6.

1 – Circular Motion

A-Level Physics:
0. Introduction
1. Measurements and their Errors
2. Particles and Radiation
3. Waves and Optics
4. Mechanics and Materials
5. Electricity
6. Further Mechanics and Thermal Physics
6.1 Circular Motion
6.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
6.3 Thermal Physics
7. Fields and their Consequences
8. Nuclear Physics
12. Turning Points in Physics

Objects moving in a curved path is just a special case of motion along

curved path. The main reasons that we focus on circular motion is that the
maths works out nicely and that there are countless examples of objects
moving in paths which, if not exactly circular, can be approximated as
such. The planets orbiting the Sun and the electron orbiting the atom are
two examples. There are plenty of examples of circular motion in our
everyday life: a CD spinning in a CD player, food in a microwave, a spinning
football, a loop-the-loop at the fairground, a car going around a
roundabout – these are all examples of circular motion.
There are three main parts to this booklet. In the first five sections, we
develop the necessary tools to understand circular motion. Sections 6 to 8
then look at applying these tools to three different types of situation.
There is only a small amount of new Physics here, but it can be applied to
a vast array of different circumstances. My aim is that it will be easier to
see the links between all the different types of problems if we break it
down like this. Section 10 onwards develops our ideas of circular motion
beyond the A-Level course and is intended for anyone looking for more to
quench thirst for more circular motion.
There are 7 sets of Mastery Problems embedded within the main text. The
problems focus on one specific skill that has been discussed in the
previous section. The aim here is to isolate different types of problems to
ensure we understand the key points before proceeding. The mixed
problems in Section 9 are intended to push you and require a greater
degree of problem solving.
As ever, I am always looking to improve my resources so please let me
know if there is anything that needs improving or any errors.
Mr Hynes
31/05/2020

Several Corrections Made

18/06/2020

Specification Reference
6.1 Circular Motion = AQA 3.6.1.1 Circular Motion
6.1 Circular Motion Contents
1. Angles & Radians ......................................................................................................... 4
2. Frequency & Time Period ......................................................................................... 5
3. Angular Speed, ω.......................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Angular Speed and Frequency ........................................................................ 6
3.2 Angular Speed and Linear Speed ................................................................... 7
4. Centripetal Force ...................................................................................................... 10
4.1 A Centrifugal Aside ........................................................................................... 11
5. Centripetal Acceleration ........................................................................................ 12
5.1 g-Forces ................................................................................................................ 12
5.2 *Proof of a = v2/r ............................................................................................... 13
6. Motion in Horizontal Circles................................................................................. 14
6.1 The Swinging Mass ........................................................................................... 14
6.2 A Note on Energy .............................................................................................. 16
6.3 Rounding the Bend ........................................................................................... 16
6.4 Take the A Train ................................................................................................ 17
6.5 Using Weight....................................................................................................... 18
6.6 Other Examples of Centripetal Force ........................................................ 19
6.7 More Worked Examples ................................................................................. 19
7. Conical Pendula and Banked Turns ................................................................... 22
7.1 More Mass on a String ..................................................................................... 22
7.2 The Conical Pendulum .................................................................................... 23
7.3 Banked Turns ..................................................................................................... 24
8. Motion in a Vertical Circle ..................................................................................... 28
8.1 Mass and String ................................................................................................. 28
8.2 Loop the Loop..................................................................................................... 28
8.3 Bucket of Water ................................................................................................. 30
9. Mixed Problems......................................................................................................... 32
10. *Friction ..................................................................................................................... 37
10.1 Investigating Friction ................................................................................... 37
10.2 Modelling Friction .......................................................................................... 39
10.3 Friction Problems........................................................................................... 40
10.4 Bends Reloaded .............................................................................................. 43
10.5 Motorbike Turns ............................................................................................. 44
10.6 The Spinning Terror ...................................................................................... 45
11. *Non-Inertial Frames & Fictious Forces........................................................ 47
12. *Moment of Inertia ................................................................................................ 47
13. * Angular Momentum ........................................................................................... 47

Important Note: Sections marked with a * and/or indented with a blue bar like this go
beyond the course specification and are non-examinable. They build on the core content
to help you build your understanding of circular motion. There are many parallels
between circular and linear motion and these topics are designed to give the more
advanced student a wider circular experience!
1. Angles & Radians
If an object is moving along a circular path, it makes more sense to refer
to its position on the circle using a radius r and an angle θ, as opposed to
coordinates x and y. For circular motion, r will remain constant and θ will
change, as shown in the diagram opposite.
We saw in the waves topic that it is sometimes more convenient to use
radians as a unit to measure an angle. But where does the radian come
from? In Figure 2, we see the angle θ in radians is defined as the ratio of
the arc length s to the radius r, in other words
𝑠
𝜃=
𝑟
If s = r then it follows that θ = 1 rad. Therefore, 1 radian is the angle Figure 1.
subtended at the centre of a circle by and arc equal in length to the radius.
When s = 2πr (the circumference of a circle of radius r), then θ = 2π radians
= 360°. Hence

360° = 2𝜋 radians
So why bother using radians then? Degrees can be useful – the number
360 has 24 divisors and is divisible by every number between 1 and 10,
other than 7. This is a very useful property when discussing angles.
However, radians can prove very useful when simplifying trigonometric
expressions for small angles. The details are not necessary here, but it can
be shown that
sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 if 𝜃 is small and measured in radians.
We will not be using that here, but it is always good to know why we do Figure 2
things. It is called the small angle approximation, should you want to go
and find out more.

Example 1.1: A toy car moves around a circular track of radius 0.60 m. If
the car travels 1.8 m along the track, what angles has the car moved
through?
𝑠 1.8 360
𝜃= = = 3.0 rad = 3.0 × = 172°
𝑟 0.6 2π

Mastery Problems A – Angles & Radians

1. Without the use of a calculator, convert the following angles into radians in terms of π:
360°; 180°; 90°; 60°; 30°; 45°; 20°; 270°; 150°; 22.5°; 80°; 300°.
2. Without the use of a calculator, convert the following angles into degrees:
3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 11𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
4 6 10 2 6 3 3 12 8 9
3. Express the following angles in radians:
35°; 82°; 53°; 71°; 44°.
4. Express the following angles in degrees:
2.86 rad; 4.21 rad; 1 rad; 3.47 rad; 3 rad.
2. Frequency & Time Period
Circular motion is a type of periodic motion. This means the motion
repeats itself over a certain time interval. We can therefore use time
period and frequency to describe circular motion:
Time period, T = time taken for one complete revolution [s].
Frequency, f = number of revolutions per second [s-1 = Hz]
where,
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Note: a more commonly used unit for frequency for everyday objects is
revolutions per minute, often abbreviated to rpm.

Example 2.1: A cyclist is racing around a circular velodrome at a constant

speed. Their time for each lap is 23 s. How many revolutions of the track
per minute does the cyclist do?
𝑇 = 23 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑓 = 1/𝑇 = 0.0435 Hz
Hence, 𝑓 = 0.0435 × 60 = 2.6 rpm

3. Angular Speed, ω
We can use the distance travelled and the time taken to calculate the speed
of a journey for an object travelling in a straight line. This is known as the
linear speed. If a car travels 1 mile in 1 minute, it travels at a speed of 1
mile/minute, which is equal to 60 mph.
Similarly, we can use the angle travelled and time taken to calculate the
angular speed, ω of an object. If the fairground ride in Figure 3 rotates
through 2 radians in 1 s, we say the fairground ride has an angular speed
`of 2 radians per second, or rad s-1. We define ω as the rate of change of
the angle:
∆𝜃
𝜔= Figure 3
∆𝑡
ω = angular speed [rad s-1]
Δθ = change in angle [rad]
Δt = change in time [s]

Note: the distinction between instantaneous speed and average speed

that applied to linear speed also applies to angular speed. If the angular
speed of an object is changing, then the formula above gives the average
angular speed. The instantaneous angular speed would have to be found
out using the derivative of θ with respect to time, but that is beyond the
course scope.
Angular speed tells us how fast an object is rotating. In the next two Figure 4
sections, we will explore how angular speed is related to frequency and
linear speed.
3.1 Angular Speed and Frequency
Frequency tells us how often an object rotates around a point and so does
angular speed, so how are the two related? The answer lies in the units:
f → revolutions per second
ω → radians per second
To illustrate this, imagine a fairground ride like the one in Figure 3. It takes
5 s for a rider to complete a full rotation. Hence, T = 5 s, which implies
f = 1/5 = 0.25 Hz. This means that the ride completes 0.25 revolutions per
second. One revolution is 2π radians, so the radians per second, or angular
speed, is
𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋 × 0.25 = rad s−1
2
This demonstrates that f is related to ω by the following relation:

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Using 𝑓 = 1/𝑇, this also gives us:
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇

Mastery Problems B – Angular Speed

1. Complete the questions in the table by 3. Express 0.20 rad/minute in revs. per hour.
converting the units: 4. Express 50 degrees/minute in revs. per
hour.
T/s f / Hz ω / rad s-1 Revs. per
5. A car wheel turns 6.0 radians in 0.20 s.
min. (rpm)
0.50 (a) (b) (c)
Calculate the angular speed of the wheel.
(d) (e) 3.0 (f) 6. A car wheel turns 32° in 10 ms. Calculate the
(g) (h) (i) 3800 angular speed of the wheel.
(j) 50 (k) (l)
2700 (m) (n) (o) 7. The London Eye completes two revolutions
in one hour. Calculate the:
a. time period;
2. Calculate the angular speeds and time b. frequency;
periods of: c. angular speed.
a. a CD rotating at 100 rpm;
b. a fan blade rotating at 5.2 rpm;
c. a record player rotating at 33.3 rpm
d. the Earth about its axis;
e. the second hand on a clock;
f. the minute hand on a clock;
g. the hour hand on a clock.
3.2 Angular Speed and Linear Speed
Imagine a merry-go-round in a children’s playpark – a firm favourite of the
tiny human. If you’re whizzing around at a constant angular speed, in
which direction is your velocity? As shown in Figure 5, your direction is
continuously changing when you are moving in a circle. Therefore, the
direction of the velocity keeps changing even though you are moving at a
constant speed.
If you were to freeze this motion at any point, you would see that the
direction of motion, and therefore the velocity, are both tangential to the
circular path – hence it is often referred to as the tangential velocity.
There is no component of the velocity in the radial direction at any instant
as it is at 90° to the radial direction.
Now, say you’re on this merry-go-round of radius 2.0 m with a friend. The
ride is making a full rotation every second. You’re on the very edge of the
disc whereas your friend is only 0.4 m from the centre. They say the round- Figure 5
about travels slower closer to the centre – are they correct? Let’s
investigate.

