a 4% volume
fraction into an organic PCM. Moreover, an increase in airflow speed resulted in decreased
battery and outlet temperatures and an improved chamber heat transfer. Gu et al. [17]
proposed an optimal BTMS of paraffin and expanded graphite with an axial thickness
of 45 mm and a radial thickness of 8 mm. Based on the design, airflow at 1.23 m/s and
fins were employed to keep the battery temperature below 60 ◦ C under 2C, 3C, and 4C
discharge rates. The heat transfer was considerably improved, and the flow dead zone was
narrowed by utilizing c-type fins or o-type fins. Recently, Ahmad et al. [18] utilized metal
fins and air cooling to enhance the thermal conductivity and secondary heat dissipation of
PCMs, respectively. The best design with a 1 mm thick PCM, 162 fins, and a 3 mm diameter
fin kept the battery temperature below 40 ◦ C with less power consumption. Chen et al. [19]
investigated the effect of PCM thickness, fin type, air velocity, and the width of the support
frame on the thermal performance. The bifurcated fin design with an angle of 75◦ and a
length of 40 mm resulted in decreases of 0.4 ◦ C, 0.4 ◦ C, and 13% in terms of the maximum
temperature, temperature difference, and energy consumption, respectively, compared
with the beak fin design. E et al. [20] investigated the effects of the airflow inlet and outlet
on power consumption and cooling performance. At an inlet temperature of 301.15 K, the
lowest energy consumption and temperature difference were obtained using the optimal
BTMS with five holes and a 7 mm thick PCM.
In this study, a large-format (52.3 Ah) Li-ion pouch battery provided by SM Bexel
Co., Ltd. (Gumi, Republic of Korea) was utilized to investigate the thermal performance
for operating requirements. On the same type of battery, Ho et al. [21] applied forced air
cooling to dissipate the thermal energy generated by the ten-cell battery module. The
maximum temperature of the Li-ion battery decreased from 74 ◦ C to 36.4 ◦ C and from
114 ◦ C to 49.7 ◦ C at the end of the 3C and 5C discharge rates, respectively. Additionally,
Huynh et al. [22] analyzed the thermal behavior of a single cell cooled by an n-octadecane
PCM integrated with aluminum foam. At the end stage of the discharging process at 3C and
5C rates, the maximum battery temperatures declined to 34.3 ◦ C and 50.7 ◦ C, respectively.
Furthermore, the current study establishes a battery model in a case for practical
orientation using the exact category of Li-ion battery mentioned. A fan, which in previous
studies has been assumed to operate as a plane with uniform velocity, has been modeled
in 3D in ANSYS Fluent to provide an accurate description of the airflow. The NTGK
semi-empirical model was adopted to predict the heat generation inside the Li-ion battery,
relying on input parameters from the discharge experiment. The use of the NTGK approach
with a specific type of Li-ion battery collectively contributed to a more comprehensive
understanding of a new technology in the electric vehicle industry. The thermal behavior of
a Li-ion battery model was investigated at 3C and 5C discharge rates with three strategies,
including forced air, PCM, and a hybrid system using a combination of forced air and PCM.
In the presence of airflow, three different fan speed levels were selected to study the effect
of the fan speed on the maximum temperature and temperature uniformity within a cell.
 the effect of the fan speed on the maximum temperature and temperature uniform
within a cell.
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 4 of 19

2. Methodology
2.1. Battery Mathematical Model
2. Methodology
A Li-ion
2.1. Battery battery model,
Mathematical Model composed of large-format pouch cells connected in serie
a case, was considered.
A Li-ion Each
battery model, cell consists
composed of two pouch
of large-format current collectors,
cells connectedtwo electrodes,
in series in an
separator,
a case, was as shown inEach
considered. Figure 1 and Table
cell consists of two1.current
Cells are connected
collectors, in series via
two electrodes, andcopper b
a separator,
bars, the heatas shown in Figure
generation 1 and is
of which Table 1. Cells are connected in series via copper
neglected.
busbars, the heat generation of which is neglected.

Figure 1. The layers of a cell (µm).

Figure 1. The layers of a cell (µm).

Table 1. The thickness of each layer in a cell.

The effective physical properties of the battery, such as its thermal conductivity, s
cific heat, and density, are calculated using the following
Layer formulas:
Thickness (µm)
p
Positive current collector, δc 20
p 0.5𝑥 𝛿 + 𝑥 𝛿 + 𝑥80 𝛿 + 𝑥 𝛿 + 0.5𝑥 𝛿
Positive electrode, δe 𝑥 =
Separator, δs 𝛿20
p
Negative current collector, δc 114
p
Negative electrode, δe 15
𝛿 = 0.5𝛿 + 𝛿 + 𝛿 + 𝛿 + 0.5𝛿
Meanwhile,
The the electrical
effective physical conductivity
properties of the battery,is evaluated
such in Equations
as its thermal (3)specific
conductivity, and (4).
heat, and density, are calculated using the following formulas:
0.5𝜎 𝛿 + 𝜎 𝛿
p𝜎 p =
+ xs δs + 𝛿
p p
0.5x c δc + xe δe xen δen + 0.5x nc δcn
xe f f = (1)
δtotal
0.5𝜎 𝛿 + 𝜎 𝛿
p𝜎 =
+ δ𝛿en + 0.5δnc
p
δtotal = 0.5δc + δe + δs (2)
Meanwhile, the electrical conductivity is evaluated in Equations (3) and (4).
Table 1. The thickness of each layer in a cell.
p p p p
0.5σc δc + σe δe
σp = (3)
Layer δtotal Thickness (µm)
Positive current collector, 𝛿 20
0.5σnc δcn + σen δen
Positive electrode, 𝛿 σn = 80 (4)
δtotal
Separator, 𝛿 20
The specifications of the cells are summarized in Table 2, along with their thermo-
Negative current collector, 𝛿
physical and chemical properties.
114
Negative electrode, 𝛿 15

The specifications of the cells are summarized in Table 2, along with their ther
physical and chemical properties.
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 5 of 19

Table 2. The physical, thermal, and electrical properties of Li-ion battery module.

Property Value
Thermal conductivity, k b (W/m·K) 25.5
Specific heat, cb (J/kg·K) 566
Density, ρb (kg/m3 ) 2695
Electrical conductivity, σ+ (S/m) 3.77 × 107
Electrical conductivity, σ− (S/m) 5.96 × 107
Width × height × thickness (m) 0.249 × 0.227 × 0.008
Nominal voltage, Vn (V) 3.75
Nominal capacity, Qn (Ah) 52.3
Internal resistance, R (Ω) 6.1 × 10−4

Kim et al. [23] established a general multi-scale, multi-physics Li-ion battery model
framework to solve the coupled electrochemical, electrical, and thermal physics within a
cell. This approach was validated in the analysis of physical properties at various solution
domains, such as the particle, electrode, and cell. During the charging and discharging
process, the current flux is governed as follows:

∇·(σ+ ∇ ϕ+ ) = − j (5)

