UNIT -1

Part - A
1. Give some major applications of embedded systems. Dec-2019,GNITC (R16)
Ans:
a. Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.
b. Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.
c. Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms,
Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
d. Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems,
Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
e. Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.

2,9 . What is the quality attribute portability in embedded system design? Dec-2019,GNITC (R16)
Ans: Quality attributes are the non-functional requirements that need to be documented
properly in any system design. Quality attributes can be classified as
1. Operational quality attributes 2. Non-operational quality attributes.
Operational Quality Attributes: The operational quality attributes represent the relevant quality
attributes related to the embedded system when it is in the operational mode or online mode.
Non-operational quality attributes: The quality attributes that needs to be addressed for the
product not on the basis of operational aspects are grouped under thiscategory.

3. What is the difference between a system and an embedded system? Dec-2018, JNTUH (R15)
Ans: An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific function and is
a combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)
E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets,
A System is a combination of hardware and software resources that integrate and provide various
functionalities to the user.

4. What are the components of Embedded system Hardware

Ans:
• Microprocessors or microcontrollers
• Embedded memory types (i.e. RAM, ROM, FLASH)
• I/O interface ports
• Serial communication protocols (i.e. SPI, I2C, UART)
• Clock generators
• ADC
• DAC
• Power management blocks and power supplies
 5. Write the difference between Embedded Systems and General computing systems.

GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTING

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
SYSTEM
A system which is a combination of generic A system which is a combination of special purpose
hardware and General Purpose Operating System hardware and embedded OS for executing a specific
for executing a variety of applications set of applications
Contain a General Purpose Operating System May or may not contain an operating system for
(GPOS) functioning.
Applications are alterable (programmable) by The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
user (It is possible for the end user to re- install programmed and it is non-alterable by end- user
the Operating System, and add or remove user
applications)
Performance is the key deciding factor on the Application specific requirements (like performance,
selection of the system. Always, “Faster is Better‟ power requirements, memory usage etc) are the key
deciding factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating Highly tailored to take advantage of the power saving
power requirements, options for different levels modes supported by hardware and Operating System
of power management.
Response requirements are not time critical For certain category of embedded systems like mission
critical systems, the response
time requirement is highly critical
Need not be deterministic in execution behavior Execution behavior is deterministic for certain
type of embedded systems like “Hard
Real Time‟ systems

6, 10. List and define the three main characteristics of embedded systems that distinguish
such systems from other computing systems.
• An embedded system is defined as a combination of computer hardware and software,

and often other parts, designed for a specific function within a larger system.
• These systems are characterized by their dedicated functionality, which often involves
real-time processing where tasks are performed within strict time constraints.
• Embedded systems are typically small in size, optimized for speed and efficiency, and
are designed to operate under limited power and computing resources.

7. What is an embedded system? Why is it so hard to define?

An embedded system is a specialized computing system designed for specific tasks within
larger devices or machinery. Defining it succinctly is challenging due to its diverse
applications, integration of hardware and software, customization, and evolving technology.

8. Give few examples of embedded systems

• Central heating systems
• Engine management systems in vehicles
• Domestic appliances, such as dishwashers, TVs, digital phones, and washing machines
• Digital watches
• Electronic calculators
• GPS systems
• Fitness trackers

UNIT-1
PART – B
1. Explain the quality attributes in the embedded system development context? What are
different qualities attributes to be considered in an embedded system design?