The time period for the ride is 1 s so both you and your friend are
travelling at the same angular speed. We can calculate the distance
travelled for each person by calculating the circumference of the two
circular paths. In one full rotation, at the edge of the ride you travel a
distance of 2𝜋 × 2.0 ≈ 13 m whereas your friend travels 2𝜋 × 0.4 ≈ 3 m.
You both completed one rotation in the same time of 1.0 s, therefore, you
must have travelled faster if you travelled further in the same time. Your
linear speed must be larger. Hence:
For an object undergoing circular motion, the tangential
velocity increases as you move away from the centre of
rotation. Figure 6

Now let’s derive the equation for this. Say a particle is moving in a circle
with a constant angular speed ω. The particle travels through an angle θ
from A to B in a time t, as shown in Figure 7. Since the particle is travelling
at a constant angular speed, it must also be travelling at a constant
tangential speed v, though its direction is changing so it is not travelling at
a constant linear velocity. We know therefore that
Arc length AB
𝑣=
𝑡
Figure 7
since the distance travelled from A to B is along the arc of the circle. Using
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃, we know that
𝑟𝜃
𝑣=
𝑡
And then using 𝜔 = 𝜃/𝑡 gives us our result

𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟

ω = angular speed [rad s-1]

v = tangential speed [m s-1]
r = radius [m]

Notes:
• You may have noticed an apparent inconsistency with units in the
above equation: if v has units of [m s-1] and r has units of [m] then
surely the units of ω should be
[m s-1]/[m] = [s-1] ≠ [rad s-1]
Good spot if you did! It’s because technically speaking, radians have
no dimensions. The definition of a radian comes from the formula
𝜃 = 𝑠/𝑟 where arc length and radius are both measured in metres.
Therefore, technically speaking, an angle in radians is defined by a
ratio of two lengths and therefore has no dimensions. In other
words, don’t worry about unit inconsistencies when it comes to
radians!
• The velocity is always tangential to the circular path at a given
instance. The speed may be constant but the velocity isn’t!
• The angular speed needs to be in radians/second [rad s-1] to use
this equation.
• The tangential speed may be refered to as the linear speed or the
instantaneous speed. They all mean the same thing.
Example 3.1 – a particle moves round a circle in 10 seconds at a constant
speed of 15 m s-1. Calculate the angular speed of the particle and the radius
of the circle.
The particle rotates through an angle of 2π rad in t = 10 s therefore,
𝜔 = 𝜃/𝑡 = 2𝜋/10 ≈ 0.63 rad s−1
And then we can use 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 to give us
𝑣 15
𝑟= = ≈ 24 m
𝜔 0.628

Mastery Problems C – Linear Speed

1. A disc is rotating about its centre with 5. Student A notices that the tip of the second
angular velocity ω. Point P is on the disc at a hand appears to move faster on larger clocks
distance of d from the centre of the disk and than those on smaller clocks. Student B says
has a linear speed of v. this is not possible since both second hands
a. ω = 6.0 rad s-1, d = 0.20 m, find v. will have the same angular speed on any
b. v = 5.0 m s-1, d = 0.40 m, find ω. clock. Explain Student A’s observation.
c. v = 10 m s-1, ω = 2.5 rad s-1, find d. 6. In order to avoid supersonic effects,
helicopter blades are designed so that the tip
2. A fairground Big Wheel carriage is 8.0 m of the blade does not exceed the speed of
from the centre of the wheel, which is sound, which is 340 m s-1 in air. The blades
rotating at 10 revs. per minute. Find the rotate at 260 rpm. Calculate the maximum
speed of the carriage. length of the blades.
7. At a well, a bucket is attached to a thin rope
3. My washing machine has a spin speed of which is round around a cylinder. The
1200 rpm, and a drum radius of 25 cm. bucket is raised and lowered by turning the
Calculate the linear speed of clothes at the cylinder. The cylinder has a radius of 10 cm.
edge of the drum. a. If the cylinder is turned at 1 rev/second,
at what speed will the bucket ascend?
4. A particle moves along a circular path of b. The well owner decides to change the
radius 4.0 m with an angular speed of cylinder so that when it is turned
30 rad s-1. 1.0 rev/second, the bucket will ascend a
a. Calculate the linear speed of the particle. 1.0 ms-1. What is the radius of the new
cylinder?
b. Calculate the frequency in revs. per
second. c. State any assumptions you have made in
solving this problem.
c. Calculate the time taken for one
revolution.
4. Centripetal Force
Consider swinging a ball on the end of a string around your head at a
constant speed. Why does the ball keep moving in a circle? It should be
obvious in this example that it is the tension in the string that keeps the
ball moving in a circle. If you were to let go of the ball, it would fly off in a
straight line at a tangent at the point where you let go. Figure 9 shows a
ball on a string which if let go at point B, would continue in a straight line
at a tangent to the circular path at B.
Figure 8

Figure 9 - Ball flying off at a tangent.

Figure 10

We call this force provided by the string that keeps the ball moving in a
circle the centripetal force. We will see that this force always points to
the centre of rotation, perpendicular to the path of the body at any point
in its circular path. This makes sense; the ball wants to fly off in a straight
line but the string pulls it back around in a circle.
But why is this force necessary? We discussed earlier how the velocity of
a body moving in a circle is continually changing because the direction of
motion is continually changing. Therefore, since the velocity of the body is
continually changing, we can say the body is accelerating. Now, according
to Newton’s 2nd Law, there must be a resultant force acting on the body
that is accelerating.
But, if the body is moving at a constant speed, at no point must there be a
component of this force in the direction of motion of the ball. If there was,
the ball would not travel at a constant speed. Hence, it follows that the
force acting on the ball must always be perpendicular to the motion.
The resultant force of an object moving on a circular path
must always be perpendicular to the tangential velocity
and directed towards the centre of its path.

This argument about the requirement of a centripetal force for

circular motion is essential to our understanding of circular motion.
Re-read the last section and reproduce the argument in our own
words on paper.
4.1 A Centrifugal Aside
“But hold up sir – I’ve been in a car and when we drive around a
roundabout, I feel like I’m being pushed away from the centre of the
circle, not towards the centre. I’ve heard the phrase ‘centrifugal force’
before, which refers to a force acting outwards from the centre.
Shouldn’t we call it a centrifugal force instead?”
This is the most common source of confusement when studying circular
motion – I remember being a very confused A-Level physicist myself! The
answer comes from the fact that when you are inside the car, your point
of view is distorted because you are accelerating. Hear me out.
Imagine you’re on a train cruising at a constant speed. Everything seems
normal – other than the slight vibration from the tracks, it is impossible to
tell that you are moving. You decide now seems to be a good time to pop
to the loo. Just as you get out of your seat and step into the aisle, the train
brakes hard – what happens next? Indeed, you go flying forward, tripping
over your feet and you faceplant the deck in truly spectacular fashion.
What was this force that pulled you forwards? There was none! The train
merely decelerated and because of Newton’s 1st Law, you wanted to carry
on moving forwards, so you did.
This is the same as the roundabout. As you go round the roundabout, the
car changes direction (it accelerates) but you, because of Newton’s 1st law,
want to carry on in the straight line. This is best imagined when viewing
the situation from above, as shown in Figure 11. As the car turns left, you
continue moving in a straight line and move to the right until you hit the
side of the car which provides the centripetal force to keep you going
round in a circle. You weren’t really pushed outwards, your reference
Figure 11
frame merely accelerated – just like when the train brakes.
*Here’s another way of looking at it. We humans have an intuitive instinct
to relate forces with motion and vice versa. We instinctively want to apply
Newton’s 1st Law and say that something will only start moving when a
force acts on it. However, when we are in a frame of reference that is
accelerating, Newton’s 1st Law does not apply. In these frames of
reference, it does appear that there is some centrifugal force pulling you
outwards but stepping outside this frame of reference as in Figure 11
shows us this force does not really exist. They are only necessary to make
Newton’s 1st Law apply to accelerating reference frames. The centrifugal
force is an example of a fictious force. Others include the Euler force and
Coriolis force, the latter being responsible for the tendency of weather
systems to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere.
Anyhow, all we need to know is:
Never ever use the term centrifugal force!
An object moving with circular motion has a force
direction towards the centre called the centripetal force.

In order to quantify the size of the centripetal fore, we first need to

investigate centripetal acceleration in the next section. The section after
will then look at how we can calculate the size of the centripetal force and
different examples of centripetal force.
5. Centripetal Acceleration
We saw in the last section that body undergoing circular motion is
accelerating, since it is continually changing direction and hence velocity.
Like the centripetal force, the direction of the centripetal acceleration is
always towards the centre of the circular path and it can be shown (see
section 5.2) that the magnitude of the acceleration is given by

𝑣2
𝑎=
𝑟

a = centripetal acceleration [m s-2] Figure 12

v = tangential speed [m s-1]
r = radius [m]

We can use this equation in conjunction with 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 to derive an equation

for centripetal acceleration in terms of ω,

𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟
These two equations are the most important in the topic.
The acceleration of a particle moving at a constant speed
v along a circular path of radius r has a magnitude of v2/r
and is directed towards the centre of the circle.
This is the most important statement in the topic of circular motion which
encompasses the most important new physics.