∇·(σ− ∇ ϕ− ) = j (6)
In ANSYS Fluent, the volumetric heat source comprises irreversible heat,
j[ E − ( ϕ+ − ϕ− )]; reversible heat, jT (dE/dTb ); and ohmic heat, (σ + ·∇2 ϕ+ + σ− ·∇2 ϕ− ),
as follows:
 
dE
qb = j E − ( ϕ+ − ϕ− ) − T + σ+ ·∇2 ϕ+ + σ− ·∇2 ϕ− (7)
dTb

2.2. PCM Mathematical Model

There are several considerations for PCM applications. First, the melting point should
be in the range between the ambient temperature and the heat source temperature. Second,
the melting latency characterizes how much energy can be stored during the phase change.
A longer melting latency means a higher energy efficiency of the system. Another criterion
is that PCMs should have high thermal conductivity to avoid thermal bottlenecks at the
source. Finally, the material should be chemically and physically stable over repeatable
fusion cycles [24]. From our literature review, a potential candidate was n-octadecane with
a solidus temperature of 301.15 K and a liquidus temperature of 303.15 K [25].
Venkateshwar et al. [26] enhanced heat transfer performance of pure n-octadecane
by integrating it with aluminum metal foam. The effective thermal conductivity of the
composite PCM in the solid and liquid states are determined by the following equations:

1 − A1
k s,e f f = A1 [ε·k s,PCM + (1 − ε)k MF ] + (8)
ε
+ k1−ε
k s,PCM MF

1 − A1
k l,e f f = A1 [ε·k l,PCM + (1 − ε)k MF ] + (9)
ε
+ k1−ε
k l,PCM MF

The thermal conductivity of 2.394 W/m·K can be achieved with a porosity of 0.972. The
details of the basic thermal properties of the composite PCM are presented in Table 3 [25,26].
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Table 3. The material properties of the composite PCM.

Energies 2023, 16, 7967 6 of 19
Property Solid Phase Mushy Zone Liquid Phase
Density, 𝜌 (kg/m ) 3 814 769 724
Specific heat, 𝑐 (J/kg·K) 2150 225,000 2180
Table 3. The material properties of the composite PCM.
Thermal conductivity, 𝑘 (W/m·K) 2.394 2.394 2.394
Pure solvent melting heat, 𝐿 (J/kg)
Property 225,000
Solid Phase 225,000
Mushy Zone 225,000Phase
Liquid
Density, ρ (kg/m3 ) 814 769 724
In ANSYS
Specific Fluent,
heat, c (J/kg ·K) the enthalpy–porosity
2150 is implemented
225,000 to address2180
phase-change
problems. The interface
Thermal conductivity, is not·explicitly
k (W/m K) tracked, and the 2.394
2.394 liquid fraction is 2.394
defined at each
Pure solvent
iteration basedmelting
on an heat, L (J/kg)
enthalpy balance 225,000
as follows: 225,000 225,000

𝛽=0 for 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑠

In ANSYS Fluent, the enthalpy–porosity is implemented to address phase-change
problems. The interface is not explicitly tracked, and
for the
𝑇 >liquid fraction is defined at each
𝑇𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑠
𝛽=1
iteration based on an enthalpy balance as follows: (10)
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑠
𝛽= β=0 for T < forTsolidus
𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑠 < 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑠
𝑇𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑠
β=1 for T > Tliquidus (10)
The energy equationβ = TforT −thermal
Tsolidus
behavior
for in
T the
solidus PCM
< T <domain
T is
liquidus considered as fol-
liquidus − Tsolidus
lows:
The energy equation for𝜕thermal behavior in the PCM domain is considered as follows:
(𝜌𝐻) + 𝛻 ∙ (𝜌𝒗𝐻) = 𝛻 ∙ (𝑘𝛻𝑇) + 𝑆 (11)
∂𝜕𝑡
(ρH ) + ∇·(ρvH ) = ∇·(k∇ T ) + S (11)
∂t
2.3. Numerical Computation and Validation
2.3. Numerical Computation and Validation
A model of a battery module with three cells in a case was considered, as shown in
FigureA2.model of a battery
The thermal module
behavior of with three cells
two different in a case
types was considered,
of cooling systems were as shown
investi-in
FigureThe
gated. 2. The
firstthermal
coolingbehavior
approach of is
two different
forced types of cooling
air convection systems
(Figure were
2a), and theinvestigated.
other is a
The first cooling approach is forced air convection (Figure
hybrid system combining forced air and PCM, in which a pouch-type battery was 2a), and the other is a hybrid
sand-
system between
wiched combining twoforced
layersairofandPCM PCM, in which
(Figure a pouch-type
2b). The thicknessesbattery
of the was
PCMs sandwiched
were 0.5
between
mm, 1 mm, two layers
1 mm, of PCM
and 0.5 mm (Figure
from 2b). The
left to thicknesses
right. of the PCMs
Three different levelswere 0.5speed
of fan mm, 1weremm,
1 mm, and 0.5 mm from left to right. Three different levels of fan speed were applied for
applied for airflow, as provided in Table 4.
airflow, as provided in Table 4.

Figure Geometryofofbattery
Figure2.2.Geometry batterythermal
thermalmanagement
managementsystem
system(mm):
(mm):(a)
(a)forced
forcedair
aircooling;
cooling;(b)
(b)forced
forced
air
airand
andPCM
PCMcooling.
cooling.

A hexahedral-based mesh system was generated for the battery, PCM, and air domains,
while the fan domain was divided by tetrahedral elements, as shown in Figure 3. The
total number of elements was about 4,344,000, with 435,027 for the battery domain, which
ensures that y+ is less than 1.
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21

Energies 2023, 16, 7967 7 of 19

Table 4. The specifications of fan were found at SENSDAR (Shenzhen, China).

Speed (rpm) Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

5000 0.00140
Table 4. The specifications of fan were found at0.00197
7000 SENSDAR (Shenzhen, China).
9000 0.00240
Speed (rpm) Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
A hexahedral-based mesh system was generated for
5000 the battery, PCM, and air do-
0.00140
mains,
7000while the fan domain was divided by tetrahedral0.00197
elements, as shown in Figure 3.
The total number of elements was about 4,344,000, with0.00240
9000 435,027 for the battery domain,
which ensures that y+ is less than 1.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Computational domain: (a) comprehensive view; (b) Grid on battery and PCM.
Figure 3. Computational domain: (a) comprehensive view; (b) Grid on battery and PCM.
The conjugate heat transfer scheme is employed with adiabatic boundary conditions
The conjugate heat transfer scheme is employed with adiabatic boundary conditions
on all surfaces, except the mass flow rate at the inlet and atmospheric pressure at the out-
on all
let. A k-ωsurfaces,
SST modelexcept the mass
was applied forflow rate at the
the turbulent inletBased
model. and atmospheric pressure at the outlet.
on the finite volume
A k-ω SST
method modelFluent,
in ANSYS was applied
the coupledfor algorithm
the turbulent model. Based
was implemented for on
the the finite volume method in
pressure–ve-
ANSYS
locity Fluent,
coupling. the coupled
In particular, algorithm was
the second-order implemented
interpolation schemeforwasthe pressure–velocity
used in the mo- coupling.
mentum, energy,the
In particular, andsecond-order
potential equations, while the PRESTO
interpolation schemescheme
was usedwas inused
theformomentum,
the energy,
interpolation of the pressure field.
and potential equations, while the PRESTO scheme was used for the interpolation of the
The procedure of the battery simulation was validated by Ho et al. [21], where the
pressure
same type offield.
Li-ion battery was modeled and compared to the experiment. The heat pro-
duction The procedure
within the batteryof the battery
mainly includessimulation
an irreversiblewas validated
source, bysource,
a reversible Ho etandal. [21], where the
sameheating.
ohmic type ofA Li-ion battery was
proper comparison modeled
between and compared
the simulating to the experiment.
and experimental battery The heat
temperatures
productionproved withina reliable 3D battery
the battery mainlymodel in terms an
includes of heat generation.source,
irreversible As shown a in
reversible source,
Figure 4, the error
and ohmic levelsAwere
heating. properwithin 0.5% for thebetween
comparison maximum thetemperature
simulating at and
the end of
experimental battery
discharge. In addition, the PCM modeling was also validated with Javani et al. [25] and
temperatures proved a reliable 3D battery model in terms of heat generation. As shown
showed excellent agreement with a small error of 0.8%.
in Figure 4, the error levels were within 0.5% for the maximum temperature at the end of
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21
discharge. In addition, the PCM modeling was also validated with Javani et al. [25] and
showed excellent agreement with a small error of 0.8%.
3C present present
110 3C Ho et al., 2020
340
Javani et al., 2014
5C present
100
5C Ho et al., 2020
Maximum temperature (°C)