Ans. Quality attributes are the non-functional requirements that need to be documented
properly in any system design. Quality attributes can be classified as
1. Operational quality attributes 2
2. . Non-operational quality attributes.
Operational Quality Attributes: The operational quality attributes represent the relevant
quality attributes related to the embedded system when it is in the operational mode or
online mode. Operational Quality Attributes are
Response:
a. It is the measure of quickness of the system.
b. It tells how fast the system is tracking the changes in input variables. Most of the E.S
demands fast response which should be almost real time.
Ex – Flight control application.
Throughput:-
a. It deals with the efficiency of a system.
b. It can be defined as the rate of production or operation of a defined process over a stated
period of time.
c. The rates can be expressed in terms of products, batches produced or any other
meaningful measurements.
d. Ex – In case of card reader throughput means how many transactions the reader can
perform in a minute or in an hour or in a day.
 e. Throughput is generally measured in terms of “Benchmark”.
f. A Benchmark is a reference point by which something can be measured
Reliability:-
a. It is a measure of how much we can rely upon the proper functioning of thesystem.
b. Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) are the terms
used in determining system reliability.
c. MTBF gives the frequency of failures in hours/weeks/months.
d. MTTR specifies how long the system is allowed to be out of order following a failure
for embedded system with critical application need, it should be of the order of minutes.
Maintainability:-
a. It deals with support and maintenance to the end user or client in case of technical issues
and product failure or on the basis of a routine systemcheckup.
b. Reliability and maintainability are complementary to each other.
c. A more reliable system means a system with less corrective maintainability requirements
and vice versa.
d. Maintainability can be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Scheduled or Periodic maintenance (Preventive maintenance)
2. Corrective maintenance to unexpected failures
Security:-
a. Confidentiality, Integrity and availability are the three major measures of information
security. b. Confidentiality deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized
disclosure.
c. Integrity deals with the protection of data and application from unauthorized
modification.
NON-OPERATIONAL QUALITY ATTRIBUTES:

The quality attributes that needs to be addressed for the product not on the basis of operational aspects
are grouped under thiscategory.

Testability and Debug-ability:-

a. Testability deals with how easily one can test the design, application and by which means it
can be done.

b. For an E.S testability is applicable to both the embedded hardware and firmware.
c. Embedded hardware testing ensures that the peripherals and total hardware functions in the
desired manner, whereas firmware testing ensures that the firmware is functioning in the
expected way.

d. Debug-ability is a means of debugging the product from unexpected behaviour in the system
e. Debug-ability is two level process

1. Hardware level

2. Software level

Hardware level: It is used for finding the issues created by hardware problems.

Software level: It is employed for finding the errors created by the flaws in the software.
Evolvability:- a. It is a term which is closely related to Biology. b. It is referred as the non-
heritable variation. c. For an embedded system evolvability refers to the ease with which the
embedded product can be modified to take advantage of new firmware or hardware
technologies.

Portability:- a. It is the measure of system independence.

b. An embedded product is said to be portable if the product is capable of functioning in various

environments, target processors and embedded operating systems.

c. Porting represents the migration of embedded firmware written for onetarget processor to a
different target processor.

Time-to-Prototype and Market:-

a. It is the time elapsed between the conceptualization of a product and the time at which the
product is ready for selling.

b. The commercial embedded product market is highly competitive and time to market the
product is critical factor in the success of commercial embedded product.

c. There may be multiple players in embedded industry who develop products of the same
category (like mobile phone).

2. Explain the various purposes of embedded systems in detail with illustrative examples.
Ans. Embedded systems are computer systems that are designed to perform specific tasks or
functions within a larger system or product. They are integrated into various devices and
machines to provide them with intelligence, automation, and connectivity. Here are some of
the various purposes of embedded systems along with illustrative examples:

1. Control and Automation: Embedded systems are often used to control and automate
various processes and functions in industrial, commercial, and consumer applications.
For example, they are used in traffic lights to control the timing and sequencing of
signals, in elevators to manage the movement and speed of the cab, and in HVAC
systems to regulate the temperature and air quality in buildings.

2. Monitoring and Feedback: Embedded systems can also be used to monitor and provide
feedback on various parameters and conditions in a system or environment. For
example, they are used in medical devices to monitor vital signs and alert healthcare
providers of any abnormalities, in fitness trackers to monitor physical activity and
provide feedback on performance and progress, and in industrial machinery to monitor
performance and maintenance needs.

3. Communication and Connectivity: Embedded systems can enable communication and

connectivity between devices, systems, and networks. For example, they are used in
routers and switches to direct and manage data traffic, in smartphones and tablets to
connect to the internet and other devices, and in IoT devices to communicate with each
other and with cloud-based applications and services.

4. User Interface and Interaction: Embedded systems can provide user interfaces and
facilitate interaction with various devices and systems. For example, they are used in
smart TVs and set-top boxes to enable navigation and control of content and settings,
in smart home devices to manage and automate various functions and appliances, and
in gaming consoles to provide immersive and interactive experiences.