Example 5.1 – a particle moves in a horizontal circle or radius 2.0 m at a

constant speed of 3.0 m s-1. Find the acceleration of the particle.
The particle is moving with uniform circular motion, therefore the
acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle and has a
magnitude of
𝑣 2 32
𝑎= = = 4.5 m s−2
𝑟 2

5.1 g-Forces
When you are in a car going round a bend, you can feel the effects of
centripetal acceleration. It is often referred to as a ‘g-force’ in common
parlance because centripetal accelerations are often expressed in units of
the gravitational field strength, g. If a certain fairground ride had a
centripetal acceleration of 2g, this means that
𝑎 = 2𝑔 = 2 × 9.81 ≈ 20 m s−2
The amount of g-force a human can withstand depends on duration and
direction of the force. Forces parallel to the length of the body can reduce
blood circulation to the brain, causing unconsciousness. A centrifuge is the
general name for a spinning device that utilises centripetal forces. In the
video below, a rather large centrifuge is used to train fighter pilots to deal
with g-forces. Video
5.2 *Proof of a = v2/r
The proof of this equation is not required for this course – it is only for
your interest! You can read about it on page 24 of Breithaupt or a slightly
different proof here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNX-Z6XR3gA

Mastery Problems D – Centripetal Acceleration

1. A particle moves with a constant speed of 3.0 7. When a wet sock is spun in a washing
m s-1 around a circular path of radius 50 cm. machine, the drum rotates at high speed.
Find the centripetal acceleration of the Water in the sock escapes through the holes
particle. in the drum. In the diagram, the radius of the
drum is 28 cm and the drum rotates at 860
2. A particle moves with a constant angular
rpm.
speed of 2.0 rad s-1 around a circular path of
1.5 m. Calculate the centripetal acceleration
of the particle.
3. Rider in a bobsleigh experience high g-
forces. Calculate the centripetal acceleration
of a bobsleigh that is moving at 33 ms-1 and
is on a corner of radius 38 m.
4. A record is revolving at 45 revs/minute.
Points A, B and C lie on the record at 5.0 cm,
10 cm and 20 cm from the centre
respectively. Find the accelerations of A, B
and C. a. Calculate the speed of the rim of the
drum.
5. An aircraft waiting to land at a busy airport
b. Estimate the acceleration of the sock.
is circling at a constant height at 500 km h-1.
The passengers experience an acceleration c. Explain why the water escapes through
of 0.40g m s-2. Find the radius of the circle. the holes in the drum.

6. An astronaut, as part of her training, is spun 8. The designer of a loop-the-loop ride in an

in a horizontal circle of radius 5.0 m. If she amusement park wants to create an
can withstand a maximum acceleration of acceleration of 4g at the bottom of a loop of
8g, what is the maximum angular speed at radius 8.0 m. At what speed should the car
which she can remain conscious? be moving to produce this acceleration?

We will now investigate three different types of circular motion problems

in the following three sections:
i) motion in horizontal circles,
ii) motion in horizontal circles where the centripetal force is the
horizontal component of a force e.g. conical pendula and banked
turns,
iii) motion in vertical circles.
6. Motion in Horizontal Circles
In this section, we will use the equation for centripetal acceleration to
calculate centripetal force and apply this to objects moving in horizontal
circles. We will begin by first continuing to look at a mass on a string and
laying out the general method and results. We then proceed to look at Figure 13 - General Method
other examples applying the same method.

6.1 The Swinging Mass

Consider whizzing a mass m on a string around our head in deep space.
You do it in such a way that the mass undergoes circular motion at a
constant speed v. We’re in deep space so the mass has no weight and
therefore the only force is the centripetal force provided by the tension in
the string. We’ll see why later!
First thing as always is draw a nice diagram and label the forces acting on
the ball. There is only the tension force T acting on the object. Then we
continue as ever in mechanics and resolve forces. We choose to resolve
forces in the direction of T, as this is also the direction of the centripetal
acceleration a. Hence, by Newton’s 2nd Law F = ma,
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎
We can substitute in the equation for centripetal acceleration to find
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇=
𝑟
And then using 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 gives us
𝑇 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
So, in general, we can say that the resultant centripetal force on an object
undergoing circular motion is given by

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
Why am I stressing resultant here? Because in section 7, we will see
problems where there is more than one force acting and so we shall have
to find the resultant force in the radial direction. In every problem, I
strongly advise you to resolve forces like any other mechanics problem
but simply add on the equation for centripetal acceleration. There is no
place for blindly applying an equation in A-Level Physics!
Before having a look at another example, let’s analyse our result. Force
increases with the mass and speed of the object moving in a circle. It makes
sense that a faster and more massive object will need more force to keep
continually changing its direction. For a given linear speed, the force
decreases as the radius of the circle increase. This is because at a larger
radius, the rate at which the direction of the object is changing is smaller
– in other words, the corner in less tight.
We can relate this back to our discussion about cornering in a car from
earlier – what sort of bend would you feel the largest force when going
around a corner? It would be when you were going faster and when the
bed was tighter (smaller radius).
Obviously, this assumes we are taking the corners at the same linear
speed. If we were to take the corners at the same angular speed, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
shows that a larger radius corner would have the greatest centripetal
force. Cars don’t have angular-speedometers though so this is less useful!
Here’s the General Method for solving circular motion problems:

1. Resolve Forces
2. Use Newton’s 2nd Law and a = v2/r

Example 6.1 - A particle of mass 0.30 kg moves in a circular path with an

angular velocity of 8.0 rad s-1 under the action a centripetal force of 2.0 N.
Calculate the radius of the path.
The only force acting is the centripetal force. Resolving forces therefore
gives us:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
We can rearrange this for r to get our answer:
𝐹 2
𝑟= 2
= = 0.10 m
𝑚𝜔 0.3 × 82

Example 6.2 – Calculate the tension force required to keep a 1.5 kg mass
in circular motion at the end of a 2.0 m piece of string with a frequency of
80 rpm.
Alarm bells should be going off as soon as you see a non-standard unit.
Sort this out first before we forget!
𝑓 = 80 rpm ⇒ 𝑓 = 1.33 Hz
The only force acting on the ball is the tension force T, which acts as the
centripetal force. Resolving forces gives us
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎 = = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
We know that 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, hence
𝑇 = 𝑚(2𝜋𝑓)2 𝑟 = 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑓 2
Which gives us our answer
𝑇 = 4𝜋 2 × 1.5 × 2.0 × 1.332 = 210 N
6.2 A Note on Energy
Is the total energy of the ball changing at all as it travels in a circle at a
constant speed? Let’s investigate:
Kinetic – speed constant therefore kinetic store constant
Gravitational – height of ball remains constant in horizontal circle
therefore GPE remains constant.
So, in the absence of air resistance, the total energy of the ball remains
constant. But surely the centripetal force acting on the ball does some
work on the ball which changes the energy of the ball? Well, work done is
given by 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠, where F is the force and s is the distance moved through
so surely we would just multiply the centripetal force by the
circumference of the circle to find the work done in one rotation? What’s
wrong there?
We’ve made a mistake in our definition of work done. It is the component
of the force in the direction of the distance travelled. In other words, 𝑊 =
𝐹𝑠 cos 𝜃, where θ is the angle between the force and the motion. Since the
centripetal force is perpendicular to the motion, this means W = 0. Since
work done is the energy transferred, this means that the centripetal force
transfers no energy to the ball, in line with our previous statement that the
total energy remains constant.
The centripetal force does no work.

6.3 Rounding the Bend

What provides the centripetal force for a car going round a roundabout?
The weight of the car acts downwards and the contact force pushes
upwards on each tyre. The only other force acting is the friction between
the tyres and the road. Friction is the force that opposes relative motion
between two surfaces. The inertia of the car wants to continue in a straight
line, so it is the friction between the tyres and the road that provides the
necessary centripetal force to move the car with circular motion.
Friction provides the centripetal force for a car going
around a bend.
The frictional force F acting on the car in the diagram is the only force
acting in the horizontal plane, therefore when we resolve forces inwards, Figure 14 - Note: technically, there
we arrive at should be a frictional force and contact
force on each tyre.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
from Newton’s 2nd Law. Then we use our equation for centripetal
acceleration to get
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
in the same way as the previous example. This tells us that a certain
frictional force is required for a car of mass m, travelling at speed v, to
round a bend of radius r. If the friction is not large enough for a certain
bend, speed or mass, then the car will skid. In other words, driving in a
certain car round a particular bend, the maximum speed you can take the
corner at is completely independent of driver skill and depends only on
the maximum frictional force.

6.4 Take the A Train

Trains go round bends too, so we can solve problems with trains as well
as cars – yes, the excitement is unbearable. Here’s a diagram of a train on
a track turning to the left. What provides the centripetal force here?

Most textbooks and some exam questions claim the centripetal force is
provided by reaction force from the outer rail on the wheel flange.
However, this is technically incorrect. The flanges are merely a safety
mechanism in case the real mechanism fails.
In reality, the wheels of a train are slightly conical. This means the train
tilts slightly going around a corner, causing the reaction force on the
outside wheel to have a larger component directed towards the centre of
the circle, thus providing the centripetal force. A more intuitive
explanation involves the distance travelled and the size of the wheel,
which is explained in videos linked below.
All we need to know is:
A component of the reaction between the wheel and the
track provides the centripetal force for a train going
around a bend.
Extra stuff on trains round bends if you’re interested:
Video 1
Video 2
Video 3
Here’s a quick diagram of a conical wheel, travelling in a straight line on
the left diagram and rounding a left hand turn into the page on the right
diagram. The horizontal components of the reaction force are balanced on
the left but there is a resultant horizontal component on the right.