Maximum temperature (K)

90 330

80
320
70
60
310
50
40 300
30
20 290
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)
Figure 4.of
Figure 4. Comparison Comparison
quantitiesofof
quantities
interestofforinterest for battery
battery and PCM and PCM validation:
validation: (a)(a)the
themaximum
maximum
battery temperature of the NTGK model in this study and by Ho et al. [21]; (b) transient response
battery temperature of the NTGK
for maximum modelininthethis
temperature cellstudy and cooling
with PCM by Ho in et the
al. [21]; (b)study
current transient
and byresponse for
Javani et al.
maximum temperature
[25]. in the cell with PCM cooling in the current study and by Javani et al. [25].

3. Results and Discussion

In this study, the effects of air convection and a PCM on the cooling performance of
a three-cell Li-ion battery module were numerically investigated at 3C and 5C discharge
rates. In addition, the results were compared by considering different fan speed levels.
 (a) (b)
Figure 4. Comparison of quantities of interest for battery and PCM validation: (a) the ma
battery temperature of the NTGK model in this study and by Ho et al. [21]; (b) transient re
for maximum temperature in the cell with PCM cooling in the current study and by Javan
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 8 of 19
[25].

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
In this study, the effects of air convection and a PCM on the cooling performa
In this study, the effectsLi-ion
a three-cell of airbattery
convection andwere
module a PCM on the cooling
numerically performance
investigated of 5C disc
at 3C and
a three-cell Li-ion battery
rates. module the
In addition, were numerically
results investigated
were compared at 3C and 5C
by considering discharge
different fan speed lev
rates. In addition, the results were compared by considering different fan speed levels.
3.1. Effect of Cooling Method
3.1. Effect of Cooling Method
Three different BTMSs, including forced air (a speed of 5000 rpm), PCM, and a
Three different BTMSs,
bination including
of forced air (aforced
speedair (a speed
of 5000 rpm)ofand5000
PCMrpm),
werePCM, and a com-
considered and compar
bination of forced air (a speed of 5000 rpm) and PCM were considered
thermal performance. With forced air convection, there was a decrease and compared of 8 °C and 1
for thermal performance.
at the end With
of theforced
3C and air5C
convection, thererespectively,
rate discharge, was a decreasebut of
with8 ◦aCsimilar
and slope
◦
10.2 C at the end of the 3C and
temperature rise5C ratetodischarge,
curve respectively,
no cooling, as shown in butFigure
with a5.similar slope that the
It is evident
of the temperature rise curvereduces
significantly to no cooling, as shown
the battery in Figure
temperature 5. Itthe
during is discharge
evident that the In the c
period.
PCM significantly reduces the battery temperature during the discharge period.
hybrid forced air and PCM cooling, the airflow has a negligible effect on thermal maIn the
case of hybrid forced
ment air
withandanPCM cooling,
indistinct the airflow
change has a negligible
in temperature. effect on thermal
It is noteworthy that the airflow
management with an indistinct change in temperature. It is noteworthy
hybrid system can cause the degradation of temperature uniformity, that the airflow
as shown in
in the hybrid system
5b. can cause the degradation of temperature uniformity, as shown in
Figure 5b.

80 No cooling 100 No cooling

Air cooling Air cooling
PCM cooling 90 PCM cooling
70
Maximum temperature (°C)

Maximum temperature (°C)

Air and PCM cooling Air and PCM cooling
80
60
70

50 60

50
40
40
30
30

20 20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)
Figuretemperature
Figure 5. The maximum 5. The maximum
of thetemperature of theduring
battery module batterydischarging
module during discharging
process process with v
with various
thermal
thermal management management
strategies: strategies:
(a) at 3C (a)5C
rate; (b) at at 3C rate; (b) at 5C rate.
rate.

At the end of the discharging process, the maximum battery temperature in the hybrid
cooling was slightly higher than in the PCM cooling due to the movement of air particles,
as observed in Figure 6. For hybrid cooling, the thermal energy generated by the battery
was dissipated through forced convection, in addition to the use of PCM. The inlet did not
align with the outlet, which formed a Z type. That led to complex airflow behavior, with
the formation of recirculation zones, as well as vortices, as shown in Figure 6b. Moreover,
when one particle gains thermal energy from the battery, it vibrates more rapidly and
collides with neighboring particles, transferring some of its energy to them. This process
continues, creating a chain reaction of energy transfer, resulting in the chaotic motion of
air particles. Therefore, the air particles encountered difficulties when exiting through the
outlet, resulting in the formation of a superheated air layer that surrounded the battery
model. In contrast, the heat transfer mechanism in PCM cooling is natural convection.
Based on the inherent buoyancy forces to drive the flow, the air motion occurred easily
and orderly through two outlets due to the temperature differences, as seen in Figure 6a.
Therefore, the thermal dissipation was more effective than the case of hybrid cooling.
Figure 7 displays the maximum temperature at the end of discharge for the 3C and
5C discharge rates. At the 3C discharge rate, the implementation of different cooling
strategies, i.e., forced air convection, PCM, and a hybrid system with forced air and PCM,
led to temperature reductions of 8.0 ◦ C, 35.8 ◦ C, and 34.5 ◦ C, respectively. Similarly, the
 over,
and when
orderlyone particle
through gains
two thermal
outlets due toenergy from the battery,
the temperature it vibrates
differences, more
as seen rapidly
in Figure 6a.
and collides with neighboring particles, transferring some of its energy to them.
Therefore, the thermal dissipation was more effective than the case of hybrid cooling. This pro-
cess continues, creating a chain reaction of energy transfer, resulting in the chaotic motion
of air particles. Therefore, the air particles encountered difficulties when exiting through
the outlet, resulting in the formation of a superheated air layer that surrounded the battery
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 9 of 19
model. In contrast, the heat transfer mechanism in PCM cooling is natural convection.
Based on the inherent buoyancy forces to drive the flow, the air motion occurred easily
and orderly through two outlets due to the temperature differences, as seen in Figure 6a.
temperature
Therefore, reductions
the thermal at the 5C
dissipation wasdischarge rate for
more effective thethe
than previously mentioned
case of hybrid cooling
cooling.
strategies are 10.2 ◦ C, 47.1 ◦ C, and 44.0 ◦ C.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. The streamlines of air are colored with temperature (°C) under 3C discharge rate: (a) PCM
cooling; (b) hybrid forced air and PCM cooling.