5. Safety and Security: Embedded systems can also be used to enhance safety and security
in various applications. For example, they are used in automotive systems to monitor
and control various functions and features, in aviation systems to manage and optimize
flight performance and safety, and in industrial control systems to prevent and mitigate
cyber threats and attacks.

Examples of embedded systems include digital watches, calculators, MP3 players,

smartphones, tablets, gaming consoles, smart TVs, set-top boxes, routers, switches,
 industrial control systems, medical devices, fitness trackers, automotive systems,
aviation systems, and IoT devices.

3. Explain the classification of embedded systems based on different criteria in

detail and give an example for each. June-2019, JNTUH.

1. Based on Complexity:
• Simple Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems with limited
functionality and resources. They typically have a single processor, a small amount
of memory, and a simple input/output interface. Examples include digital watches,
calculators, and thermostats.
• Medium Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems with moderate
complexity and functionality. They typically have a single or multiple processors,
a moderate amount of memory, and a more sophisticated input/output interface.
Examples include smartphones, tablets, and digital cameras.
• Complex Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems with high complexity
and functionality. They typically have multiple processors, a large amount of
memory, and a complex input/output interface. Examples include industrial control
systems, aviation systems, and automotive systems.
2. Based on Performance:
• Real-Time Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems that require
deterministic and predictable performance. They are designed to meet specific
timing constraints and deadlines. Examples include aviation systems, automotive
systems, and medical devices.
• Non-Real-Time Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems that do not have
strict timing constraints and deadlines. They can tolerate some delay and jitter in
their performance. Examples include smartphones, tablets, and digital cameras.
3. Based on Cost:
• Low-Cost Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems that are designed to
minimize cost and complexity. They typically use low-cost components and have
limited functionality. Examples include digital watches, calculators, and
thermostats.
• High-End Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems that are designed to
maximize performance and functionality. They typically use high-end components
and have a high cost. Examples include industrial control systems, aviation
 systems, and automotive systems.
4. Based on Power Consumption:
• Low-Power Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems that are designed to
minimize power consumption and extend battery life. They typically use low-
power components and have limited functionality. Examples include fitness
trackers, smartwatches, and wireless sensors.
• High-Power Embedded Systems: These are embedded systems that require high
power consumption to meet their performance and functionality requirements.
They typically use high-power components and have a high cost. Examples include
industrial control systems, servers, and data centers.

4. What is an embedded system? Explain the major application areas of embedded systems. Dec-
2017, JNTUH (R13)

Ans. An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific

function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

a. Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.
b. Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave
Oven etc. c. Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder
detection alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
d. Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition
Systems, Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
e. Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.
f. Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
g. Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
h. Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.
i. Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers
PLC systems etc.
j. Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters, Point of
Sales (POS)
k. Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

5. Discuss the purpose of Embedded systems. List the design metrics used to compare
them. Dec-2017, JNTUH (R13)

Ans. Purpose of embedded systems:

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.
• Data Collection/Storage/Representation
• Data Communication
• Data (Signal) Processing
• Monitoring
• Control
• Application Specific User Interface
1.Data Collection/Storage/Representation: a. Performs acquisition of data from the
externalworld.
b. The collected data can be either analog ordigital.
c. Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
d. The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some other
systems or it may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after giving a
meaningful representation
2) Data Communication: a. Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in
applications ranging from complex satellite communication systems to simple home
networking systems
b. Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated for data communication
c. The data communication can happen through a wired interface (like Ethernet, RS-
232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc) or wireless interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS, Bluetooth, ZigBee
etc)
d. Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are typical examples for dedicated data
transmission embedded system.
3) Data (Signal) Processing:
a. Embedded systems with Signal processing functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec, transmission
applications etc
b. Computational intensive systems employs Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)
4) Monitoring:
a. Embedded systems coming under this category are specifically designed for monitoring
purpose
b. They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors
c. They cannot impose control over variable
d. Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heart beat of a patient is a typical
example for this
e. The sensors used in ECG are the different Electrodes connected to the patient’s body
f. Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi- meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in
Control & Instrume- ntation applications are also examples of embedded systems for
monitoring purpose
5) Control: a. Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing control
over some variables according to the changes in input variables
b. Embedded system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators
c. Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental variable
or measuring variable.
d. The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in input
variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the
specified range.
e. Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for embedded system
with Control functionality
f. Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature. g. The air
compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to the current
room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.
6) Application Specific User Interface:
a. Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application.
b. Contains Application Specific User interface (rather than general standard UI) like key
board, Display units etc
c. Aimed at a specific target group of users
d. Mobile handsets, Control units in industrial applications etc are examples.