Figure 15 - Normal contact forces on conical wheel (forces not to scale).

6.5 Using Weight
A common setup for investigating circular motion and also for
examination questions is shown in the diagram opposite. It consists of a
hollow tube with a piece of string threaded through. There are masses m1
and m2 on either side of the string. The first mass, m1, moves with circular
motion in a horizontal plane. With the hollow tube example, a person may
be holding the tube above their head and swinging the mass. Other
arrangements in exam questions may have the top mass rotate on a
smooth table attached to masses through a hole in the centre of the table
– the physics is the same.
But why is this setup useful? Like our other examples, the centripetal force
is supplied by the tension in the string. However, the tension is caused by
the mass m2 which is hanging vertical downwards. This allows us to keep
the centripetal force at an easily measurable and constant value. Let’s
derive an expression for the time period of the setup.
Resolving the force on m1, we have:
𝑚1 𝑣 2
𝑇=
𝑟
As T is the only horizontal force acting on m1. Here, we have assumed m1
is moving in a horizontal circle. We can then get this in terms of ω
since 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 ⇒ 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝜔2 𝑟
and then in terms of the time period τ
2𝜋 4𝜋 2 𝑚1 𝑟
since 𝜔 = ⇒ 𝑇=
𝜏 𝜏2
I used τ for time period as not to get confused with T for tension.
Okay, that’s as far as we can get with m1 – so let’s resolve forces upwards
on m2. The same tension force that pulls the first mass in pulls the second
mass up – hence we have
𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔
We can then set our two equations for T equal to each other to get
4𝜋 2 𝑚1 𝑟
𝑚2 𝑔 =
𝜏2
And then rearrange for time period, τ

4𝜋 2 𝑚1 𝑟 𝑚1 𝑟
𝜏=√ = 2𝜋√
𝑚2 𝑔 𝑚2 𝑔

So, for a fixed radius of orbit r, the time period τ of the motion is constant
– provided m1 and m2 are kept the same. In other words, the time period
only depends on the radius.
See if you can use a straw or an empty biro, some string and two
lumps of blue tack to replicate this experiment. By measuring the
masses and measuring the time period of circles of different radius,
could you use this apparatus to measure g?
6.6 Other Examples of Centripetal Force
Later in the course, we will use the powerful concept of fields to
investigate the gravitational, electric and magnetic forces. During this
work, we will see how we can use our knowledge of circular motion to
explain many concepts. The three key points for later learning will be:
1. We can model the electron moving around the nucleus as circular
motion where the centripetal force is provided by the electric force.

2. We can model the orbits of planets as circular motion where the

centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force.

3. A charged particle in a magnetic field moves with circular motion.

This follows from Fleming’s left hand rule – the magnetic force is
always perpendicular to the current (motion of charges) and so
provides the centripetal force for the charge to move in a circular
path.
I say this now as I believe it is important to try and make connections going
forward as well as looking back.

6.7 More Worked Examples

Example 6.3 – Alasdair, Bilal, Charlotte and Dylan are having a whale of a
time skating. Their latest move involves them holding hands with their
arms outstretched in a line as shown below.

They are all a similar size with a mass of 50 kg and the average span from
left to right hand is 1.5 m. When they rotate, Alasdair rotates on the on the
spot and the others move in a circle around him. If the angular speed of
the group is 3.2 rad s-1, calculate:
a. the linear speed of each skater,
b. the forces required between each pair to keep them in circular motion.
First things first, let’s draw a nice diagram.

Lovely stuff. The diagram shows us that Dylan’s linear speed must be the
largest as he travels the furthest. In order to calculate each person’s linear
speed, we use 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 with subscripts to denote each person as follows:
𝑣A = 𝜔𝑟A = 3.2 × 0 = 0 m s−1
𝑣B = 𝜔𝑟B = 3.2 × 1.5 = 4.8 m s−1
𝑣C = 𝜔𝑟C = 3.2 × 2(1.5) = 9.6 m s−1
𝑣D = 𝜔𝑟D = 3.2 × 3(1.5) = 14 m s −1
Now we need to work out the forces between each pair. Let’s call the force
between Alasdair and Bilal T1, the force between Bilal and Charlotte T2 and
the force between Charlotte and Dylan T3. This is shown in the diagram
below.

We have used Newton’s 3rd Law here, since we know the force Alasdair
pulls Bilal with is equal and opposite to the force Bilal pulls on Alasdair
with. The trick here is to analyse the motion of each person one at a time.
Let’s start with Dylan because he only has one force acting on him, T3. He
moves in a circular of radius 𝑟D = 4.5 m, therefore
𝑇3 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟D = 50 × 3.22 × 4.5 = 2300 N
Charlotte moves in a circle of radius 𝑟C = 3.0 m but has two forces acting
on her: T2 pulls her towards the centre of the circle whilst T3 pulls here
away from the centre of the circle. Hence, resolving forces, we have
𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟C
⇒ 𝑇2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟C + 𝑇3
⇒ 𝑇2 = (50 × 3.22 × 3.0) + (50 × 3.22 × 4.5) = 3800 N
Finally, Bilal moves in a circle of radius 𝑟B = 1.5 m with two forces acting
on him: T1 inwards and T2 outwards. Therefore,
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟B
⇒ 𝑇1 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟C + 𝑇2
⇒ 𝑇1 = (50 × 3.22 × 1.5) + (50 × 3.22 × 3.0) + (50 × 3.22 × 4.5)
𝑇1 = 4600 N
This shows us that the size of the force between each pair reduced as you
move away from the centre of the circle. This demonstrates the
importance of not just blindly applying 𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟, as that would have
suggested the force increased. The reason is that Bilah is not just keeping
himself moving in a circle with the force T1, but he is keeping Charlotte
and Dylan moving in a circle as well.
It should be noted that here we have assumed that the skaters are not
using their skates to provide any frictional force towards the centre and
we have modelled that skaters a particles. In reality, friction would
provide some of the centripetal force and spatial extent of the skaters
mass would have an effect – that’s beyond A-Level Physics though!

Mastery Problems E – Horizontal Circles

1. A particle of mass 0.20 kg moves in a circular 6. We discussed how the string provides the
path with an angular speed of 5.0 rad s-1 centripetal force for a mass being swung
under the action a centripetal force of 4.0 N. around in a horizontal circle. Provided
Calculate the radius of the path. everything else remains constant, what
happens to the tension in the string if the
2. What force is required to cause a body of
time period of rotation is halved?
mass 3.0 g to move in circle of radius 2.0 m
at a constant rate of 4.0 revs. per second? 7. A satellite of mass m is orbiting the Earth on
a circular path at a height of 100 km above
3. A particle of mass 80 g rests at 16 cm from
the surface. At this height, the acceleration
the centre of a turntable. If the maximum
due to gravity is 9.5 m s-2. Take the radius of
frictional force between the particle and the
the Earth as 6400 km. For the satellite,
turntable is 0.72 N, what is the maximum calculate :
angular speed at which the turntable could a. the force exerted on it towards the
rotate without the particle slipping?
centre of the Earth
4. What is the force necessary to keep a mass of b. its tangential speed
0.80 kg revolving in a horizontal circle of c. its angular speed
radius 0.70 m with a period of 0.50 s? d. the time taken to perform one orbit.

5. A piece of string has a breaking strength of 8. A ride at the funfair consists of cars which
300 N. Calculate the shortest time period a are made to move in a horizontal circle of
2.0 kg mass can be swung round in a radius 4.0 m, a t a rate of 0.40 revs/second.
horizontal circle of radius 1.8 m. A girl of mass 45 kg is riding in the car. Find
the horizontal and vertical components of
the force exerted by the car on the girl.
7. Conical Pendula and Banked Turns
In every problem we have looked at so far, the force providing the
centripetal force has always been directed into the centre of the circular
path. This is not always the case.

7.1 More Mass on a String

If you’ve ever swung something around your head, you may have noticed
we missed something when we discussed it in section 6.1. If you haven’t
tried it, now’s your chance. Find something that will work a mass on a
string system and spin it around your head. A wired computer mouse will
do! You should notice that the string does not lie horizontally flat, but
diagonally with the mass below the fixed end of the string. As you increase
the angular speed for a given radius, the mass rises which decreases the
angle between the string and the horizontal. However, no matter how fast
you spin the mass, it will never be completely horizontal – why?

Figure 16 - Increasing angular speed from left to right.

When we looked at the mass on the string system in section 6.1, we

simplified the problem and neglected the weight of the object. There are
two forces acting on the mass:

i) its weight (mg) acting downwards,

ii) the tension in the string (T).
Since there are two forces acting on the mass, resolving forces vertically
shows it us that it is impossible for the tension to act horizontally. There
needs to be a vertical component of the tension acting vertically upwards
Figure 17
to counteract the weight pulling down. Hence, the mass moves in a
horizontal circle below where the string is fixed, and the string sweeps out
a cone.
Now, let’s resolve forces to derive an equation for the angular speed. Note
that we have defined θ as the angle between the vertical and the string due
to convention. We resolve forces in the vertical plane to give us
𝑇 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
Then resolving horizontally and using 𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟 gives
𝑇 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
We see that it is only the horizontal component of the tension that
provides the centripetal force. Turning the mathematical handle and
dividing the horizontal equation by the vertical equation gives us
𝑇 sin 𝜃 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
=
𝑇 cos 𝜃 𝑚𝑔
Everybody brought mass to the party (video) which leaves us with
𝜔2 𝑟
tan 𝜃 =
𝑔
Cool. To take this further, let’s consider a swinging chairs fairground ride
Figure 18
shown in the Figure 18. The rope has a fixed length l which is related to θ
and r by some simple trigonometry (Figure 19)
𝑟
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑙
So, if we substitute this expression for r back into our equation, this gives
us
𝜔2 𝑙 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝜔2 𝑙 sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = ⇒ =
𝑔 cos 𝜃 𝑔
Then finally, a little rearranging gives us
𝑔
𝜔=√
𝑙 cos 𝜃 Figure 19

Tidy. What does that tell us? If you have ever seen swinging chair ride,
you’ll know that the ride starts off slow and then as the ride speeds up, the
chairs swing outwards, just like our mass on the end of the string did
before. Relating that to our expression, as ω increases, θ should increase.
In our expression, g and l are both constants for a given ride – convince
yourself that our expression agrees with our observation.