Figure 7 displays the maximum temperature at the end of discharge for the 3C and
5C discharge rates. At the 3C discharge rate, the implementation of different cooling strat-
egies, i.e., forced air convection, PCM, and a hybrid system with forced air and PCM, led
(a) (b)
to temperature reductions of 8.0 °C, 35.8 °C, and 34.5 °C, respectively. Similarly, the tem-
perature
Figure 6. 6.
Figure Thereductions
Thestreamlines atofthe
streamlines of 5C
airair discharge
areare
colored with
colored rate
temperature
with (◦ C)
for the previously
(°C)
temperature under mentioned
3C3C
under dischargecooling
rate:
discharge strate-
(a)(a)
rate: PCMPCM
cooling;
gies (b)
are hybrid
10.2 °C, forced
47.1 air
°C, and
and PCM
44.0 cooling.
°C.
cooling; (b) hybrid forced air and PCM cooling.

Figure 7 displays the maximum temperature at the end of discharge for the 3C and
5C discharge rates. At the 3C discharge rate, the implementation of different cooling strat-
egies, i.e., forced air convection, PCM, and a hybrid system with forced air and PCM, led
to temperature reductions of 8.0 °C, 35.8 °C, and 34.5 °C, respectively. Similarly, the tem-
perature reductions at the 5C discharge rate for the previously mentioned cooling strate-
gies are 10.2 °C, 47.1 °C, and 44.0 °C.

Figure 7.
Figure The maximum
7. The maximum temperature
temperature of
of battery
battery models
models at
at the
the end
end of
of 3C
3C and
and 5C discharge rates.

The thermal performance of hybrid cooling in this study was compared with those of
Singh et al. [14] to identify heat improvements. Singh et al. [14] examined the effectiveness
of forced air cooling integrated with PCM for a group of 25 cylindrical cells. The presence
of a 1 mm thick PCM layer and an air inflow velocity of 0.1 m/s reduced the battery
temperature by 30 ◦ C at the 1C rate and 45 ◦ C at the 5C rate. Similarly, our analysis yielded
a decrease
Figure of 34.5 ◦ Ctemperature
7. The maximum at the 3C rate and 43.9
of battery
◦ C at the 5C rate in the battery temperature.
models at the end of 3C and 5C discharge rates.
Moreover, the battery temperature in the case of PCM cooling was similar to the use
of hybrid cooling, as presented in Figures 7 and 8 in the study of Singh et al. [14]. A similar
thing can be observed in our results with a small difference in those two cooling methods.
From 5000 rpm to 9000 rpm of fan speed, the maximum battery temperature with hybrid
cooling decreased. If the fan speed is high enough (over 9000 rpm), the battery temperature
can decline lower than 32.12 ◦ C at the 3C rate and 47.01 ◦ C at the 5C rate, which is obtained
with PCM cooling.
The temperature difference across the module was higher in the case of forced air
cooling as compared to no cooling, as shown in Figure 8. Despite this, forced air cooling was
able to lower the average temperature. The PCM was successful in sustaining substantial
temperature uniformity at both the 3C and 5C discharge rates. This demonstrates that the
PCM and the hybrid cooling approaches meet the requirement for an optimal operating
temperature below 5 ◦ C, especially at the 3C discharge rate.
 obtained with PCM cooling.
The temperature difference across the module was higher in the case of forced air
cooling as compared to no cooling, as shown in Figure 8. Despite this, forced air cooling
was able to lower the average temperature. The PCM was successful in sustaining sub-
stantial temperature uniformity at both the 3C and 5C discharge rates. This demonstrates
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 that the PCM and the hybrid cooling approaches meet the requirement for 10 an
of 19
optimal
operating temperature below 5 °C, especially at the 3C discharge rate.

20 No cooling 30 No cooling
Air cooling Air cooling
PCM cooling PCM cooling

Temperature difference (°C)

Temperature difference (°C)

Air and PCM cooling 25 Air and PCM cooling
15
20

10 15

10
5
5

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)
Figure 8. The
Figure 8. The temperature temperature
difference difference
of battery of battery
module module
during during discharging
discharging process
process with with various
various
thermal management strategies: (a) at 3C rate; (b) at 5C rate.
thermal management strategies: (a) at 3C rate; (b) at 5C rate.
Figure 9 shows a comparison of the average temperatures of each cell using different
Figure 9 shows a comparison of the average temperatures of each cell using different
cooling
methods. It is evident the cell in the middle has a higher temperature among
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 ofthe
21
cooling methods. It is evident the cell in the middle has a higher temperature among the
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW three cells because of the narrowed airflow passage. 11 of 21
three cells because of the narrowed airflow passage.

70 Cell 1 100 Cell 1

Cell 2 Cell 1 Cell 2
70 Cell 1 100 90
60 Cell 3 Cell 2 Cell 3
Cell 2
90 80
60 Cell 3 Cell 3
50 80 70
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

50 70 60
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

40
60 50
40
30 50 40
30 40 30
20
20 30 20
10
20 10
10
0 10 0
No cooling Air cooling PCM cooling Air and PCM No cooling Air cooling PCM cooling Air and PCM
0 0
cooling cooling
No cooling Air cooling PCM cooling Air and PCM No cooling Air cooling PCM cooling Air and PCM
cooling cooling
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. A comparison of average temperatures of each cell with different cooling methods at the
Figure 9. A comparison of average temperatures of each cell with different cooling methods at the
end ofofdischarging
Figure 9. A comparison process in aofbattery
average temperatures module:
each cell (a) at 3C cooling
with different rate; (b)methods
at 5C rate.
at the
end of discharging process in a battery module: (a) at 3C rate; (b) at 5C rate.
end of discharging process in a battery module: (a) at 3C rate; (b) at 5C rate.
Heat generation was typically concentrated near the current-collecting tabs, as illus-
Heat generation
Heat generation was
trated intypically
was Figures 10
typically concentrated
and 11. Forced
concentrated near
nearair
the the current-collecting
convection effectively
current-collecting tabs,
dissipated
tabs, as illus- as illus-
more thermal en-
trated in Figures 10 and
ergy in 11.
the Forced
region on air
the convection
left, which is effectively
close to the dissipated
air inlet
trated in Figures 10 and 11. Forced air convection effectively dissipated more thermal en- in bothmore
the thermal
3C and 5C rates.
energy
ergyininthe regionMeanwhile,
theregion onthe
on theleft,the
left, cooling
which
which isperformance
close
is close toair
to the improved
theinlet
airininlet significantly
bothinthe
both theat5C
3C and therates.
3C bottom
and 5C region
rates. when
Meanwhile, the PCM
coolingcooling was
performance employed.
improved significantly at the
Meanwhile, the cooling performance improved significantly at the bottom region when bottom region when
PCMPCM cooling
cooling waswas employed.
employed.

Figure 10. Temperature distribution on battery surfaces at the end of discharge process in 3C rate
Figure 10. (°C). distribution on battery surfaces at the end of discharge process in 3C rate
Temperature
Figure 10. Temperature distribution on battery surfaces at the end of discharge process in 3C rate (◦ C).
(°C).
 Energies 2023, 16, 7967 11 of
Figure 10. Temperature distribution on battery surfaces at the end of discharge process in 3C19rate
(°C).

