6 Production Engineering

6.1 Quality m anagem ent

Standards, t e r m in o lo g y ............................................. 270
Q u a lity p la n ning , q u a lity t e s t in g ............................. 272
S tatistical a n a ly s is ...................................................... 273
S tatistical process c o n t r o l ......................................... 275
Q u a lity m a n a g e m e n t o f p ro c e s se s......................... 276

6.2 EC Machinery Directive

EC M ac h in e ry D ir e c t iv e ............................................. 278
CE m a r k i n g .................................................................... 279

6.3 Production organization

O ve rvie w ; p ro d u c t bre a kd o w n s t r u c t u r e .............. 280
W o rk p la n n in g ............................................................... 282
Cost a c c o u n t in g ........................................................... 286
6.4 M aintenance, repair & overhaul (MRO)
M aintenance, insp e ction , repair, im p ro v e m e n t. . 289
MRO c o n c e p ts ............................................................... 290
D o c u m e n ta tio n s y s t e m ............................................. 292

6.5 Machining processes

O ve rvie w ; forces and p o w e r .................................... 293
D r illin g ............................................................................. 298
T u r n in g ............................................................................. 301
M i l l i n g ............................................................................. 305
Indexable in s e rts ........................................................... 308
C o o lin g lu b r ic a tio n ...................................................... 311
Cuttin to o l m a te ria ls .................................................... 315
G rin d in g , h o n in g ........................................................... 317

6.6 Rem oval operations

Electric d ischarge m a c h in in g .................................... 323
Process param eters in EDM e r o s i o n .................... 324

6.7 Separation by cutting

Cutting f o r c e .................................................................. 325
C u ttin g t o o l .................................................................... 326

6.8 Forming
B e n d in g .......................................................................... 330
Deep d r a w i n g ............................................................... 334

6.9 Injection molding

Injection m o ld in g to o ls ............................................... 338
Shrinkage, co o lin g , b a tc h in g .................................... 341

6.10 Joining
W e ld in g p ro c e s s e s ...................................................... 343
W eld p r e p a r a t io n ......................................................... 345
G as-shielded w e ld in g .................................................. 346
A rc w e ld in g .................................................................... 348
Beam c u t t in g ................................................................. 350
Gas cylin d e rs, id e n t if ic a t io n .................................... 352
Brazing, b o n de d j o i n t s ............................................... 354

6 .1 1 W orkplace and environmental protection

Safety c o lo r s ................................................................. 359
W a rn in g signs, safety s ig n s ...................................... 360
S o u n d and n o is e ........................................................... 366
 Standards ISO 9000, 9001, 9004
Standards o f the ISO-9000 fa m ily should help organizations o f all types and sizes to im plem ent quality m anagem ent
systems, to w o rk w ith existing q ua lity m anagem ent systems, and to facilitate m utual understanding in national and
international trade.

Quality m anagem ent standards cf. DIN EN ISO 9000 (2005-12), 9001 (2008-12), 9004 (2009-12)
Standard Explanation, contents

DIN EN ISO Fundamentals of quality management systems

9000
Principle of quality management
• custom er focus • system approach to m anagem ent
• leadership • continuous im provem ent
• involvem ent o f people • factual approach to decision making
• process approach • m u tu ally beneficial su pplier relationships
Fundamentals of quality management systems (QM systems)
• reasons fo r QM systems • evaluation o f QM systems
• requirem ents o f QM system s and • continuous im provem ent
products • role o f statistical m ethods
• progressive im plem entation o f QM systems • QM system s as part o f th e total
• process oriented evaluation m anagem ent system
• qua lity policies and goals • requirem ents o f QM system s and
• role o f to p m anagem ent in the QM system com parative evaluation o f organizations
• docum entation; advantages and types based on criteria o f excellence models

Terminology for quality management systems

For a selection o f defin itio ns and explanations o f term s, see page 271.

DIN EN ISO Requirements of a quality management system

90011)
This international standard applies to organizations in any ind u stry or business sector regardless of
products offered. It establishes requirem ents fo r a QM system, based on fundam entals outlined in
ISO 9000, if an organization:
•m ust dem onstrate capability to o ffe r products w hich fu lfill both custom er and legal and official
requirem ents,
•strives to im prove custom er satisfaction, including the process o f continuous im pro ve m en t o f the
system.
Specified requirem ents can be used for:
• internal applications by organizations
• certification purposes
• contract purposes
The standard is based on a process oriented evaluation, i.e. every a ctivity or sequence o f activities
w hich uses resources to co nvert inp u t into results is regarded as a process.
Requirements
The organization must:
• establish all necessary processes fo r the QM system and th e ir use in th e organization,
• establish the flo w s and interdependencies o f these processes,
• establish criteria and m ethods fo r ensuring im plem entation and control o f these processes,
• ensure availab ility o f resources and inform a tio n fo r these processes,
• m o n ito r and, if applicable, m easure and analyze these processes,
take
• necessary actions fo r continuous im pro ve m en t o f these processes,
• fu lfill docum entation requirem ents fo r the QM system , and
• observe regulations fo r docum ent control.

1) This standard also replaces previous standards 9002 and 9003.

DIN EN ISO Managing and controlling for the long-lasting success of an organization –
9004 an approach to quality management

The standard includes guidelines fo r organizations on h ow to pursue long-term goals in a

dem anding, changing and uncertain environm ent.
The standard is not intended fo r certification purposes.
 Terminology
Terms (selection) Definitions & explanations cf. DIN EN ISO 9000 (2005-12)

Quality-related terms

Quality Extent to w hich the characteristics o f a product fu lfill the requirem ents fo r th a t product.

Requirement Specified o r m andatory dem ands fo r characteristics o f a unit, e.g. nom inal values, to ler­
ances, functional capability, re lia bility or safety.
Customer satisfaction C ustom er's perception o f degree to w hich its requirem ents have been fu lfille d.

Capability S u ita b ility of an organization, system or process to provide a product th a t fu lfills th a t prod­
uct's q ua lity requirem ents.