6. What is digital signal processing (DSP)? Explain the role of DSP in embedded system
design?

Ans. Digital Signal Processing (DSP) refers to the manipulation and analysis of digital signals,
which are discrete-time representations of continuous-time signals. DSP techniques involve
 processing, filtering, and analyzing these digital signals, enabling a wide range of applications
across various industries, such as telecommunications, audio and video processing,
biomedical engineering, and more.
In embedded system design, DSP plays a crucial role by enabling these devices to process
signals and extract useful information in real-time. By incorporating DSP into embedded
systems, engineers can develop powerful and intelligent solutions that meet the complex
demands of modern applications. DSP techniques in embedded systems include filtering,
sampling and quantization, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), and convolution and correlation.
Filtering is used to extract or suppress specific frequency components from a signal, reducing
noise, enhancing signal quality, or isolating relevant information for further processing.
Sampling and quantization are essential steps in converting continuous-time signals into
digital signals, enabling efficient digital signal processing and analysis. FFT is an efficient
algorithm for computing a signal's Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), facilitating signal
analysis, filtering, and compression. Convolution and correlation are mathematical operations
used to measure the similarity and relationship between two signals, employed for tasks such
as template matching, system identification, and signal enhancement.
Integrating DSP in embedded systems can significantly enhance their performance by
enabling efficient, real-time signal processing, improving flexibility and adaptability,
reducing power consumption, and lowering overall costs. When implementing DSP in
embedded systems, it is crucial to consider the hardware and software requirements, such as
processing capabilities, memory size, power consumption, and software development tools,
to ensure optimal system performance and energy efficiency.

7. Explain the characteristics of Embedded Systems.

Ans. Embedded systems possess certain specific characteristics and these are unique to each
Embedded system.
1. Application and domain specific
2. Reactive and Real Time
3. Operates in harsh environments
4. Distributed
5. Small Size and weight
6. Power concerns
7. Single-functioned
8. Complex functionality
9. Tightly-constrained
10. Safety-critical
1) Application and Domain Specific: a. Each Embedded System has certain functions to
perform and they are developed in such a manner to do the intended functions only.
b. They cannot be used for any other purpose. c. Ex – The embedded control units of the
microwave oven cannot be replaced with AC’S embedded control unit because the embedded
control units of microwave oven and AC are specifically designed to perform certain specific
tasks.
2) Reactive and Real Time: a. Embedded Systems are in constant interaction with the real
world through sensors and user-defined input devices which are connected to the input port
of the system.
b. Any changes in the real world are captured by the sensors or input devices in real time and
the control algorithm running inside the unit reacts in a designed manner to bring the
controlled output variables to the desired level.
c. E.S produce changes in output in response to the changes in the input, so they are referred
as reactive systems.
d. Real Time system operation means the timing behavior of the system should be
deterministic ie the system should respond to requests in a known amount of time.
e. Example – E.S which are mission critical like flight control systems, Antilock Brake
Systems (ABS) etc are Real Time systems.
3) Operates in Harsh Environment: a. The design of E.S should take care of the operating
conditions of the area where the system is going to implement.
b. Ex – If the system needs to be deployed in a high temperature zone, then all the components
used in the system should be of high temperature grade.
c. Also proper shock absorption techniques should be provided to systems which are going to
be commissioned in places subject to high shock.
4) Distributed: a. It means that embedded systems may be a part of a larger system.
b. Many numbers of such distributed embedded systems form a single large embedded
control unit.
c. Ex – Automatic vending machine. It contains a card reader, a vending unit etc. Each of
them are independent embedded units but they work together to perform the overall vending
function.
 5) Small Size and Weight: a. Product aesthetics (size, weight, shape, style, etc) is an
important factor in choosing a product. b. It is convenient to handle a compact device than a
bulky product.
6) Power Concerns: a. Power management is another important factorthat needs to be
considered in designing embedded systems. b. E.S should be designed in such a way as to
minimize the heat dissipation by the system.
7) Single- Functioned: a. Dedicated to perform a single function
8) Complex Functionality: a. We have to run sophisticated algorithms or multiple algorithms
insome applications.
9) Tightly Constrained: a. Low cost, low power, small, fast, etc
10) Safety- Critical: a. Must not endanger human life and the environment.