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21

3.2.
FigureEffect
Figure11. of Fan Speeddistribution
11.Temperature
Temperature distributiononon battery
battery surfaces
surfaces atend
at the the of
end of discharge
discharge processprocess ◦ C).rate
in (5C
in 5C rate
(°C).
3.2.1. Forced Air Cooling
3.2. Effect of Fan Speed
3.2.1.Although
Forced Aira Cooling
forced air convection-based cooling system using a fan contributes to bat-
tery heat dissipation,
Although a forcedthe airabsolute amount of
convection-based removed
cooling heatusing
system is insufficient due to to
a fan contributes the low
specific heatdissipation,
battery heat and thermal the conductivity
absolute amountcoefficient
of removed of heat
air. Moreover, the
is insufficient due presence
to the low of dust
and pollutants
specific heat andinthermal
airflow conductivity
can further decrease
coefficientthe
of thermal performance.
air. Moreover, At a of
the presence fandust
speed of
and pollutants
5000 in airflow can
rpm, the maximum further decrease
temperatures werethe thermal performance.
approximately 83 °C andAt a84fan
°C,speed of
as shown in
5000 rpm, ◦ C and 84 ◦ C, as shown in
Figure 12a.the maximum
While temperatures
the temperature were approximately
decreased only slightly 83 with each 2000 rpm interval, a
Figure fan
higher 12a. speed
While led
the temperature decreased only
to a lower maximum slightly with
temperature of theeach 2000 rpm
battery interval,
module a end
at the
higher fan speed led to
of the discharging process. a lower maximum temperature of the battery module at the end of
the discharging process.

90 5C, 5000 rpm 35 5C, 5000 rpm

5C, 7000 rpm 5C, 7000 rpm
80 5C, 9000 rpm 30 5C, 9000 rpm
Temperature difference (oC)
Maximum temperature (oC)

3C, 5000 rpm 3C, 5000 rpm

3C, 7000 rpm 3C, 7000 rpm
70 25
3C, 9000 rpm 3C, 9000 rpm

60 20

50 15

40 10

30 5

20 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12.
12. The battery module
The battery moduleisiscooled
cooled
byby
airair at various
at various levels
levels of speed
of fan fan speed during
during 3C5Cand 5C
3C and
discharging processes:(a)
discharging processes: (a)maximum
maximum temperature;
temperature; (b) (b) temperature
temperature difference.
difference.

The temperature
The temperature distribution
distributionbecame
becamemore
moreuniform
uniformasasthethespeed
speed ofof
the fan
the fanwas
was de-
creased. Based on Figure 12b, six cases did not meet the criterion of maintaining aa tem-
decreased. Based on Figure 12b, six cases did not meet the criterion of maintaining
temperature
perature difference
difference of less
of less than
than 5 ◦to
5 °C C balance
to balance
thethe battery
battery lifecycle
life cycleand
andefficiency.
efficiency. Table
Table 5 shows the temperature differences for discharge rates of 3C and 5C. At the 5C
5 shows the temperature differences for discharge rates of 3C and 5C. At the 5C discharge
discharge rate, the temperature change per 2000 rpm was highest, specifically around
rate, ◦the temperature change per 2000 rpm was highest, specifically around 2.17 °C from
2.17 C from 5000 rpm to 7000 rpm. In comparison to the 3C discharge rate, the temperature
5000 rpm to
difference 7000 rpm.
increased In comparison
rapidly during the 5Cto the 3C discharge
discharge rate,
at a shorter theperiod.
time temperature difference
increased rapidly during the 5C discharge at a shorter time period.

Table 5. The maximum temperature uniformity during discharging process with forced air cooling
(°C).

C-Rate 5000 rpm 7000 rpm 9000 rpm

3C 15.43 16.17 16.36
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 12 of 19

Table 5. The maximum temperature uniformity during discharging process with forced air cooling (◦ C).

C-Rate 5000 rpm 7000 rpm 9000 rpm

3C 15.43 16.17 16.36
5C 26.52 28.69 29.85

3.2.2. Hybrid System of Forced Air and PCM Cooling

The temperature elevation curve of the battery is affected by the PCM and undergoes
three stages: solid sensible heating, the latent heat of fusion, and liquid sensible heating.
Figure 13a illustrates the limited impact of the fan speed on the temperature reduction of
battery module. At the 3C discharge rate, the battery module obtained a peak temperature
of under 40 ◦ C, which is within the optimal temperature range. However, when discharged
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21
at a rate of 5C, the maximum temperature is above the optimal range, but still remains
within safe range below 60 ◦ C.

60 5C, 5000 rpm 15 5C, 5000 rpm

5C, 7000 rpm 5C, 7000 rpm
5C, 9000 rpm 5C, 9000 rpm
Temperature difference (oC)
Maximum temperature (oC)

3C, 5000 rpm 3C, 5000 rpm

50 3C, 7000 rpm 3C, 7000 rpm
3C, 9000 rpm 10 3C, 9000 rpm

40

5
30

20 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Thebattery
battery module
module is cooled
is cooled by by
air air
andand
PCMPCM at various
at various levels
levels ofspeed
of fan fan speed during
during 3C
3C and
and 5C discharging process: (a) maximum temperature; (b) temperature
5C discharging process: (a) maximum temperature; (b) temperature difference. difference.

Thecombination
The combinationof offorced
forced air
air and
and the
the PCM
PCM ininthe
thecooling
coolingsystem,
system,depicted
depictedininFigure
Fig-
13b,
ure was
13b, capable
was capableof of
maintaining
maintaining temperature
temperature uniformity
uniformity below5 5°C◦ Cwhile
below whiledischarging
dischargingat
at3C.
3C.However,
However,aamarked
markedincrease
increase inin temperature difference
difference was
wasnoticed
noticedforforaa5C
5Cdischarge
discharge
rate, especially after the
rate, especially after the initial 300 s. Table 6 reports the maximum values at various
s. Table 6 reports the maximum values at various fan
speeds.
fan speeds.

Table6.6.The
Table The maximum
maximum temperature
temperature uniformity
uniformity during
during discharging
discharging process
process with forced
with forced air andair
PCMand
PCM cooling
◦
cooling ( C). (°C).