Characteristic and conformity related terms

Quality characteristic Identifying attribute o f a product or process, w hich is utilized in assessing q ua lity based on
the specified q ua lity requirem ents.
• Q uantitative (variable) characteristics:
discrete characteristics (w hole num bers), i.e. n um ber o f holes, piece count
continuous characteristics (counter values), e.g. length, position, mass
• Qualitative characteristics:
ordinal characteristics (w ith ranking), e.g. lig h t blue – blue – dark blue
nom inal characteristics (w itho u t ranking), e.g. good – bad, blue – ye llo w
Identifying a ttribute o f a product, a process or system relating to a requirem ent.

Conformity Fulfilling a specified requirem ent, e.g. a dim ensional tolerance.

Defect N ot fu lfillin g a specified requirem ent, e.g. not co n fo rm in g to a required dim ensional
tolerance o r surface quality.
Rework Action taken on a defective product so th a t it fu lfills requirem ents.

Process and product related terms

Process M u tu ally interactive resources and activities w hich convert inputs into results. Some exam ­
ples o f resources are personnel, finances, facilities and m anufacturing m ethods.

Method Defined m anner in w hich an a ctivity or process is perform ed. In w ritte n fo rm also referred
to as process instructions.

Product Result o f a process, e.g. part, assembly, service, processed item, knowledge, concept, docu­
ment, contract, pollutant.

Terms related to organization

Organization G roup o f persons and facilities w ith a m a trix o f responsibilities, a uth oritie s and relation­
ships.
Customer Organization or person w hich receives a product fro m a supplier.

Supplier Organization o r person w hich provides a product to a custom er.

Terms relating to management

Quality Organization and organizational structures, m ethods and processes o f an operation required
management system to put a q uality m anagem ent into practice.

Quality All coordinated activities fo r m anaging and controllin g the quality-related aspects o f an
org anization by:
• establishing a q uality policy • q ua lity control
• setting q uality goals • q uality assurance
• q ua lity planning • q ua lity im provem ent

Quality planning A ctivities directed to w ard establishing q ua lity goals and required im ple m en ta tio n pro­
cesses, as w ell as associated resources fo r attaining q ua lity goals.

Quality control W ork activities and techniques to continually fu lfill requirem ents despite unavoidable varia­
tio n s in quality. Consists p rim a rily o f process m o n ito rin g and e lim ina tio n o f weak points.

Quality assurance Perform ing and generating required docum entation fo r all activities relating to the QM sys­
tem , w ith the goal o f creating an atm osphere of trust, both in-house and w ith the custom er,
th a t q ua lity requirem ents w ill be fu lfille d.

Quality Actions taken th ro u g h o u t the organization to increase product quality.

improvement
Quality manual D ocum ent describing the q ua lity policy, q uality goals and q uality m anagem ent system o f
an organization.
 Quality planning, Quality control, Quality testing
Q uality planning
Rule-of-ten (for costs)

Costs required to e lim inate defects or costs resulting

fro m defects increase by a bout a fa cto r o f 10 from
phase to phase in the p rod u ct life cycle.

Example: A tolerance e rror on a single part can be

corrected durin g th e design phase w ith n eg ligible
increase o f costs. If the defect is firs t noticed in p ro ­
duction, much larger costs result. If the defect leads
to p roblem s in assem bly or has an adverse im pact
on th e fu n ctio na lity o f the finished product o r even
leads to a recall, e norm ous costs are incurred.

Quality control
Quality control circle Factors causing variance in quality
Factor Examples
Human q ualification, m o tivation,
degree o f utilization
Machine m achine rigid ity, p ositioning
accuracy, w ear condition
Material deviations, m aterial properties,
m aterial variations
Method w o rk steps, production process,
test conditions
Surroundings tem perature, vibrations,
(environment) light, noise, dust
Management poor q ua lity goals or policies
Measurability m easurem ent inaccuracy
Q uality testing cf. DIN 55350-17 (1988-08), DIN 55350-14 and -31 (1985-12)
Concepts Explanations
Quality testing Determ ine to w ha t extent a unit meets specified q ua lity requirem ents.
Test plan Define and describe the type and scope of testing, e.g . measuring and m onitoring devices,
Test instructions frequency o f testing, test personnel, testing location.
Complete testing Testing o f a u n it fo r all specified q ua lity characteristics, e. g. com plete inspection o f a
single w orkpiece regarding all requirem ents.
100% testing Testing o f all units w ith in a test lot, e. g. visual inspection o f all delivered parts.
Statistical testing Q uality testing w ith the aid o f statistical m ethods, e. g. evaluation o f a large q ua ntity
(sampling test) o f parts by analyzing a n um ber o f sam pled parts.
Test lot The e ntirety o f the considered units, e.g. a p roduction o f 5000 identical workpieces.
(sampling test)
Sample One or m ore units w hich are taken fro m the p opulation o r a subset o f the population,
e.g. 50 parts fro m a daily production o f 400 parts.

Probability (Probability of defect)

Probability o f a defective part w ith in a defined total num ber o f parts.
P p ro b a b ility in % m to ta l n um ber o f parts
n n um ber o f defective parts

Example:
Probability
In a crate there are m = 400 parts, w here n = 10 parts have a d im ensional defect.
W hat is the p ro b a b ility P of obta in ing a defective part w hen taking one part o ut
o f th e crate?

Probability
 Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of continuous characteristics cf. DIN 53804-1 (2002-04)

Presentation of test data Example

Sample size: 40 parts
Raw data list Test characteristic: part diam eter d = 8 ± 0.05 m m
Raw data is the docum entation o f all Measured part diam eter d in m m
observed values fro m the test lot or
Parts 1–10 7.98 7.96 7.99 8.01 8.02 7.96 8.03 7.99 7.99 8.01
sample in the sequence in w hich they
occur. Parts 11–20 7.96 7.99 8.00 8.02 8.02 7.99 8.02 8.00 8.01 8.01

Parts 21–30 7.99 8.05 8.03 8.00 8.03 7.99 7.98 7.99 8.01 8.02

Parts 31–40 8.02 8.01 8.05 7.94 7.98 8.00 8.01 8.01 8.02 8.00

Number of classes
Tally sheet Class hj
Tally sheet nj
The ta lly sheet provides a clear pre­ no. in %
sentation o f the observed values and 1 7.94 7.96 I 1 2.5
assignm ent into classes (ranges) o f a
2 7.96 7.98 III 3 7.5 Class interval size
specific class interval size.
3 7.98 8.00 11 27.5
n num ber o f individual values
k num ber o f classes 4 8.00 8.02 13 32.5
i class interval 5 8.02 8.04 10 25
R range (page 274) 6 8.04 8.06 II 2 5 Relative frequency
nj absolute frequency Σ = 40 100
hj relative frequency in %

Histogram
A histogram is a bar graph fo r visualiz­
ing th e d istrib u tion o f ind ivid u a l test
data.