8. Explain the interfacing between analog and digital blocks?

Ans. Interfacing between analog and digital blocks is a crucial aspect of embedded system
design, as it enables the communication and interaction between analog and digital
components. Analog signals are continuous-time signals that vary continuously over time,
while digital signals are discrete-time signals that take on a finite set of values. To interface
between these two types of signals, several techniques are employed, including analog-to-
digital conversion (ADC) and digital-to-analog conversion (DAC).
ADC is the process of converting an analog signal into a digital signal, enabling digital
processing and analysis. ADC involves sampling the analog signal at regular intervals and
quantizing the sampled values into discrete digital levels. The accuracy of the ADC depends
on the number of bits used to represent the digital signal, with higher bit resolution resulting in
better accuracy.
DAC, on the other hand, is the process of converting a digital signal into an analog signal,
enabling the output.
9. Illustrate technological aspect signal conditioning in Embedded system.

Ans. Analog signals need to be correctly "prepared" before they can be converted into digital
form for further processing. Signal conditioning is an electronic circuit that manipulates a
signal in a way that prepares it for the next stage of processing. Many data acquisition
applications involve environmental or mechanical measurement from sensors, such as
temperature and vibration. These sensors require signal conditioning before a data acquisition
device can effectively and accuratelymeasure the signal. For example, thermocouple signals
have very small voltage levels that must be amplified before they can be digitized. Other
sensors, such as resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), accelerometers, and strain gauges
require excitation to operate. All of these preparation technologies are forms of signal
conditioning. Signal conditioning is one of the fundamental building blocks of modern data
acquisition (aka DAS or DAQ system). The basic purpose of a data acquisition system is to
make physical measurements.They are comprised of the following basic components: •
Sensors (see What Is a Sensor guide) • Signal Conditioning (this article) • Analog-to-Digital
Converter (ADC) (see What Is an A/D Converter guide), • And some sort of computer with
DAQ software for signal logging and analysis.

10. Describe the various hardware components required for an Embedded System Design?
Ans. An embedded system is a specialized computer system designed to perform a specific
task or set of tasks. The hardware components required for an embedded system design can
vary depending on the specific application, but typically include the following:
1. Microcontroller or Microprocessor: The microcontroller or microprocessor is the
brain of the embedded system, responsible for executing the instructions and
controlling the other hardware components.
2. Memory: Memory is required to store the program code, data, and variables used by
the microcontroller or microprocessor. This typically includes flash memory for
program storage and SRAM or DRAM for data storage.
3. Input/Output (I/O) Interfaces: I/O interfaces are used to connect the embedded system
to external devices, sensors, and actuators. This can include serial interfaces (such as
UART, SPI, or I2C), parallel interfaces, USB, Ethernet, and other communication
protocols.
4. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): An ADC is used to convert analog signals from
sensors or other external devices into digital signals that can be processed by the
microcontroller or microprocessor.
5. Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC): A DAC is used to convert digital signals into
analog signals that can be used to control external devices, such as motors or
actuators.
6. Power Management: Power management circuits are used to regulate and distribute
power to the various components of the embedded system. This can include voltage
regulators, power switches, and battery management circuits.
7. Clock Circuit: The clock circuit provides a stable and accurate clock signal to the
 microcontroller or microprocessor, ensuring that the system operates at the correct
speed and synchronization.
8. Display Interface: A display interface is used to connect the embedded system to a
display device, such as an LCD or LED display.
9. Storage Devices: Storage devices, such as SD cards or flash drives, can be used to
store data or program code in embedded systems that require larger storage capacities.
10. Connectivity Modules: Connectivity modules, such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth modules,
can be added to enable wireless communication and connectivity in the embedded
system.