C-Rate
C-Rate 5000 rpm
5000 rpm 7000 rpm
7000 rpm 9000
9000rpm
rpm
3C 3.53 3.07 2.83
3C 3.53 3.07 2.83
5C
5C 14.65
14.65 13.97
13.97 13.62
13.62

3.3. Effect of Fan Speed on Thermal Performance in Forced Air and Hybrid Cooling System
3.3. Effect of Fan Speed on Thermal Performance in Forced Air and Hybrid Cooling System
Figure 14 illustrates the maximum temperature of the battery module at the end of
Figure 14 illustrates the maximum temperature of the battery module at the end of
the discharging process at the 3C and 5C rates. Using the PCM substantially improved the
the discharging process at the 3C and 5C rates. Using the PCM substantially improved
thermal performance in the BTMS for all fan speeds. In the hybrid cooling system, the
the thermal performance in the BTMS for all fan speeds. In the hybrid cooling system, the
batterytemperature
battery temperature was
was reduced
reduced by by
26.526.5
◦ C, °C,
23.823.8 °C, and
◦ C, and 22.5 22.5
◦ C at°C
fanatspeeds
fan speeds ofrpm,
of 5000 5000
7000 rpm, and 9000 rpm, respectively, for the 3C discharge rate, when compared to forcedto
rpm, 7000 rpm, and 9000 rpm, respectively, for the 3C discharge rate, when compared
forced
air air cooling.
cooling. At the
At the 5C 5C discharge
discharge rate,values
rate, these these values correspond
correspond to 33.7to◦ C,
33.7 °C,◦ C,
32.1 32.1 °C,
and
and ◦
30.9 C.30.9 °C.
 the discharging process at the 3C and 5C rates. Using the PCM substantially improved the
thermal performance in the BTMS for all fan speeds. In the hybrid cooling system, the
battery temperature was reduced by 26.5 °C, 23.8 °C, and 22.5 °C at fan speeds of 5000
rpm, 7000 rpm, and 9000 rpm, respectively, for the 3C discharge rate, when compared to
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 forced air cooling. At the 5C discharge rate, these values correspond to 33.7 °C, 32.1
13 of°C,
19
and 30.9 °C.

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

Figure 14. Comparison of thermal performance of air fan at various speed levels.
Figure 14. Comparison of thermal performance of air fan at various speed levels.
Figures 15 and 16 present comparisons of the average temperatures of each cell using
forcedFigures 15 and
air cooling and16hybrid
present comparisons
cooling of the
under the 3C average temperatures
and 5C discharge ofThe
rates. eachuse
cellofusing
the
forced air cooling and hybrid cooling under the 3C and 5C discharge rates.
PCM helped to narrow the ranges of the temperature differences among the three cells. The use of the
PCM
The helped
cell locatedto in
narrow the ranges
the middle of module
of the the temperature differences
always obtained theamong thetemperature
highest three cells. The
in
both cases, including the forced air and hybrid methods, under the 3C rate as well in
cell located in the middle of the module always obtained the highest temperature as both
the
cases,
5C rate.including
Within the thecells,
forcedtheair and hybrid
fraction belowmethods, under
the average the 3C rate
temperature as well asfor
accounted thethe
5C
rate. Within the cells, the fraction below the average temperature accounted
larger volume at the end of the 3C discharge with forced air cooling. This was opposite for the larger
volume
for at theair
the hybrid end ofPCM
and the 3C discharge with forced air cooling. This was opposite for the
cooling.
hybrid air and PCM cooling.
80
Cell 1
70 Cell 2
Cell 3
Temperature (°C)

60

50

40

30

20
5000 7000 9000 5000 7000 9000
rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm
Air cooling Air and PCM cooling

Figure
Figure15.
15.Comparison
Comparison of of
average temperatures
average of each
temperatures cellcell
of each by different fan speeds
by different at theatend
fan speeds theof 3C-of
end
rate discharge
3C-rate within
discharge a battery
within module.
a battery module.

AtAtthe
theend
endofofthe
the5C
5Cdischarging
dischargingprocess,
process,the
thefraction
fractionbelow
belowthetheaverage
averagetemperature
temperature
occupiedaa wider
occupied wider volume
volume within
withinthe
thecells.
cells.However,
However, thethe
useuse
of the PCM
of the PCMalmost maintained
almost main-
a balance
tained between
a balance the higher
between and lower
the higher temperature
and lower volumes.
temperature volumes.
The temperature distribution on the battery surfaces depends on the discharge rate,
the
100cooling method, and the fan speed. Generally, the high temperature near the current-
collecting tabs was efficiently dissipated by the fan, as shown in Figures Cell
171and 18. Although
90 Cell 2
the heat on the left tabs was mostly eliminated, it still persisted on the right tabs because
Cell 3
of their
80 distance from the fan. Thus, the thermal energy was primarily concentrated on
Temperature (°C)

the right half of the battery module. The use of the PCM created an even heat dissipation,
70
resulting in a uniform temperature distribution. The surface of a battery is divided into
60
a higher temperature region at the top and a lower temperature region at the bottom. At
the 3C discharge rate, the temperature within the lower half fluctuated between 30 ◦ C and
50
30.5 ◦ C, and at the 5C discharge rate, it ranged from around 42 ◦ C to 44 ◦ C. With forced
air40
cooling, the temperature tended to rise from left to right, while with the hybrid air and
30
5000 7000 9000 5000 7000 9000
rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm
Air cooling Air and PCM cooling

Figure 16. Comparison of average temperatures of each cell by different fan speeds at the end of 5C
 20
5000 7000 9000 5000 7000 9000
rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm
Air cooling Air and PCM cooling

Figure 15. Comparison of average temperatures of each cell by different fan speeds at the end of 3C-
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 14 of 19
rate discharge within a battery module.

At the end of the 5C discharging process, the fraction below the average temperature
PCM
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW cooling,
occupied the increase
a wider volumewas from the
within bottom to However,
cells. top. In addition,
the usetheofthermal energy
the PCM was
15 of
almost 21
main-
highly concentrated in the right half when using forced air. Meanwhile, it was concentrated
tained a balance between the higher and lower temperature volumes.
in the upper half with the use of hybrid cooling.
dissipation,
100
resulting in a uniform temperature distribution. The surface of a battery is
divided into a higher temperature region at the top and a lower temperature Cellregion
1 at the
90 At the 3C discharge rate, the temperature within the lower half fluctuated
bottom. Cell 2 between
30 °C and 30.5 °C, and at the 5C discharge rate, it ranged from around 42 °CCell 3 °C. With
to 44
80
Temperature (°C)

forced air cooling, the temperature tended to rise from left to right, while with the hybrid
70 PCM cooling, the increase was from bottom to top. In addition, the thermal energy
air and
was highly concentrated in the right half when using forced air. Meanwhile, it was con-
60
centrated in the upper half with the use of hybrid cooling.
50
Forced air cooling systems enable the direct interaction of air particles with all sur-
faces of the battery, including the space between the cells. For high fan speeds, thermal
40
energy is effectively directed towards the outlet via airflow. At 3C discharge, with fan
speeds
30 of 5000 rpm, 7000 rpm, and 9000 rpm, respectively, the average outlet airflow tem-
perature was 5000 7000°C, and 42.0
47.1 °C, 44.2 9000 °C. At the
5000 7000 9000 process, the
rpm rpm rpm rpmend of therpm 5C dischargingrpm
corresponding temperatures
Air coolingwere measured as 61.8 °C, Air 56.9 °C,cooling
and PCM and 54.7 °C. It is worth
noting that the air temperature at the inlet was 25 °C. Based on the temperature distribu-
Figure
Figure 16. Comparison
16.
tion, battery surfaces of
Comparison ofaverage
may averagetemperatures of each
temperatures
be divided into two of cell by
each
regions: a different
cell fan with
by different
left region speeds at the end
fan aspeeds
lower at of end
the
temper-5C of 5C
discharging
discharging process
processwith a
with battery
a module.
battery module.
ature and a right region with a higher temperature.