Cumulative frequency curve in

probability system
The cum ulative frequency curve in the
p ro b a b ility system is a sim ple and
clear graphical method used to check
fo r the existence o f a norm al d istrib u ­
tio n (page 274).
If the cumulative relative frequency in
the probability system approximates
a straight line, then a normal distribu­
tion of the individual values can be
assumed, i.e. a fu rth e r evaluation can
be conducted per DIN 53 804-1 (page
274).
In this case specific values can addition­
ally be determined from the samples.

Example of problem solving using the

graph:
Arithm etic mean (for Fi = 50%) and
standard d eviation s (as d ifference
68.26% ÷ 2 between Fj = 50% and
84.13%):

The prob a b ility model o f the exam ple

show s th a t in the entire lot a p p ro xi­
m ately 0.6% o f parts can be expected
to be to o th in and 3% to o thick. LLV low er lim it value; ULV upper lim it value
 Normal distribution
Gaussian distribution

C ontinuous data values often e xhib it a characteristic in th e ir d is trib u ­

tio n w h ich is a p p ro x im a te d m a th e m a tic a lly by the Gaussian
norm a l d is trib u tio n model. For an infinite n u m b e r o f ind ivid u a l val­
ues the p rob a b ility d ensity o f a norm a l d is trib u tio n yield s the typical
bell curve. This sym m e trical and co n tin u o u s d is trib u tio n curve is
clearly described by the fo llo w in g parameters:
The m ean μ lies on the curve m a x im u m and identifies the position o f
the d istribution.
The standard devia tio n σ is a measure o f the variations, i.e. h o w va l­
ues deviate fro m the mean.
1) Carl Friedrich GauB (1777-1855), Germ an m athem atician

N orm al distribution in sampling cf. DIN 53804-1 (2002-04) or DGQ 16-31 (1990)

n n um ber o f individual values A rith m e tic

(sample size) m ean2)
xi value o f measurable properties,
e.g. individual value
x max largest m easurem ent value
x min sm allest m easurem ent value
a rithm etic mean
median value1), m iddle value of
m easured values arranged in
order o f m agnitude
s standard deviation
R range
D m ode (m easurem ent value Range
occurring m ost frequently
in a test series)
g(x) prob a b ility density
When evaluating several samples: Mean o f sam ple ranges
m n um ber o f samples mean o f m u ltip le sam ple ranges
mean o f m u ltiple sample means mean o f standard deviations
Example: Evaluation o f sample values fro m page 273:
Mean o f sam ple means
R = 0.11 mm s = 0.02348 m m D = 7.99 m m
1) Median value fo r
odd n um ber o f individual values: even num ber o f individual values:
e.g. x1; x2; x3; x4; x 5: e.g. x1: x2; x 3; x4; x 5; x 6:
Mean o f standard
M any pocket calculators have special fu nctions fo r calculating the mean and deviations
standard deviation.
Repeated occurrences o f identical measurem ent values can be represented by a
suitable factor.

Norm al distribution in an inspection lot

Parameters o f the population are estim ated using a s am pling m ethod based on characteristic values fro m the sam-
p l e (confirm atory statistics). To differentiate sam pling characteristics clearly fro m param eters o f the population
o th e r d esignations are used. These estimated values are distinguished fro m the calculated process values fo r a
100% inspection (descriptive statistics) by adding a ^ mark.

Characteristic values and desianations in quality testing

Sampling test (confirmatory statistics)
100% inspection
Sample Population (descriptive statistics)
N um ber o f measured values n Number of measured values N
N um ber o f m easured values m ■ n

Process mean μ

Standard deviation s
Process standard deviation σ
(calculator σ n )
 Statistical process control
Quality control charts
Process control charts Acceptance control charts

Process co ntrol charts are used fo r m o n ito rin g a Acceptance control charts are used to m o n ito r a process
process fo r changes com pared to a ta rget value o r a in reference to set specification lim its (lim it values).
previous process value. The intervention and w arning Control lim its are calculated as tolerance lim its fo r the
lim its are determ ined by the process estim ated value of location o f the process mean and a tolerance range fo r
a population or a p relim in a ry run. process variance.

Process control charts for quantitative characteristics (S h e w h a rt-co n tro l ch a rts )1)
Raw data chart Control limits Example: 5 individual values fo r each sample

The raw data chart is a docu­ characteristic mean

m e ntatio n o f all m easure­ (mean o f the characteris­
m e nt valu e s by e nte rin g tic, target value, ideal
d ire c tly on th e chart. It value)
assum es an a pp ro xim a te UWL upper w arn ing lim it
LWL low er w arn ing lim it
because o f the n um b e r o f UCL upper control lim it
entries. LCL low er control lim it
USL upper specification lim it
LSL low er specification lim it

Median value range chart Mean standard deviation chart

These charts are used to clearly represent production These charts are used to show the trend o f the mean
dispersion w ith o u t re qu irin g much calculation. They and e xh ib it greater se nsitivity than They
are suitable fo r m anual control chart m anagem ent. require com puter-aided control chart m anagem ent.

Example: Example:

1) W alter A n dre w Shew hart (1891-1967), Am erican scientist

 Process trend, Acceptance sampling and plan
Process trends

Designation/observations Possible causes → Actions

Natural run The process is under control and can con­

2/3 o f all values lie in th e range tin ue w ith o u t interruption.
± standard deviation s and all val­
ues lie w ith in the control lim its.