7.2 The Conical Pendulum

If you suspend a mass from a piece of string, it is referred to as a pendulum
and after some time, it will come to rest at its point of equilibrium. If you
displace the mass from this equilibrium point, it will oscillate about the
point of equilibrium – oscillations will be the topic after circular motion.
More interestingly for us, if we displace the mass and give it a tangential
velocity, the mass will move in a horizontal circle. It is referred to as a
conical pendulum as the string sweeps out a cone.
A conical pendulum is just a fancy name for a mass on a string moving in a
horizontal circle – don’t be fooled!
7.3 Banked Turns
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JodRZSFmOhY
Racing tracks back in the old days had banked turns to allow the cars to
take corners at greater speed. As cars became faster, this practice became
dangerous and was eventually banned. The best modern example of a
banked turn is in the velodrome. Cycling in a velodrome is the most
amazing experience – you go round in circles without having to turn at all!
But why do banked turns allow you to corner at greater speeds?
Let’s look at the forces acting on a car on banked turn shown in Figure 20.
The weight of the car pulls it vertical downwards whilst the normal
reaction acts perpendicular to the surface. We can see that the horizontal
component of the normal reaction pushes the car towards the centre of its
circular path and therefore contributes towards the centripetal force. This
explains why banking allows for faster cornering. We have ignored friction
for now – you will see why later.
If the car is cornering at a constant height on the banked turn, they are
moving along a horizontal circular path. We first resolve vertically where
there is no acceleration to get
Figure 20 – technically, there is a reaction
𝑅 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 force on each wheel but we have just
grouped them into one force here for ease
Then resolving horizontally (since the car is moving in a horizontal circle) of use.

and using 𝑎 = 𝑣 2 /𝑟 gives,

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅 sin 𝜃 =
𝑟
This should look familiar: it is exactly the same maths as the conical
pendulum, but instead of tension T, it’s the normal reaction, R. Turning the
mathematical handle in the same way as with the conical pendulum and
dividing the horizontal equation by the vertical gives us
𝑣 2 𝜔2 𝑟
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑔𝑟 𝑔
For example, for a corner banked at θ = 30° and with r = 5 m, the speed
required is 28 m s-1. At this speed, the car will follow the banked turn
without relying on friction at all. Below this speed, and you will be relying
on friction pushing you up the slope to stop you from slipping down the
slope. Above this speed, you’ll be relying on friction pushing down the
slope to stop you sliding up the slope.
This also tells us that the faster you want to take a certain corner, the
greater the angle θ needs to be, should you wish not to rely on friction.
This is seen in old racetracks and velodromes where the angle of the
banking increase as you move away from the centre of the turn.
But it is not just cars and bikes - trains can have banked turns to reduce
wear on the wheels. Aeroplanes also need to take corners at an angle, so
the horizontal component of the lift force provides some on the centripetal
acceleration.

Example 6.3 – Eddy Merckx goes into a turn banked at 26° to the
horizontal with a radius of 41 m at a speed of 14 m s-1. Will he require
friction to hold his line?
We will assume no friction and see if the numbers match. To do this, we
proceed in the same way as before: draw a force diagram (above) and then
resolve forces vertically and horizontally
Eddy Merckx is widely regarded as
the greatest cyclist to have ever
R(↑) 𝑅 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 lived. In 1972, he set the hour record
for cycling 49.4 km in 1 hour. This
𝑚𝑣 2 record stood for over 20 years
R(⟵) 𝑅 sin 𝜃 = despite massive technological
𝑟
evolution in that time. The current
Then dividing gives us our standard result record is 55 km. What makes
Merckx’s record remarkable is he
𝑣2 completed it at altitude in Mexico
tan 𝜃 = City on a standard issue track bike –
𝑔𝑟 no aerodynamic carbon fibre in
sight. Furthermore, he completed
Entering our values for v, g and r gives the record after a full season of
racing where he won the Tour de
−1
142 France and the Giro d’Italia, amongst
𝜃 = tan ( ) = 26° countless other races. These days,
9.81 × 41 folks attempting the record clear
their calendar and train specifically
which was our given angle for banking. Therefore, at this speed, Eddy will for the event with a wealth of sports
hold his line without relying on friction. Any faster and he will rely on science behind them. His ferocious
appetite for victory earned him the
friction pulling him down the slope to stop him sliding upwards. nickname of ‘The Cannibal’.
Example 6.4 – In 2016 Guy Martin broke the recorded for the fastest
speed on a wall of death. He travelled at 78 mph on a vertical wall in a
circular track of diameter 37.5 m. The combined mass of Guy and his bike
was 250 kg. Calculate:
a. the frictional force required;
b. the reaction force required;
c. the g-force Guy was subjected to.
If you are unfamiliar with The Wall of Death, I suggest a quick YouTube
search. It’s basically a banked turn where θ = 90 °.
First up, let’s see what we know:
𝑣 = 78 mph = 34.869 m s−1
75
diameter = 37.5 m ⇒ 𝑟 = m
4
To answer this question, we will model the bike and rider as a particle.
This means we can ignore the more complicated toppling effects that may
arise. For the bike to remain in a horizontal circle, the weight pulling
downwards must be equal to the frictional force pushing up. Therefore,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 250 × 9.81 = 2.5 kN
This is quite a large force! Resolving forces horizontally we see that the
centripetal force is provided by the reaction force. This is now in the
horizontal direction as we are on a vertical road. Hence, we have
𝑚𝑣 2 250 × 34.8692
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 = = = 16 kN
𝑟 75/4
The g-force is calculated by working out the centripetal acceleration
𝑣 2 34.8692
𝑎= = = 64.8 m s −2 = 6.6𝑔
𝑟 75/4
A large but manageable amount a g-force. Most Wall of Death tracks, or
‘drums’ as they are called, are no more than 10 m in diameter. Attempting
speed of 70 mph would spell certain death due to g-forces of 24g. This is
why Guy’s Team built the massive Wall of Death track for him.
A proper treatment of The Wall of Death requires a deeper understanding
of friction. This is added as an extra in Section 10.
Mastery Problems F – Banked Turns & Conical Pendula
1. A particle of mass 0.20 kg is attached at one 5. The diagram below shows the forces acting
end of a light inextensible string of length 50 on a car going round a banked turn. The
cm. The particle moves in a horizontal circle radius of the turn is 10 m.
with an angular speed of 5.0 rad s-1 with the
string inclined at θ to the vertical. Find the
value of θ.

2. A particle of mass 3.0 kg is attached to one

end of a light inextensible string of length
0.25 m. The particle moves in a horizontal
circle and the string sweeps out the surface
of a cone. The maximum tension that the
string can sustain is 35 N. Find the maximum
Calculate the resultant centripetal force and
angular speed of the particle. hence the speed of the car round the bend.
6. Felicity is about to attempt The Wall of Death
3. Calculate the time period of a conical
in her hatchback and you’ve been asked to
pendulum which has a string length of 0.60
help her crunch the numbers. The circular
m and is at an angle of 58° to the vertical. track has a radius of 5.0 m and the combined
mass of her and her car is 1200 kg. If Felicity
4. A certain conical pendulum has a time travels at 15 m s-1, calculate:
period T on Earth. Express the time period of a. the frictional force required,
the same conical pendulum on the Moon in b. the reaction force required,
terms of T. c. the g-force Felicity was subjected to.
8. Motion in a Vertical Circle
So far, we have just looked at objects moving in horizontal circles. Here,
the weight always points perpendicularly to the plane of the circular path
and therefore never contributes to the centripetal force. However, this is
not the case for vertical circles – let’s take a look.

8.1 Mass and String

Imagine we’ve got our mass on a piece of string but instead of whirling it
around our head pretending to be a cowboy, let’s whirl it round in a
vertical circle in front of us.
The important difference with spinning the mass in a vertical circle is that
it would be difficult for us to try and spin it with a constant speed. Gravity
is pulling the mass down, so the mass will be moving faster at the bottom
of the circle that at the bottom. The mass may be going round at a constant
frequency of once per second, but the speed is changing throughout its
journey.
Furthermore, you will notice when spinning the mass around in a vertical
circle that the tension in the string does not remain constant either. As a
general rule:
For objects moving in a vertical, do not assume that the
tension or the speed remain constant.
This is important as it changes the way we approach objects moving in a
vertical circle. Here is the general rule:
For objects moving in a vertical circle, resolve forces and
apply our circular motion equations at certain points.
We will leave our vertical mass on a string here and move to the
fairground – woop!