5000 rpm The temperature distribution

7000 rpm on the battery surfaces depends on the discharge rate,
9000 rpm
the cooling method, and the fan speed. Generally, the high temperature near the current-
collecting tabs was efficiently dissipated by the fan, as shown in Figures 17 and 18. Alt-
hough the heat on the left tabs was mostly eliminated, it still persisted on the right tabs
because of their distance from the fan. Thus, the thermal energy was primarily concen-
trated on the right half of the battery module. The use of the PCM created an even heat

Forced air cooling

Air and PCM cooling

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Temperature distribution on
Temperature distribution on battery
battery surfaces
surfaces at
at the
the end
end of
of 3C
3C discharging
discharging process
process ((°C).
◦ C).

Using a hybrid cooling system, the battery surfaces were in direct contact with the
PCM rather than air. The majority of airflow passes over the front and back faces of the
PCMs, which have a large contact area. To ensure the effective cooling of the battery, it is
crucial to remove the heat stored in the PCM layers. The measurement of the liquid frac-
tion indicated that the PCM fully transitions to a liquid state at a 5C rate, while it preserves
 a partially solid phase in the lower region at a 3C rate. At 3C and 5C discharge rates, the
positive and negative tabs reached the highest temperatures of approximately 33 °C and
48 °C, respectively. The application of the PCM to those tabs was not feasible due to com-
plex electrical connections and a high risk of electrical failure. Therefore, the forced air
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 15 of 19
cooling method was the primary solution in these regions. The temperature change re-
mained stable in the horizontal direction.

5000 rpm 7000 rpm 9000 rpm

Forced air cooling

Air and PCM cooling

Figure 18. Temperature distribution on battery surfaces at the end of 5C discharging process (°C).
Figure 18. Temperature distribution on battery surfaces at the end of 5C discharging process (◦ C).

Two monitoring
Forced air coolingplanes
systems were selected
enable (referred
the direct to as Plane
interaction of air 1particles
and Plane with2 in
allFigure
surfaces2)
to the
of examine theincluding
battery, temperature and velocity
the space betweendistributions
the cells. Fornear thefan
high inlet and outlet
speeds, thermalof the case,
energy
aseffectively
is detailed indirected
Figures towards
19–22. Thetheforced
outlet air
viacooling
airflow.approach facilitated
At 3C discharge, a smooth
with airflow
fan speeds of
through the channel between two cells as well as the space between the
5000 rpm, 7000 rpm, and 9000 rpm, respectively, the average outlet airflow temperature was cell and the case.
However,
47.1 the
◦ C, 44.2 airflow
◦ C, was
and 42.0 considerably
◦ C. At the end ofweakened in the rearprocess,
the 5C discharging half around the outlet, re-
the corresponding
sulting in a higher temperature, as ◦
shown ◦
in Figures 19a◦ and
temperatures were measured as 61.8 C, 56.9 C, and 54.7 C. It is worth noting that20a. The higher fanthe
speed
air
produced higher
temperature at theairflow, ◦
inlet wasleading to a broader
25 C. Based cooling region.
on the temperature The cell positioned
distribution, in the
battery surfaces
middle
may experienced
be divided a lower
into two cooling
regions: effect
a left duewith
region to the narrow
a lower flow channel
temperature andbetween cells.
a right region
with a higher temperature.
Using a hybrid cooling system, the battery surfaces were in direct contact with the
PCM rather than air. The majority of airflow passes over the front and back faces of the
PCMs, which have a large contact area. To ensure the effective cooling of the battery, it is
crucial to remove the heat stored in the PCM layers. The measurement of the liquid fraction
indicated that the PCM fully transitions to a liquid state at a 5C rate, while it preserves
a partially solid phase in the lower region at a 3C rate. At 3C and 5C discharge rates,
the positive and negative tabs reached the highest temperatures of approximately 33 ◦ C
and 48 ◦ C, respectively. The application of the PCM to those tabs was not feasible due to
complex electrical connections and a high risk of electrical failure. Therefore, the forced
air cooling method was the primary solution in these regions. The temperature change
remained stable in the horizontal direction.
Two monitoring planes were selected (referred to as Plane 1 and Plane 2 in Figure 2)
to examine the temperature and velocity distributions near the inlet and outlet of the
case, as detailed in Figures 19–22. The forced air cooling approach facilitated a smooth
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 16 of 19

airflow through the channel between two cells as well as the space between the cell and the
case. However, the airflow was considerably weakened in the rear half around the outlet,
Energies
Energies 2023,
2023, 16,
16, xx FOR
FOR PEER resulting in a higher temperature, as shown in Figures 19a and 20a. The higher fan17
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 17speed
of
of 21
21
produced higher airflow, leading to a broader cooling region. The cell positioned in the
middle experienced a lower cooling effect due to the narrow flow channel between cells.

Figure
Figure 19.
19. Comparison
Comparison of of (a)
(a) temperature distribution
distribution ((°C)
temperature distribution
temperature and
◦ C) and
(°C) (b)
and (b) velocity
(b) velocity distribution
velocity distribution (m/s)
(m/s) at
distribution(m/s) at the
the
end
end of
of 3C
3C discharge
discharge for
for the forced
the forced air
forced air cooling
air cooling system.
cooling system.
system.

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21

Figure
Figure 20.
Figure 20. Comparison
20. Comparison of
Comparison of (a)
of (a) temperature
(a) distribution
distribution ((°C)
temperature distribution
temperature and
◦ C) and
(°C) (b)
and (b) velocity
(b) velocity distribution
velocity distribution (m/s)
(m/s) at
distribution(m/s) at the
at the
the
end
end of
of 5C
5C discharging
discharging process
process for
for the
the forced
forced air
air cooling
cooling system.
system.
end of 5C discharging process for the forced air cooling system.

The hybrid cooling method restricted the airflow passage through the channels due
to the placement of the PCM between the cells. Plane 2 has a lower temperature than Plane
1, which differs from the forced air cooling system. At the end of 3C discharge, the outlet
recorded average airflow temperatures of 25.8 °C, 26.0 °C, and 26.2 °C at 5000 rpm, 7000
rpm, and 9000 rpm, respectively. The recorded airflow temperatures were 27.9 °C, 28.7 °C,
and 29.2 °C at the end of 5C discharge. Moreover, on Plane 1, the PCM layers melted com-
pletely and became liquidus, which had a low specific heat. On Plane 2, the PCM layers
partly transformed and turned mushy, which reflected a huge energy storage. Conse-
quently, there was a considerable difference between the front half and the rear half, as
described in Figures 21a and 22a. The velocity distribution on Plane 2 was almost the same
at every fan speed under the 3C and 5C discharge rates. The air velocity near the outlet
would be high if the fan speed increased, which played a crucial role in the airflow path.

Figure 21. Comparison of (a) temperature

temperature distribution ◦ C) and
distribution ((°C) and (b)
(b) velocity
velocity distribution
distribution(m/s)
(m/s) at the
end of 3C discharge for the hybrid cooling system with air and PCM.
end of 3C discharge for the hybrid cooling system with air and PCM.
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 Figure 21. Comparison of (a) temperature distribution (°C) and (b) velocity distribution (m/s)17atofthe
19
end of 3C discharge for the hybrid cooling system with air and PCM.

Figure 22. Comparison

Comparison of (a) temperature distribution ◦ C) and (b) velocity
distribution ((°C) velocity distribution
distribution (m/s)
(m/s) at the
end of 5C discharge for the hybrid cooling system with air and PCM.
end of 5C discharge for the hybrid cooling system with air and PCM.