Exceeding the control limits Over-adjusted m achine, diffe ren t m aterial,

The values are outside o f the con­ dam aged o r w orn equipm ent
tro l lim its. → Stop process and 100% inspect parts
since th e last sam pling

RUN (sequential) Tool w ear, d iffe re n t m aterial batch, new

7 or m ore sequential values lie on to o l, new personnel
one side o f th e mean line. → Tightened observation o f the process

Trend W ear on to o l, equ ip m e n t o r m easuring de­

7 or m ore sequential values show vices, o perator fatigue
an increasing o r decreasing trend. → Stop process to determ ine reasons fo r
adjustm ent

Middle Third Im proved p rod u ctio n, b etter supervision,

A t least 15 consecutive values lie corrected test results
w ith in ± standard deviation s. → D eterm ine h ow the process was
im proved or check the test results

Cyclical D ifferent m easuring devices, system atic

The values cross th e m ean line spread o f th e data
p eriodically . → Exam ine m anufacturing process fo r
influences

Acceptance sampling (attribute sampling) cf. DIN ISO 2859-1 (2004-01)

An a ttribute inspection is an acceptance sam pling inspection in w hich the acceptability o f the inspection lot is deter­
m ined based on defective units or defects in individual sam pling.
The percentage of nonconforming units or the number of defects per hundred units of the lot identifies the quali­
ty level. The acceptable q ua lity level is the q ua lity level defined fo r contin u o usly presented lots; it is a q ua lity level
th a t is specified by th e custom er in m ost cases. The associated sam pling instructions are sum m arized in control
tables.

Acceptance sampling plan for single sampling inspection as the normal inspection
(excerpt from a control table)

Lot size Acceptable quality level AQL (preferred values)

0.04 0.065 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.65 1.0 1.5 2.5
2– 8 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
9– 15 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ 8 0 5 0
16– 25 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ 13 0 8 0 5 0
26– 50 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ 20 0 13 0 8 0 5 0
51– 90 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ 50 0 32 0 20 0 13 0 8 0 20 1
91– 150 ↓ ↓ ↓ 80 0 50 0 32 0 20 0 13 0 32 1 20 1
↓
151– 280 ↓ 125 0 80 0 50 0 32 0 20 0 50 1 32 1 32 2
281– 500 ↓ 200 0 125 0 80 0 50 0 32 0 80 1 50 1 50 2 50 3
501– 1200 315 0 200 0 125 0 80 0 50 0 125 1 80 1 80 2 80 3 80 5
Explanation
 Process and machine capability, Quality control charts
Capability, Quality control charts
During an evaluation of the quality-related capability o f a process through capabili­ Machine capability index
ty characteristics (capability indices), d ifferentiation m ust be made between short­
term capability (machine capability) and long-term capability (process capability).
Machine capability is an evalu a tion o f the
machine, i.e. whether there is sufficient probability
that it can produce w ithin specified lim its given its
normal fluctuations.
If Cm ≥ 1.67 and Cmk ≥ 1.67, th is m eans that Requirem ent1) e.g.
99.99994% (range ± 5 s) o f the q ua lity charac­
teristics lie w ith in the lim its and the mean lies
at least an am ount of 5 s away fro m the tolerance
lim its.

Process capability index

LLV low er lim it value
∆ crit sm allest interval between
ULV upper lim it value
mean and a tolerance lim it
arithm etic mean
s standard deviation Cm, Cmk machine capability index

Process capability is an assessment o f the m anufacturing process, i.e. w hether

there is sufficien t p rob a b ility th a t it can fu lfill specified requirem ents given its
norm al fluctuations.
Requirem ent1) e.g.
estim ated standard deviation Cp, Cpk process capability index
Cp ≥ 1.33 and Cpk ≥ 1.33
Example:
Exam ination o f m achine capability fo r production d im ension 80 ± 0.05; 1) Customer or contract
Values fro m p relim in a ry run: specific requirements;
in large scale production,
e.g. automotive industry,
tendency to higher require­
ments, e.g. Cm ≥ 2.0.
The m achine capability fo r th is process is confirm ed.

Quality control charts for qualitative characteristics cf. DGQ 16-33 (1990); DGQ 11-19 (1994)

Defect chart Example:

Defect charts record the defective Part: Cover Sample size n = 50 Test interval: 60 min
units, the defect types and th e ir fre ­ Frequency of defect ij % Perc. of total
Defect type
quency in samples. 2 0.44
Paint damage F1 1 1
n scope o f sam pling Dents F2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 14 3.11
m n um ber o f samples Corrosion F3 1 1 1 0.66
Burr F4 1 1 0.22
Reading example for F3: 1 0.22
F5 1
m • n = 9 • 50 = 450 F6 2 3 1 3 1 2 12 2.66
Bent F7 1 1 0.22
Threads missing F8 1 1 0.22
Defects per sample 4 6 3 3 3 5 4 3 4 35
Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Pareto1) diagram Example:

The Pareto diagram classifies crite­

ria (e.g. defects) according to type
and frequency and is therefore an
im p o rta n t aid in analyzing criteria
and establishing priorities.

Example for F2:

Percentage o f total defects

Example of graphic representation: Dents (F2) and angle error

1) Pareto – Italian sociologist (F6) to g e th er make up fo r approx. 74% o f the total errors.
 EC Machinery Directive
Structure and contents DIRECTIVE 42/2006/EC
The purpose o f the EC M achinery Directive is to reduce accidents in connection w ith th e operation o f machines.
This aim should be reached by observing safety aspects in the engineering and construction o f machines as w ell
as by proper installation and maintenance.
Only machines th a t co m ply w ith the requirem ents o f th e EC M achinery Directive m ay be traded fre e ly in the
European market.

Overview

Articles Content Annexes Content

Article 1, 2 and 3 Enum eration and defi­ Annex I Basic principles o f safety fo r
Area o f application, nition o f the products to Safety and health control equipm ent, protective
definition o f term s w hich the Directive does or protection requirem ents measures, guards and protec­
does not apply tive devices, risks and other
Article 4 to 11 hazards, repair and m ain­
Description o f the
tenance, inform ation, w a rn ing
M arket surveillance, measures to be undertaken
notes and signs, operating
m arketing and before the m arketing
instructions
com m issioning and com m issioning o f
a machine in the free Annex II to V M inim u m specifications in
econom y EC Declaration of the declaration o f conform ity,
Conform ity, representation o f the CE
Article 12 to 15 Inform ation concerning the
CE marking, m arking,
C onform ity evaluation type, scope and execution
o f evaluation procedures list o f machines and particularly dangerous
procedures
safety com ponents machines

Article 16 and 17 Definition o f the CE Annex VI and VII Content and scope o f the
CE marking m arking Technical docum ents technical docum entation
fo r m achinery fo r com plete and partly
com pleted machines
Article 18 to 29 General notes concerning
Observance o f secrecy, the im plem entation, Annex VIII to XI Description o f the type
sanctions, sanctions and the com ing EC type exam ination, e xam ination, basic principles
into force o f the directive com prehensive quality fo r the evaluation o f the
im plem entation
assurance quality assurance system