8.2 Loop the Loop

The best place to start with vertical circles is a loop the loop on a
rollercoaster or a skatepark. Watch the following video. Why does a
skateboarder fall down at the top of the loop the loop? If you watch, you
can see it’s because gravity pulls them down faster than the track curves Figure 21 - Forces during a vertical circle.
round in front of them. In other words, they are not going fast enough so Note: neither the speed or the reaction
they lose contact with the track. Let’s consider the forces acting on the force are constant.
boarder at the top, bottom and halfway either side of the loop.
As we can see in the diagram, the reaction force from the
surface always contributes to the centripetal force. However,
the weight always points downwards. Therefore, hallway up
or down the loop, there is component of the weight acting
horizontally. At the top of the loop, the weight contributes to
the centripetal force whereas at the bottom, it opposes it.
For now, we will resolve forces at the top of the loop, as this is
why the boarders fall off. This gives us
2
𝑚𝑣top
𝑅top + 𝑚𝑔 =
r
Note that in this expression, I have denoted the reaction force and speed
at the top of the loop because they vary throughout the loop.
What does this expression tell us? Well, we said that there is a minimum
speed required to make a given loop the loop. Below this speed, you lose
contact with the track. Hence, to find this minimum speed, we can set
𝑅top = 0 , which gives us
2
𝑚𝑣top
𝑚𝑔 =
r
Everybody brought mass to the party, leaving us with
2
𝑣top
𝑔=
r
𝑣2
Before we rearrange for vtop, have you noticed anything? top is the
r
centripetal acceleration of the bucket so the above statement says that
when Rtop = 0, the centripetal acceleration is equal to g. This links to what
we said before about the boarder falling faster than the track curves. This
expression further demonstrates this as if the centripetal acceleration is
less than the acceleration due to gravity, the skater will fall downwards.
Therefore Rtop = 0 and atop = g are equivalent criteria for the boarder
successfully making a loop the loop.
Getting back on track, let’s rearrange for vtop to get
𝑣top = √𝑔𝑟
which is he minimum speed at the top of the loop in order to make the
loop. This isn’t very useful for us – we want to know how high the ramp
needs to be to reach this speed at the top. To solve this problem, we are
going to need to consider the energy changes from the top of the ramp to
the top of the loop. We will assume that there is not energy lost to friction.

By the conservation of energy, we know that the energy at point A (top of

the ramp) must be equal to the energy at point B (top of the loop). If we
assume the rider starts from rest at A, then we know the kinetic energy at
B is equal to the change in gravitational potential energy between A and
B. In other words:
𝐸A = 𝐸B
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣B2 + 𝑚𝑔(2𝑟)
2
 ⇒ 𝑣B2 = 2𝑔(ℎ − 2𝑟)

⇒ 𝑣B = √2𝑔(ℎ − 2𝑟)

Now by substituting the above equation into 𝑣top = √𝑔𝑟 , we get

√2𝑔(ℎ − 2𝑟) = √𝑔𝑟

2(ℎ − 2𝑟) = 𝑟
Giving us our final answer for the height of the ramp to be
5
ℎ= 𝑟
2
An interesting result – the ramp only needs to be half a radius higher than
the top of the loop in order to successfully for the loop. In reality, it may
need to be slightly higher to account for frictional effects. We could have
taken an extra step and calculated the kinetic energy at the bottom of the
loop first, to work out the entry speed of the rider.

8.3 Bucket of Water

A personal favourite party trick of mine is spinning a bucket full of water
over my head in a vertical circle. Excellent fun. But why does the water
stay in the bucket?
One way to consider the problem is similar
to how we looked at the skater problem.
The water stays in the bucket because the
centripetal acceleration is greater than the
acceleration due to gravity. The bucket
takes the water round in a tighter arc than
gravity alone would take the water. If the
bucket was swinging round with 𝑎 < 𝑔,
then the arc of projectile motion would be
smaller than the arc of the circular path and
the water would fall out.
This video explains this point well:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zulw5bQ18Kk
Now, let’s calculate the minimum angular speed required to keep the
water in the bucket. Let’s say the bucket is on a length of string l and the
mass of water is m. We
The reaction force from the bucket on the water always acts inwards.
why at the top
2
𝑅top + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝜔top 𝑙
2
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝜔top 𝑙
which cancels to
2
𝑔 = 𝜔top 𝑙
 𝑔
𝜔top = √
𝑙
This gives us the minimum angular speed at the top of the circle for water
not to fall out of the bucket
It is important to stress that the necessary criteria for the water not to fall
out the bucket is the reaction force on the water from the bucket
𝑅top ≤ 0 OR 𝑎top ≥ 𝑔. We showed in the skater problem that these two
criteria are equivalent!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TIBcntHCxjQ
This video states that the condition for water falling out is when the
tension in the rope is zero. Technically speaking, the tension force is acting
on the bucket and not the water in the bucket. It gives us the same result
though.

Mastery Problems G – Vertical Circles

1. A bucket of water is swung in a vertical circle 3. A car just leaves the road when it passes over
or radius r in such a sway that the bucket is a semi-circular hump of radius 36 m.
upside down when it is at the top of the Calculate the speed of the car.
circle. Derive an expression for the
4. The TV show ‘Fifth Gear’ decided it would be
minimum speed of the bucket at this point if
an excellent idea to get someone to drive a
the water is to remain inside the bucket. See
family car over a loop the loop track 43 feet
how far you can get without looking back at
high.
the notes!
a. Calculate the speed the car needs to be
2. An aeroplane loops the loop in a vertical going at the bottom of the loop to
circle of radius 200 m, with a speed of maintain contact at the top.
40 m s-1 at the top of the loop. The pilot has b. Calculate the g-force experienced by the
a mass of 80 kg. Calculate the tension in his driver as he enters the loop.
strap holding him into his seat at the top of c. Watch the video to see if you are correct!
the loop. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w
iZoVAZGgsw
9. Mixed Problems
First, complete the end of topic Examination Style Questions in Breithaupt,
pages 30-33.
The Mixed Problems that follow are intended to be a challenge – seek
assistance from your peers or myself should you have any problems.

Example 9.1 – A small bead of mass m is threaded on a smooth circular

wire of radius r and centre O, and is fixed in the vertical plane. The bead is
projected with a speed u from the highest point, A, of the wire. Find the
reaction on the bead due to the wire when the bead is at P, in terms of m,
̂ P.
g, r, u, and θ where 𝜃 = AO
A bead on a wire is new territory for us so let’s try and get a good physical
picture of what’s going on. I find it helps to imagine those wiggly counting
machines you may have seen as a child – that’s what the question means
by a bead on a wire.
The interesting difference with a bead on a wire is that the bead will
always stay on the wire. In previous vertical circle problems, if the speed
wasn’t sufficient, the boarder fell off the loop or the water fell out the
bucket. This difference arises because the reaction force on the bead from
the wire can push the bead inwards or outwards. If the bead is going too
fast, the reaction force pulls it inwards. Too slow and the reaction force
pushes outwards.
Let’s draw a diagram of the situation.

Here we have let the speed at P = v and the reaction = R. We shall see that
the decision to have the reaction pointing radially outwards rather than
inwards doesn’t matter.
As ever with vertical circles, we begin with energy conservation.
Change in KE A → P = Change in GPE A → P
KE at P − KE at A = Change in GPE
1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑟 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃)
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑟(1 − cos 𝜃)
The we apply Newton’s 2nd Law at the point P, giving
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 − 𝑅 =
𝑟
Inserting our equation for 𝑣 2 from energy conservation gives
𝑚 2
𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 − 𝑅 = [𝑢 + 2𝑔𝑟(1 − cos 𝜃)]
𝑟
𝑚𝑢2
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔(3 cos 𝜃 − 2) −
𝑟
We see from the final answer that the reaction force can be either positive
or negative. This means it can either act inwards or outward, depending
on the speed of the bead. If u increases so the second term is greater than
the first, then the reaction force will be negative and hence be directed
inwards. This makes physical sense as a larder speed requires ore
centripetal force and therefore the reaction is required to contribute to
this force. This is shown in the diagram below.
1. The diagram shows a particle moving in a 7. A cork suspended in water can be used as a
circle ABCDA of radius 8.0 m at a constant primitive accelerometer. Watch the video
and explain how this works: LINK
8. An aeroplane has a mass m and is moving at
a constant speed v in a horizontal circular
path of radius r. It does so by banking at an
angle θ to the horizontal. Show that
𝑣 = √𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃.
9. Being weightless on space station sure looks
speed. It completes on revolution in 5.0 s.
fun, but it can have adverse health effects
What is:
over longer periods of time. To combat this,
a. its average speed for one revolution;
artificial gravity space stations have been
b. its average speed from A to B;
proposed that utilise a rotating disc to create
c. its average velocity for one revolution;
a g-force. The astronauts live at the outer
d. its average velocity from A to C;
edge of the station where the centripetal
e. its average velocity from A to B;
force provided by the reaction force gives
f. its change in velocity from A to C;
them the impression of weight. If the
g. its change in velocity from A to B?
diameter of the disc is 20 m, calculate the
2. Calculate the force necessary to keep a mass necessary angular speed in order to achieve
of 0.80 kg revolving in a horizontal circle of artificial gravity equal to that on the Earth’s
radius 0.70 m with a period 0.50 s. State the surface.
direction of the force.
10. Colin gets bored of swinging masses above
3. Use Newton’s Laws to explain why a body his head for the sake of a Physics problem so
moving with constant speed along a circular decides to be different and swing a mass on
path must experience a force directed the end of a spring around his head in a
towards the centre of the circle. horizontal circle. The spring has a spring
constant of 1.6 N m-1 and has a natural length
4. A simple pendulum, suspended from a fixed of 1.0 m. Calculate the radius of the circle if
point, consists of a light cord of length 500
the mass is 200 g and moves at a constant
mm and a bob of weight 2.0 N. The bob is
speed of 4.0 m s-1.
made to move in a horizontal circular path.
If the maximum tension which the cord can 11. A compressed spring is used to propel a ball-
withstand is 5.0 N, show whether or not it is bearing long a track that contains a circular
possible for the radius of the path of the bob loop of 0.10 m in a vertical plane. The spring
to be 300 mm. obeys Hooke’s Law and requires a force of
0.20 N to compress it 1.0 mm.
5. A particle of mass 0.30 kg moves with an
angular velocity of 10 rad s-1 in a horizontal a. The spring is compressed by 30 mm.
circle of radius 20 cm inside a smooth Calculate the energy stored in the
hemispherical bowl. Find the reaction of the spring.
bowl on the particle and the radius of the b. A ball-bearing of mass 0.025 kg is placed
bowl. against the end of the spring which is
then released. Calculate
6. A particle is attached by means of a light,
inextensible string to a point 0.40 m above a i. the speed at which the ball-bearing
smooth, horizontal table. The particle moves leaves the spring,
on the table in a circle of radius 0.30m with ii. the speed of the ball at the top of the
angular speed ω. Find the reaction on the loop.
particle in terms of ω. Hence, find the iii. the force exerted on the ball by the
maximum angular speed for which the track at the top of the loop.
particle can remain on the table.
12. In order to take a corner on a flat track at 14. A small bead is threaded on a smooth
speed, a cyclist needs to lean into the corner. circular wire of radius r which is fixed in a
Not leaning into a corner can mean the vertical plane. The bead is projected from
cyclist gets thrown outwards off their bike. the lowest point of the wire with a speed of
Use the diagram below of two cyclists taking √6𝑔𝑟. Find the speed of the bead when it has
a left turn to explain why this happens. turned through:
a. 60°
b. 90°
c. 180°
d. 300°
Hint: show that the velocity at a certain
angle is given by 𝑣(𝜃) = √2𝑔𝑟[cos 𝜃 + 2]