4. Conclusions
The hybrid cooling method restricted the airflow passage through the channels due
to the placement
This of the PCM
study investigated thebetween
thermalthe cells. of
behavior Plane 2 has
a Li-ion a lower
battery temperature
module consistingthan
of
Plane 1, which differs from the forced air cooling system. At the end
three pouch cells using a variety of cooling strategies such as forced air convection, PCM, of 3C discharge, the
outlet
and recorded
hybrid average
forced air andairflow
PCM temperatures of 25.8 ◦ C,
cooling. In particular, to 26.0
◦
focusC, onand 26.2 ◦ Capplication,
practical at 5000 rpm, a
7000 rpm, and 9000 rpm, respectively. The recorded airflow temperatures were ◦ C,
27.9 ac-
specific Li-ion battery model enclosed within a casing was taken into consideration,
28.7 ◦ C, andby
companied 29.2 ◦ C at the end of 5C discharge. Moreover, on Plane 1, the PCM layers
a three-dimensional fan model and the NTGK semi-empirical model for
melted
the completely
battery. The main and becameofliquidus,
findings this study which
can behad a low specific
summarized heat. On Plane 2, the
as follows:
PCM layers partly transformed and turned mushy, which reflected a huge energy storage.
• The PCM is significantly more effective at heat dissipation than forced air. At the end
Consequently, there was a considerable difference between the front half and the rear
stage of the discharging process, the maximum temperatures were 24.3 °C and 32.2
half, as described in Figures 21a and 22a. The velocity distribution on Plane 2 was almost
°C foratthe
the same 3C and
every 5C rates,
fan speed respectively.
under the 3C and In 5C
contrast,
dischargethe air cooling
rates. The method resulted
air velocity near
the outlet would be high if the fan speed increased, which played a crucial roleusing
in temperatures of 59.9 °C and 84 °C for the same rates. Interestingly, when in the a
hybrid
airflow path. cooling system that combines forced air and PCM, the airflow appears to have
a negligible effect on thermal management and yields an indiscernible change in tem-
perature.
4. Conclusions
This
This can
studybeinvestigated
attributed tothe a complex
thermalflow pattern
behavior of athat developed
Li-ion battery in the case
module as a result
consisting of
of the suboptimal design of the inlet and outlet.
three pouch cells using a variety of cooling strategies such as forced air convection, PCM,
•and hybrid
The hybrid
forcedcooling system
air and PCMmeets cooling.the operational
In particular, requirements
to focus on for Li-ionapplication,
practical batteries in
regard to maximum temperature and temperature uniformity
a specific Li-ion battery model enclosed within a casing was taken into consideration, at a discharge rate of
3C acrossby
accompanied allathree fan speeds. However,
three-dimensional fan modelat aand
discharge
the NTGK rate of 5C, the maximum
semi-empirical modeltem-
for
perature
the battery. Theremains within aofsafe
main findings thisrange
studyofcanbelow 60 °C, but the
be summarized as temperature
follows: difference
• exceeds 5 °C.
The PCM is significantly more effective at heat dissipation than forced air. At the
end stage of the discharging process, the maximum temperatures were 24.3 ◦ C and
32.2 ◦ C for the 3C and 5C rates, respectively. In contrast, the air cooling method
resulted in temperatures of 59.9 ◦ C and 84 ◦ C for the same rates. Interestingly, when
using a hybrid cooling system that combines forced air and PCM, the airflow appears
to have a negligible effect on thermal management and yields an indiscernible change
in temperature. This can be attributed to a complex flow pattern that developed in the
case as a result of the suboptimal design of the inlet and outlet.
• The hybrid cooling system meets the operational requirements for Li-ion batteries
in regard to maximum temperature and temperature uniformity at a discharge rate
of 3C across all three fan speeds. However, at a discharge rate of 5C, the maximum
temperature remains within a safe range of below 60 ◦ C, but the temperature difference
exceeds 5 ◦ C.
On battery surfaces, the thermal energy accumulated in the region near the current-
collecting tabs. Specifically, the heat dissipation on the left tabs was improved effectively
because the fan was close compared with the right tabs. In addition, the highest temperature
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 18 of 19

was always found in the middle cell. Further studies will be required for the positioning of
the inlet and outlet, as well as the effectiveness of combining liquid cooling methods.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.-T.H. and K.C.; methodology, V.-T.H.; software, V.-T.H.;
validation, V.-T.H. and K.C.; formal analysis, S.-W.L.; investigation, K.C.; resources, K.C. and S.-W.L.;
data curation, V.-T.H.; writing—original draft preparation, V.-T.H.; writing—review and editing,
V.-T.H. and S.-W.L.; visualization, V.-T.H. and S.-W.L.; supervision, S.-W.L.; project administration,
K.C. and S.-W.L.; funding acquisition, K.C. and S.-W.L. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Regional Innovation Cluster Development (R&D) by
the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE, Republic of Korea) (project name: Open
Innovation Project for Convergence Industry of Battery/Fuel Cell for Mobility Electrification and
Energy Production/Storage (P0025406)).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
A1 Correlation constant (0.35) ρb Battery density (kg/m3 )
c PCM specific heat (J/kg·K) σ Electric conductivity (S/m)
Effective electric conductivity for the
cb Battery specific capacity (J/kg·K) σ+
positive electrode (1/Ω)
Effective electric conductivity for the
E Open-circuit voltage (V) σ−
negative electrode (1/Ω)
H Enthalpy (J/kg) ϕ+ Phase potential of the positive electrode (V)
j Volumetric transfer current density (A) ϕ− Phase potential of the negative electrode (V)
k PCM thermal conductivity (W/m·K) Superscript
kb Battery thermal conductivity (W/m·K) n Negative
k s,e f f Composite thermal conductivity in solid state (W/m·K) p Positive
k s,PCM PCM thermal conductivity in solid state (W/m·K) Subscript
k MF Metal foam thermal conductivity (W/m·K) c Current collector
L Latent heat of material (J/kg) e Electrode
qb Overpotential heat rate (J/s) s Separator
Qn Nominal capacity (Ah) Abbreviations
R Internal resistance (Ω) 1S6P One series six parallel
S Source term AlN Aluminum nitride
T PCM temperature (K) BTMS Battery thermal management system
A measure of the rate at which a battery is
Tb Battery temperature (K) C-rate discharged relative to its maximum
capacity (1/Ω)
Tliquidus Liquidus temperature of PCM (K) EG Expanded graphite
Tsolidus Solidus temperature of PCM (K) Li-ion Lithium-ion
Vn Nominal capacity (V) LiFePO4 Lithium iron phosphate
v Fluid velocity vector NCM523 LiNi0.5 Co0.2 Mn0.3 O2
x Material property NTGK Newman, Tiedemann, Gu, and Kim
xe f f Effective property value PCM Phase-change material
Phase-change material and expanded
Greek letters PCM–EG
graphite
Phase-change material and pyrolytic
β Liquid fraction PCM-PGS
graphite sheet
δ Layer thickness (µm) PHEV40 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with 40 miles
δtotal Equivalent thickness (µm) PRESTO Pressure-staggering option
ε Porosity wt% Percentage by weight
ρ PCM density (kg/m3 )
Energies 2023, 16, 7967 19 of 19

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