Products to which the EC Machinery Directive does and does not apply

As per article 1 (1) and article 2, the EC Machinery The EC M achinery Directive does n ot apply to the
Directive applies to the fo llo w in g products: fo llo w in g products (excerpt):
a) Machines a) Safety com ponents intended as spare parts
b) Safety com ponents b) Specific equ ip m e n t fo r fairgro u n ds and am usem ent
c) Lifting accessories parks

d) Chains, ropes and w ebbing c) M achinery designed fo r nuclear purposes

d) Weapons
e) Removable m echanical transm ission devices
e) Means o f transportation and sea-going vessels
f) Partly com pleted machines that are intended fo r
the installation in a m achine in the sense o f the f) M achinery specially designed fo r research purposes
EC M achinery Directive g) Electrical and electronic products, such as household
appliances, IT equipm ent, office machinery,
low -voltage control equipm ent, electrical m otors

Approach to compliance with the EC Machinery Directive

1. Check applicable standards and regulations, p articu larly the safety and health requirem ents specified in
An ne x I (cf. page 279).
2. Evaluate the machine in v ie w o f com pliance w ith th e co n fo rm ity assessment described in the EC Machinery
Directive ’
• in the fa cto ry "First Party",
• or by the custom er "Second Party",
• o r by a tru s t center "Third Party"
3. Prepare the declaration o f co n fo rm ity
4. A p p ly the CE mark
5. Prepare th e operating instructions
6. Prepare additional technical docum ents, such as a ssem bly instructions and the declaration o f incorporation fo r
partly com pleted machines, if applicable.
 CE Marking
Declaration of conformity

The m anufacturer m ust provide evidence that he/she has respected the regulations in the required EC directives
(Declaration o f co nform ity).

CE marking

"CE" = Communauté européenne1)

CE mark Identification plate
By applying the CE mark, the m anufacturer co nfirm s to
the custom er com pliance o f the product w ith the relevant
EC directives and the requirem ents contained therein.
The iden tifica tion plate m ust contain the fo llo w in g
specifications:
• Name and address o f the m anufacturer
• CE m arking
• Type and serial n um ber o f the m achine
• Year o f m anufacture
1) European C om m unity

Safety and health protection regulations

The regulations refer to hazards as a potential source o f injury and damage to health and to im pairm ents by noise
and vibration as w ell as to ergonom ic (human-oriented) principles.

Measures to avoid hazards Safety standards (excerpt fro m Annex I)

• Operation, set-up and m aintenance m ust not involve

any hazard to people
• The m aterials used m ust not im p ly any hazards
• All com ponents m ust be su ffic ie n tly stable and the
connections am ong them m ust be able to w ithstand
the loads and stresses acting on them
• Ergonom ic principles m ust be taken into consideration
• C om m issioning o f m achines o n ly by deliberate acti­
vation
• EMERGENCY-OFF devices m ust be in existence
• Any risk o f contact w ith m oving parts m ust be avoided
by suitable guards
• Hazards by noise em issions m ust be reduced to the
low est achievable level
• Hazards produced by gases and dusts m ust be avoided
• Transport o f m achines m ust be safe. Corresponding
handles or lifting equ ip m e n t m ust be available
• L ighting m u st not produce d is tu rb in g shadow s or
glare
• Changes in the pow er su pp ly (mains failure) m ust not
produce hazardous situations

Technical documents for machines (excerpt fro m Annex VII)

• General description • List o f applicable standards

• O verview draw ing, w irin g diagram s • Operating instructions fo r the machine
• Detail draw ings and calculations • Assem bly instructions and incorporation declaration,
if applicable
• Risk assessment
• EC declaration o f co nfo rm ity
 Production organization - Overview
Production process Product life cycle
(supply chain management) (life cycle management)

Product management systems

ERP Enterprise Recource Planning

Inform ation system fo r the planning and organization o f personnel;l
and m anufacturing capacities and the ability to deliver

PLM Life Cycle Management

Strategy concept fo r the m anagem ent o f a product over its entire
life cycle, i. e. fro m production to recycling

PDM Product Data Management

System fo r the unified storage and m anagem ent o f all data th a t
accrue during the developm ent, production, storage and d istrib u ­
tio n o f a product

SCM Supply Chain Management

Planning and organization o f all tasks arising in connection w ith
procurem ent, production and logistics

Structuring of production planning

The p rod u ct data include all order-neutral p roduction data. They are supplem ented w ith order-related data.
 Product breakdown structure, Bills of materials
In m ost cases, products are com posed o f several parts that could be sum m arized into groups. In order to obtain
a better overview, structure plans are draw n up according to fu n ction, processing, assem bly or procurem ent. The
product breakdown structure is also th e basis fo r the preparation o f the bills o f materials.

Product breakdow n structure according to functional levels

P = Product, C = C om ponent;
A = A ssem bly/sub-assem bly
PP = Individual part/purchased part;
R = Raw part/unfinished product
Each assembly, subassem bly, in d iv id u ­
al or purchased part or raw m aterial is
on the same functional level and level
o f consideration. The structure shows
the detailed co m po sition o f the entire
product. This type o f breakdown struc­
tu re is m a in ly used in the design phase.

Product breakdow n structure according to processing stages

The m anufacturing process determ ines
the m a pp ing in th is structure. Each
co m po n e nt appears on the level where
it is needed in th e m a nu facturing or
assem bly process. The structure fo rm s
the basis o f the prod u ctio n planning.
The m ulti-level BOM and the assem bly
d raw ing are derived fro m th is break­
dow n structure.

Bills of m aterials (order-neutral)

The bill o f m aterials is the basis fo r the assessment o f the dem and fo r parts and raw m aterials. It is used fo r the
preparation o f the w ork-processing sheet. The structure o f the BOM depends on the intended use and is not stan­
dardized. Types: design and m anufacturing BOM, single-level and m ulti-level BOM, quantified BOM.

Design and manufacturing BOM Multi-level BOM

(simplified))
The m anufacturing parts list includes the specifications of the design parts
list and additional details concerning m anufacturing. It often replaces the Each assem bly is broken dow n to the
work-processing sheet. low est p rod u ct level (is com posed
of ...).