15. A particle of mass m travels at a constant

speed v in a vacuum from point A to point B,
as shown in the diagram opposite.
13. Bob and Fred are bored on a long train ride
up to John O’Groats. Bob suggests they use For the section of the path from B to C,
an apple on the end of a piece of string hung calculate:
from the luggage rack to measure the a. the time taken,
centripetal acceleration of the train. Bob b. the change in momentum of the particle,
says that the apple will hag vertically
downwards when the train is travelling at a c. the magnitude of the force acting on the
constant speed. However, when the train is particle,
going round a corner, the pendulum will tilt d. the work done on the particle by this
at an angle θ. The larger the acceleration, the force.
larger the angle.

Fred measures the speed of the train on his

phone using GPS to be constant at 90 mph. If
the angle of the pendulum is 10°, calculate
the radius of the turn.
16. Sanka is attempting to win his first Jamaican 18. A turn on a race track is banked at 60° to the
National Push-Cart Championship. They horizontal and its surface is made of solid
start at the top of a hill and the first to the ice. The inside of the bend has a radius of
bottom wins – no engines of any kind are 𝑟1 = 34 m and the outside of the bend has a
allowed so gravity is the name of the game. radius of 𝑟2 = 48 m. The turn is semi-
This year, the course includes a semi- circular when viewed from above. Assume
circular bridge on the flat section of the there is no friction between the tyres and the
course, as modelled in the diagram below. road due to the ice.

a. Show that the speed of a car required

not to slip at a given radius r is given by
The height of the start hill is ℎ = 110 m and the expression
the height of the bridge is 𝑑 = 9.0 m. Sanka
𝑣(𝑟) = √𝑔𝑟 tan 𝜃
and his cart have a combined mass of 110 kg
and its maximum braking force is 500 N. b. Derive an expression for the time taken
for a car to go round the semi-circular
a. Calculate the speed of the cart at B. turn at radius r.
b. Calculate the maximum speed of the cart c. Calculate the shortest possible time to
at the top of the bridge for the cart to navigate the turn, assuming the driver
maintain contact with the road. holds the same line (i.e. their radius
c. In a bizarre turn of events, any cart remains constant) throughout the turn.
which loses contact with the ground at D 19. A particle of mass m is attached at one end of
will be disqualified. Calculate the a piece of string of length l. The other end of
distance before C Sanka will need to the string is attached to a fixed wooden peg.
start braking with the maximum The particle is hanging in equilibrium before
braking force in order to start the bridge it is set in motion with a horizontal speed u.
at C with the correct speed to maintain It then moves in a vertical circle of radius l.
contact at D. Show that the tension in the string T varies
17. An orange of mass m is moving on the inner with angle from the vertical, θ by the
surface of a perfectly smooth, hemispherical following equation:
fruit bowl with a radius 2a. The orange is 𝑚𝑢2
𝑇(𝜃) = 3𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 + − 2𝑚𝑔
moving in a horizontal circle with angular 𝑙
speed √𝑔/𝑎. Hint: resolve forces and look at the energy
a. Calculate the magnitude of the force on changes between the equilibrium position
the orange by the surface of the bowl. with speed u and another point an angular
b. Calculate the height of the centre of displacement of θ away.
mass of the orange above the surface of
the table which the bowl rests on.
The following sections cover material beyond the scope of the A-Level
Physics course. They are designed to deepen the understanding of
circular motion for A/A* physicists and give a flavour of university
physics/engineering.

10. *Friction
One thing we don’t look into much in A-Level Physics is friction. It’s a great
shame as it adds another dimension to problem solving – particularly in
the context of circular motion. In this section, we will look at a simple
quantitative treatment of friction before looking at applying it to circular
motion problems. We will keep our treatment of friction here in line with
what you may study in Mechanics for A-Level Maths.

10.1 Investigating Friction

When the surface of a body moves or tends to move over another surface,
each body experiences a frictional force. The frictional forces act along the
common surface and act in the opposite direction to the relative motion.
The diagram opposite shows the forces acting on a block that is being
pulled along a rough table. The tension force T pulls the block to the right
whilst the friction F exerts a force on the base of the block to the left.
To investigate the properties of friction, find an object roughly a kilogram
in mass and place it on the table – a bag of sugar is a good place the start.
If you push the mass with a very small force, the mass remains stationary.
This is because you’re pushing the mass forwards, but friction is pushing
mass backwards by the same amount.
If you push with a slightly larger force, the mass remains stationary again,
which means friction pushes back with a larger force. Friction will
increase up to a certain maximum value – if you slowly increase the force
on the mass, it will move at certain value of push force. These observations
are shown in the diagram below, with a block being pulled by a string with
increasing tension force T as you move from left to right. The block finally
starts moving in the diagram on the far right. Here, the tension force is
larger than friction (which has reached its maximum value) so the block
accelerates to the right.
We could perform more accurate investigation of what we have described
using the setup below. The masses hanging off the table allow a known
constant force to be applied to the block.

The results we would obtain are plotted below. The frictional force
increases to a maximum value where after it remains constant.

Using this setup, we could also try and investigate what factors effect this
maximum value of the frictional force between two surfaces. We could
change the area of contact by using different block faces and rest masses
on the block to change the reaction force.
The results of the experiment can be summarised into three experimental
laws of friction:
1. The frictional force between two surfaces always opposes the
relative motion or attempted motion.
2. Frictional forces are independent of the area of contact of the two
surfaces.
3. For two surfaces which are not moving, the maximum frictional force
is directly proportional to the normal reaction.
For two surfaces which are moving, the sliding frictional force is
directly proportional to the normal reaction and is approximately
independent of the speed of the object.
Note: An explanation of these frictional effects is beyond the scope of the
A-Level Mathematics specification and is therefore is not discussed here.
However, some of the laws of friction may have come as a surprise (they
did to me!) and I therefore suggest some googling if you are interested.
What actually causes friction?
10.2 Modelling Friction
From above laws, we have that frictional force F is directly proportional to
the reaction force, R. We call the constant of proportionality the coefficient
of friction, μ. It is a constant for two given surfaces but does depend on
conditions such as the presence of moisture and lubricants. Our model for
friction states then states that

𝐹 ≤ 𝜇𝑅
The limiting or maximum value of friction is given by

𝐹 = 𝐹MAX = 𝜇𝑅
This is the most useful relation as most problems we encounter involve an
object that is moving or is about to move. In both of these cases, the
frictional force is at its maximum value.
The diagram below links the model we now have back to our block
example from the previous section. It should be noted that the diagram
third from the left shows a block in ‘limiting equilibrium’. This is the point
at which the block is just about to move and therefore friction is at its
maximum value and still equal and opposite to the force which it opposes.

Key Points from Friction Model

1. If an object is at rest, the frictional force is equal and opposite to the
force which it opposes parallel to the surface.
2. If an object is in limiting equilibrium, the object is just about to move
and therefore 𝐹 = 𝐹MAX = 𝜇𝑅 and is also equal and opposite to the
force which it opposes.
3. If an object is moving, 𝐹 = 𝐹MAX = 𝜇𝑅
10.3 Friction Problems
Before we move onto to looking at circular motion and friction combine,
we will first look at a few simpler problems involving our new model of
friction.

Example 10.1 – A block of mass 1.5 kg rests on a rough horizontal table.

A horizontal force of 12 N is applied to the block puts the block in limiting
equilibrium. Find the coefficient of friction between the block and the
table.
Standard operating procedure – draw a force diagram. Next, we resolve
force vertically:
R(↑) 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔
We then use the fact the block is in limiting equilibrium. This implies that
𝐹 = 𝐹MAX = 𝜇𝑅. Resolving horizontally and using this gives
R(→) 𝑇=𝐹
𝑇 = 𝜇𝑅
Then we pop 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 into the above equation to yield
𝑇 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔
𝑇 12
⇒ 𝜇= = = 0.86
𝑚𝑔 1.5 × 9.81
Note that μ has no units as the is the ratio of two forces.
This simple problem gives us an insight to why friction adds an extra
dimension to problem solving. Using the fact that friction depends on the
reaction force links the horizontal and vertical forces. Beautiful stuff!

Second only to ladder problems are rough inclined plane problems. The
excitement is unbearable. Let’s get stuck in.