M u lti-le v el BOM
P - Product
Stage Designation

1 2 3 |4
A1
Single-level BOM (simplified) A2
Single-level BOMs o nly contain item s o f the same processing structure PP1
levels. There are always several BOMs required fo r a single product. R1
PP2
PP1
R1
PP4
A2
PP1
R1
PP2
PP3
R3
PP4
 Work processing sheet, Order schedule, Processing control
W ork processing or assembly sheet (order-neutral)
The work-processing sheet is used fo r inform a tio n and instruction in m anufacturing processes. It describes the
w o rk flo w fo r the m anufacturing o r processing o f a part, an assem bly or a product. The m aterial to be used, the
w orkplace fo r each processing step, the resources and the ta rget tim es are specified as a m in im u m requirem ent.
The structure o f the work-processing sheet is not standardized.
Order-related w ork processing sheets are supplem ented w ith the order num ber, the batch size and the deadlines.

1. Record initial data.

Prepared by Go 2. Assess o rig ina l part and its
Work-Processing Sheet dim ensions; specify BOM o f the
Date 10/01/02
assem bly parts.
Art. No. Article Drawing
1 3. Determ ine w o rk flo w o f the
12.001 PP1 - individual p a rt 1 2.001-1 processing or assembly.
Hz. no. Original part 4. Determ ine processing or
2
Rd EN 10060-30 × 18− S235JR assem bly systems.
Process. Cost Description Aids/NC Set-up Time 5. Prepare w o rk flo w description of
step no. group software time per unit
the processing o r assembly.
[min] [min]
3 10 Turning Complete tu rn in g w ork NC_12_001 15 5.25 6. Determ ine a uxilia ry equipm ent
20 D rilling Drill cross hole Prism
and m aterial fo r the processing
3 4
4 5 o r assembly.
6 7
7. Determ ine ta rget tim e.

Order schedule

The product structure based on processing and assem bly stages show s the part com ponents on a horizontal tim e
axis fro m the start p o in t to the date o f delivery. This order grid is intended to su pp o rt the orde r tim e scheduling and
facilitates the order processing. It allow s the calculation o f the cycle tim es.

PS processing step
M A m aking available

P product
A assem bly
PP ind ivid u a l part

Centralized processing control Decentralized processing control

Push principle: Orders are launched by th e process Pull or get principle: According to the Kanban principle,
control and pushed forw ard. processing is launched on dem and (Kanban card) o f the
subsequent step (Kanban = signboard, billboard).
 Cycle time1)
Structuring of tim e types in a w o rk system (S)

paS = percentage o f the scheduled cycle tim e

fas = 1 + paS/ 100% = factor fo r scheduled cycle tim e

Symbol Designation Description with examples

Cycle tim e Target tim e (allowed tim e) fo r the com pletion o f a task in one or m ore w ork systems
Tc
Scheduled Sum o f the target tim es fo r the processing o f a batch q ua ntity in a w ork system S
tcS
cycle tim e in accordance w ith the scheduled cycle tim es
Execution tim e Target tim e fo r the execution o f a batch q ua n tity in a w ork system S
teS
• Job tim e T referenced to the executing person (cf. page 284)
• Utilization tim e tur referenced to the operating resource (cf. page 285)

Prim ary Tim e during w hich the task is carried o ut in a w o rk system S, it often corresponds
tpS
execution tim e to the tim e types:
• A c tivity tim e taC = ttf + ttv (cf. page 284)
• Main production tim e tmp = L · i / n · f (cf. page 285)

tsS Secondary Tim e during w hich

execution tim e • the m ain execution is prepared, set up, fed and em ptied in a w o rk system S
• operators check th e ir w o rk or repose

Intermediate Target tim e during w hich the execution o f the job is interrupted in accordance w ith
taS
tim e the schedule:
• W ait tim e (tw) after processing in w ork system S1
• Transport (ttr) fro m S1 to S2
• W ait tim e (tw) before processing in w o rk system S2

Additional tim e Unscheduled tim es are added to the scheduled cycle tim es in fo rm o f a safety
taS
addition determ ined by experience values or a m ultiplication factor. Additional
tim es are m ainly caused by:
• A d ditional executions taeS
• Interruptions due to disturbances tid

Calculation methods for the cycle tim e

Example:
A CNC m achine is utilized fo r 6.5 hr. The w a it
and tra n spo rt tim es am ount to 3 hr each. Calcu­
late the cycle tim e w ith a safety addition o f 20%.
Execution tim e te = tur = 6.5 hr
Interm ediate tim e ti = 2 • tw + ttr = 9.0 hr
Scheduled
cycle tim e tc = te + ti = 15.5 hr
Additional tim e ta = Pa · tc/100% = 3.1 hr

Cycle time Tc = tc • ta = 18.6 hr

Cycle tim e in days:

18.6 hrs/6 hrs per w ork day = 3.1 days

1> According to REFA International Association fo r W ork Design, Industrial Organization and Com pany D evelopm ent
 Job tim e1)
Structure of types of tim e for workers

z = percentages o f the respective flo o r-to -flo o r tim e

Symbol Designation Explanation with examples

T Job tim e Tim e allowed fo r m anufacturing a lot size

ts Setup tim e Setup fo r an entire job

• basic setup tim e tbs → tu rn on m achine
• setup recovery tim e tsr → recovery tim e after strenuous changeover
• setup unproductive tim e tus → repair o f brie f m achine m alfunction

tp Production tim e Tim e allow ed fo r production o f a lot size (w itho u t setup)

tre Recovery tim e Personnel break tim e to reduce work-related fatigue

tu U nproductive tim e • job-related interruption tim e tm → unforeseen to o l sharpening
• personnel interru p tio n tim e tp → checking w ork tim es, taking care o f needs

t ac A c tiv ity tim e Tim es in w hich the actual jo b is processed

• variable tim es ttv → assem bly or deburring w ork
• fixed tim es ttf →cycle o f a CNC program

tw W aiting tim e W aiting fo r the next w orkpiece in the continuous flo w production

q Jo b volum e N um ber o f units to be produced fo r a jo b (lot size)

Example: Turning three shafts on a lathe

Setup times: min Production times: m in

Setup job = 4.50 A c tiv ity tim e tac
= 14.70
Setup o f m achine = 10.00 W aiting tim e tw = 3.75
Setup o f tool = 12.50 tff = tac + tw
F loor-to-floor tim e = 18.45
Basic setup tim e tbs = 27.00 Recovery tim e tre com pens. fo r in tw −
Setup recovery tim e tsr = 4% o f tbs = 1.08 U nproductive tim e tu = 8% o f tff = 1.48
U nproduc. setup tim e tus = 14% o f tbs = 3.78 Tim e per u nit w ork tuw = tff + tre + tu = 19.93
Setup tim e ts = tbs + tsr + tus = 31.86 Production time = 59.79
t p = q · tuw
Job tim e T = ts + tp ≈ 32 m in + 60 m in = 92 min (= 1.53 hr)

11 According to REFA International Association fo r W ork Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Developm ent
 Utilization time 1)
Structure of the types of tim es for production resources (PR)

z = percentage rate o f the respective flo o r-to -flo o r tim e

Symbol Designation Explanation w ith examples

U tilization tim e Tim e allowed fo r utilization o f a production resource fo r m anufacturing

TUtP
a lot size

Production resource Setup o f production resource fo r com pleting an entire job

tsP
setup tim e • PR basic setup tim e tbsP → clam ping equipm ent on a m achine
• unproductive setup tim e tusP → optim ization o f CNC program

Production resource Tim e allowed fo r the production tim e o f a lot size (w ithout setup)
tpP
production tim e

Production resource Time in which the production resource is not utilized or additionally utilized;
tuP
interruption tim e power outage, un-planned repair work, etc.

Main Tim es in w hich the w ork object is processed according to plan

tmp
p roductive tim e • variable tim es thv → anual drillin g
m
• fixed tim es thf → cycleof CNC program

A uxiliary Production resources are prep., loaded or em ptied fo r the m ain productive tim e
tap
productive tim e • variable tim es tav → m anual clam ping
• fixed tim es taf →
autom atic w orkpiece change

Idle tim e Process or recovery related dow n tim e, e.g. fillin g o f a magazine
tid

Job volum e N um ber of units to be produced fo r a jo b (lot size)

q

Example: Milling a contact surface on 20 base plates using a vertical milling machine

min Production times: min

Setup times:
= 4.54 = 3.52
Read the jo b order and draw ing
= 3.65 = 4.00
Set up and store the surface cutter
= 3.10 = 1 .20
Clamp and unclam p the cutter
Set up the machine = 2.84 Prod. res. floor-to-floor tim e tffP = tmp + tap + tid = 8.72
= 14.13 Prod. res. unproductive tim e tuP = 10% of tffP = 0.87
Production resources basic setup tim e tbsP
Prod. res. unproductive s. tim e tusP =10% of tbsP = 1.41 Prod. resource tim e per u n it tuwP = tffP + tuP = 9.59
Production resource prod. tim e tpP = q · tuwP = 191.80
Production resources setup time tsP = tbsP + t usP = 15.54
Utilization tim e TUtP = tsP + tpP ≈ 16 min + 192 m in = 208 min (= 3.47 hr)

1) According to REFA International Association fo r W ork Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate D evelopm ent
 Cost accounting
Sim ple calculation (num erical exam ple)
Direct costs1) Overhead 1)
directly attributable Not directly Surcharge in percent of wage
to a specific product attributable to a specific product costs
Types Material costs $ 80 000.00 Depreciation $ 50 000.00
of Labor costs $ 120 000.00 Salaries (incl. $ 80 000.00
costs1) m anagem ent salaries)
Interest $ 40 000.00 A surcharge rounded o ff to
O ther costs $ 50 000.00 185% is applied to each wage
hour to cover overhead costs.
Σ Overhead $ 220 000.00

Cost Wage hours = 10000 hrs Labor costs/hr = $/hr 12.00 Material costs
calcula­ o f order $ 124.75
tion Rate per hour = $/hr 12.00 + 185% = $/hr 34.20
W orking tim e
(for independent contractor invoices; m anagem ent salaries = profit)
5 hr × $/hr 34.20 $ 171.00
11 Costs m ust be determ ined periodically fo r every operation. Price w ith o u t VAT $ 295.75

Expanded calculation (schem atic)

Example:
M aterial direct costs $ 1 225.00
Material overhead 5% $61.25
Production wages 10 hr × $/hr 15.- $ 150.00
M achine costs 8 hr × $/hr 30.- $ 240.00
Residual overhead 200% o f production wages $ 300.00
Special tools $ 125.00
Manufacturing costs $ 2101.25
M anagem ent and sales overhead
12% o f m anufacturing costs $ 252.15
Prime cost $ 2353.40
Profit addition 10% o f the prim e cost $ 235.34
Raw price $ 2588.74
C om m issions 5% o f sales price $ 136.25
Sales price before VAT $ 2724.99
 Machine hourly rate calculation
Machine hourly rate calculation
Average production overhead does not take into consideration various m achine costs attributable to a specific
product. This type o f cost accounting w ou ld be misleading.
If machine costs are taken o ut o f production overhead and converted to hours the m achine was utilized, this yields
the machine hourly rate.

Compilation of machine costs

Machine costs are:
• Calculated depreciation • Energy costs
Linear loss o f value over the service life o f the Costs incurred by electricity, natural gas, steam or
machine relative to replacem ent cost gasoline consum ption
• Calculated interest • Maintenance costs
Average interest fo r capital invested fo r Costs fo r repairs and regular service
the machine • Other types of costs
• Occupancy costs Costs fo r to o l wear, insurance prem ium s, disposal of
Costs incurred by flo o r and traffic coolants and lubricants etc.
space o f the machine

Machine running tim e , M achine hourly rates according to VDI Directive 3258

TRT machine running tim e in hours/period Machine running time

TT total theoretical m achine tim e in hours/period
TST dow n tim es, e. g. w o rk free days, w o rk interruptions
etc., usually in % o f TT
TSM tim es fo r service and m aintenance, usually in % o f TT Machine hourly rates
CM sum o f machine costs per period (usually per year)
CMhr m achine costs per hour; m achine h ourly rate
Cf machine fixed costs per year; e. g. depreciation
Cv/hr machine variable costs per hour; e.g. electrical consum ption

Calculation of machine hourly rate (exam ple)

Tool machine:
Procurem ent value $ 160 000.00 Service life 10 years Assum ed interest rate 8 %
Power consum ption 8 kW Cost per kWh $0.15 Base charge $/m onth 20.00
Occupancy costs $/m2 10.00 × m onth Space req. 15 m 2 M aintenance $/year 8 000.00
Additional maintenance $/hr 5.00 Norm al utilization Actual utilization 80%
TRT = 1200 hr/year (100%)
W hat w ou ld be the m achine h ourly rate fo r norm al utilization and 80% utilization?