Example 10.2 – A block of mass m sits on a rough plane inclined at an

angle of 45° to the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction between the two
surfaces is 0.66. Calculate the acceleration of the block.
Again, standard operating procedure – draw a force diagram.
As with all inclined plane problems, we need to resolve forces parallel and
perpendicular to the slope. Resolving perpendicularly to the slope, we
have no acceleration, therefore
R(∟) 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
Resolving down the slope, we have an acceleration of a, therefore
R(∥) 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
To proceed, we need to use our new knowledge of friction. If the block is
moving, friction is at its maximum and hence
𝐹 = 𝐹MAX = 𝜇𝑅 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
Plugging this into our second equation gives
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎
Everybody brought mass to the party! Accounting for this an rearranging
for a leaves us with
𝑎 = 𝑔(sin 𝜃 − 𝜇 cos 𝜃)
Substituting 𝜃 = 45°, 𝑔 = 9.81 m s −2 and 𝜇 = 0.66 gives us our answer of
𝑎 = 9.81(sin 45° − 0.66 × cos 45°) = 2.4 m s −2

Extension Problems I - Friction

1. A mass of 10 kg is pushed at a constant speed 5. Consider a large ice cube being towed across
along a rough table by a horizontal force of a table by a hanging mass and pulley system
73 N. Calculate the coefficient of friction shown below.
between the block and the table.
2. A wooden block slides across a table until
friction brings it to rest. The coefficient of
friction between the block and the table is
0.55. Calculate the deceleration of the block
as it was sliding.
The large blue block has a mass 𝑀 = 5.0 kg
3. Colin pulls a sled full of supplies across the and the coefficient between the ice and the
snow in Alaska using a rope at an angle θ to table is 0.12. Calculate the amount of
the horizontal. The total mass of the sled and hanging mass m required to just make the ice
supplies is 145 kg. The coefficient of friction block move.
between the sled and the snow is 0.12 and
Colin’s maximum pull force is 800 N. 6. A 3.0 kg wooden block is towed down a slope
Calculate the maximum possible value of θ by a force T = 16 N at a constant speed of
for the sled to continue at constant speed 0.50 m s-1.
under the action of Colin’s maximum pull
force.
4. Calculate the acceleration of a wooden block
resting on a rough plane with μ = 0.25 that is
If the plane is inclined at an angle 𝜃 = 15°,
inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
calculate the coefficient of friction between
the block and the slope.
7. A 5.0 kg wooden block is towed up an The mass of the blue block is 𝑀 = 10 kg and
inclined plane by a piece of string parallel to the mass of the green hanging block is 𝑚 =
the slops, as shown in the diagram below. 3.5 kg. 𝜃 = 30° and the coefficient of friction
is 𝜇 = 0.33. By assuming the magnitude of
the two block’s accelerations are the same,
calculate the acceleration of the blue block.
9. The coefficient of friction between a car tyre
and a dry road is approximately 0.7. Use this
to estimate the stopping distance of a car
If 𝜇 = 0.44 and 𝜃 = 24°, calculate the
travelling at 50 mph.
tension force required to accelerate the
block at 0.50 m s-2. Hint: assume that the car is braking so hard
that it is skidding.
8. Consider a wooden block being towed up an
inclined plane by the hanging mass/pulley
system shown below.

Here’s a video form the excellent Walter Lewin Lecture series where he
shows off some good friction demonstrations.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWh-enOdXM4

We can now revisit some of the circular motion problems with our new
model for friction.
10.4 Bends Reloaded
Let us first revisit a car travelling in a horizontal circle of radius r around
a bend on a flat road at a speed v. Resolving forces vertically yields
R(↑) 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔
which will come in handy later. We then resolve horizontally and use the
equation for centripetal acceleration, giving
𝑚𝑣 2
R(←) 𝐹=
𝑟
So far, the same as previously. Let’s find the maximum speed a driver can
take a given corner. At this speed 𝑣max , the car is about to slip outwards so
friction must be at its maximum, meaning 𝐹 = 𝐹MAX = 𝜇𝑅. Using our
vertical equation then gives us
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔
Substituting this back into the horizontal equation gives
2
𝑚𝑣max
𝜇𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
and a little rearranging leaves us at
𝑣max = √𝜇𝑔𝑟
So, we have shown that the maximum speed one can take a given corner
depends only on the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the
ground and g. In good conditions, the coefficient of friction between a tyre
and the road is 0.7-0.8. However, this can decrease to around 0.4 and
lower in wet conditions. This demonstrates the need for caution when
cornering in wet conditions.
The dependence of g may initially strike you as odd, but it stems from the
dependence of friction on the reaction force. If g was smaller, friction
would be less as the reaction force would be less. Coupled with the lower
coefficient of friction of the Moon’s surface soil, this suggests the Moon
would not be the ideal place to start a Space F1 race.
We can do the same and apply our new model of friction to banked turns.
I think I will leave this one to you in the next problems section.
10.5 Motorbike Turns
Problem 12 in the Mixed Problems looks at why cyclists lean into corners.
It should have been apparent from the diagram that when the rider does
not lean, friction provides and overall torque that would cause the rider to
rotate and topple over. Leaning into the corner means the reaction force
on the wheel can counteract this rotation by providing a torque in the
opposite direction. But why does a motorbike lean more than a bicycle? A
quick search on YouTube will show you that a motorcyclists knees are
often very close to the road when cornering.
To answer this, we will model the motorcyclist and bike as a ball on the
end of a light rod, as shown in the second diagram. This means that the
weight acts from the centre of the ball which is a distance l away from
where the wheel contacts the ground. The clockwise moment provided by
the reaction force should balance the anti-clockwise moment provided by
the friction. Taking moments about the centre of mass gives
𝑙 × 𝑅 sin 𝜃 = 𝑙 × 𝐹 sin(90° − 𝜃)
Then sin(90° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 and l cancels, leaving
𝑅 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃
Resolving forces vertically we have no acceleration, therefore
𝑅(↑) 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔
which we can substitute back into the above equation to give
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃
Friction provides the centripetal force for the biker to continue moving in
a circle and therefore
𝑚𝑣 2
R(→) 𝐹=
𝑟
Substituting this back in gives us
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
𝑟
Everybody brought mass to the party! Accounting for this and rearranging
using tan 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 / cos 𝜃 leaves us with

−1
𝑣2
𝜃 = tan ( )
𝑔𝑟
In this expression, as v increases, so does θ. We can therefore see that the
faster a rider takes a corner, the further down they need to lean to
counteract the increasing frictional force. This explains why a motorbike
needs to lean further into a corner than a cyclist.
10.6 The Spinning Terror
Consider a fairground ground called the ‘Spinning Terror’. It consists a
hollow cylinder that rotates at an angular speed ω. As the speed increases,
the reaction force on the person also increases, as this provides the
centripetal force. All good so far.
The ride starts with a floor at the bottom of the cylinder. This provides a
reaction force to stop the person falling downwards. However, at some
value of ω, this floor is removed. Their weight is pulling them downwards
but the friction between them and the wall opposes this tendency to slip
downwards. Since the friction increase with reaction force and reaction
force in turn increase with ω, there is some minimum value of ω where it
is safe to remove the floor. Cool stuff! Let’s find this minimum value of ω.
The second diagram shows the forces acting on the person. Resolving
vertically gives us
R(↑) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
The resolving into the centre of the circle gives
R(→) 𝑅 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
As with all our other questions on friction, the link between these two
equations comes from our model for friction. At the minimum angular
speed, the person is just about to slip downwards, therefore friction is at
its limiting value and therefore
𝐹 = 𝐹max = 𝜇𝑅
Popping this in the first equation gives us
𝜇𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔
And then inserting the second equation for R in gives
𝜇𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑔
Everybody brought mass to the party! Rearranging gives

𝑔
𝜔=√
𝜇𝑟

This is the minimum angular speed the cylinder must rotate for the person
to be supported by friction. At or above this angular speed, the floor can
be removed and the people will be pinned against the wall.
Extension Problems II – Friction & Circular Motion
1. Consider a car travelling along a circular Consider a Wall of Death with a diameter of
path on a banked turn as shown in the 12 m. We will assume that the centre of mas
diagram below. of the motorcycle and rider is 1 m above the
road.

By modelling the car as a particle, show that

the maximum speed it can take a circular
corner of radius r, banked at an angle θ and
a. Calculate the minimum speed when the
with coefficient of friction between tyre and
coefficient of friction is 0.5.
road of μ is given by
b. Calculate the angle of the motorcycle to
tan 𝜃 + 𝜇 the horizontal.
𝑣max = √𝑔𝑟
1 − 𝜇 tan 𝜃

2. Show that minimum speed before the car 4. Now let’s consider a car driving in a
starts to slip down the slope in the above horizontal circle of a Wall of Death track
problem is with diameter 12 m. The centre of mass of
the car is 1 m away from the track and the
tan 𝜃 − 𝜇 distance between the left and right wheels is
𝑣min = √𝑔𝑟 2 m. The diagrams below show the forces
1 + 𝜇 tan 𝜃
and dimensions.
3. You may have noticed a slight problem with
our treatment of The Wall of Death in
Example 6.4 – if the rider is horizontal then
surely the weight and friction act as a couple
which would cause the rider to rotate anti-
clockwise and fall off the wall?

a. Calculate the minimum speed when the

coefficient of static friction is 1.
This is a common simplification/error. The b. Take moments around the centre of
correct solution requires the rider to be at a mass to show that the car does not
slight angle to the horizontal, as shown in the topple over at this speed
diagram.
11. *Non-Inertial Frames & Fictious Forces
We touched on how the centrifugal force is an example of a fictitious (not
real!) force that occurs when we try and apply Newton’s 1st Law in non-
inertial (accelerating) reference frames, such as a rotating reference
frame. (Section 4.1)
Here’s an excellent video that further investigates these forces. It starts
with basic linear examples and then looks at rotating reference frames. It
is without doubt the greatest intro to a physics video ever.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJMYoj4hHqU

12. *Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia of an object is a measure of its resistance to changes
in angular speed. It is analogous to mass, which is the resistance of an
object to changes in linear speed. Below is a link to an interesting
experiment about moments of inertia.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cB8GNQuyMPc
The intermediate axis theorem blew my mind in 2nd year of university and
I still don’t understand it now! Below is a Veritasium video that explains it
– very cool indeed.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VPfZ_XzisU

13. * Angular Momentum

Gyroscopic precession is pretty mind blowing. Here’s another link from
Veritasium.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ty9QSiVC2g0