Type of cost Calculation Fixed costs Variable

$/year costs
$/hr

Calculated $ 16 000.00
depreciation
Calculated $ 6 400.00
interest

Maintenance m aintenance factor × depreciation - e.g. 0.5 × $ 16 000.00 $ 8 000.00

costs m aintenance is dependent upon utilization. $ 5.00

Energy base charge fo r pow er supply $/m onth 20.00 × 12 mon. $ 240.00
costs pow er consum ption × energy costs 8 kW × $/kWh 0.15 $ 1.20

Proportional space cost rate × space requirem ent $ 1 800.00

occupancy costs = $/m 2 10.00 × m onth × 15 m 2 × 12 m onths
Total machine costs (Cm ) $ 32 440.00 $ 6.20

The m achine h ourly rate does not include costs fo r operator.

 Direct costing1)
M arginal costing (w ith num e rica l e xam ple)
M arginal costing takes the market price o f a product into consideration. The market Contribution margin
price m ust at least cover variable costs (low er price lim it). The rem ainder is the
c o ntribution m argin. C ontribution m argins o f all products carry the costs o f opera­
tional readiness.

R/piece m arket price; revenue per piece Cf fixed costs

R revenue (sales) o f product Cv variable costs
CM co ntribution m argin o f product P p rofit or gain
CM/piece co ntribution m argin per piece Bp breakeven point Profit

Variable costs (Cv)2) Fixed costs ( Cf) Contribution margin (CM)

depends on production independent o f production
volum e volum e CM = R/ piece − Cv/piece
M aterial costs $/piece 30.00 Depreciation $ 50 000.00
Types of costs

Revenue o f $/piece 110.00

Labor costs $/piece 20.00 Wages $ 80 000.00 m ust cover all variable costs
Energy costs $/piece 10.00 Interest $ 40 000.00 first. The rem ainder is used
to cover total fixed costs and
Others Cf $ 30 000.00
includes profit.
Σ Variable costs $/piece 60.00 Σ Fixed costs $ 200 000.00
No. o f pieces C ontribution m argin
produced 5 000 pieces
Cost calculation

$ 110.00 – $ 60.00 = $/piece 50.00

Total contribution m argin 5 000 pieces • $/piece 50.00 = $ 250 000.00
Σ Fixed costs $ 200 000.00
Profit $ 50 000.00

Cost comparison m ethod

In the cost com parison m ethod, the machine or fa cility that
incurs the low est costs fo r a given p roduction vo lu m e
should be selected.

Example fo r 5 000 pieces

Machine 1: Cf1 = $/year 100 000.-; Cv1 = $/piece 75.00
$/year 100 000.- + $/piece 75 x 5 000 pieces = $ 475 000
Machine 2: Cf2 = $/year 200 000.00; Cv2 = $/piece 50.00
$/year 200 000 - + $/piece 50.00 x 5000 pieces = $ 450 000
Machine 1 costs > machine 2 costs

Machine 2 is more economical at volumes above 4000 pieces.

1) Direct costing separates costs into fixed costs (costs o f operating readiness) and variable costs (direct costs).
2) Variable costs are calculated fo r each jo b and com pared to revenue.
 Maintenance, Inspection, Repair, Improvement
MRO and w ear cf. DIN 31051 (2003-06)

In accordance w ith DIN 31051, maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) com prise all actions w hich have the objec­
tive o f retaining or restoring an item o f a technical system in or to the desired state as w ell as to evaluate the actual
condition o f it. MRO measures: m aintenance, inspection, repair and im pro ve m en t

The w ea r lim it is set to a state w here the w o rk outp ut is

p rincipally not affected and the quality criteria are still
com plied w ith.
The w ea r m argin is determ ined by the w ear lim it. The
availability o f a m achine and the service life o f a to o l are
determ ined by the w ear m argin.

Maintenance, repair and overhaul measures

Type Measure

Maintenance • Cleaning
delays the exhaustion • Lubrication/greasing
o f the w ear m argin • Refilling
• Adjusting

Inspection • Testing and m easuring

helps to identify and • Diagnosis and evaluation
evaluate the actual • Planning o f MRO
condition and detect the measures
reasons o f w ear

Repair • Repair by restoring and

restores to the desired adjusting
condition • Replacement o f spare
parts or renewal o f tools

Improvement • Evaluation o f errors

increases functional • Analysis o f weak points
safety o r enhances the • Selection o f better
w ear m argin materials or tools

Optim ization of MRO

Frequent maintenance, inspection, repair and im prove­

m ent increases the MRO costs and decreases the cost of
damage (costs due to failure etc.). The costs are at the
o ptim u m level if the total o f the MRO and damage costs
has attained a m inim um .
Optim ization o f MRO should pursue
• econom ic
• environm ental (ecologic) and
• hum an objectives
 MRO concepts
Interval-driven MRO
Preventive MRO measures scheduled at m aintenance and inspection intervals o f 8, 40, 160 and 2000 operating
hours. The equipm ent operator carries o ut the regular MRO at the end o f a sh ift or workday.

MRO intervals
Period Maintenance work, exam ples Period Maintenance work, exam ples
Day • Cleaning o f the workspace, i. e. removal Month • Daily and w eekly m aintenance operations
6 to 8 o f chips and cooling lubricant residues 140 to 160 • Greasing o f slideways
operating • Verification o f the oil levels operating • Replacement o f cooling lubricants
hours • Performance o f vibration and sound hours • Testing o f hose connections
checks

Week • Daily m aintenance operations Year • Daily, w eekly and m o nthly m aintenance
35 to 40 • Thorough cleaning o f the machine 1400 to operations
operating • Inspection o f the cooling lubricant and 2000 • Inspection fo r w ear and readjustm ent o f
hours cleaning if required operating slideways
• Replacement o f filters (e.g. blow er hours • Oil change (central lubrication, hydraulic
fans) system)

Condition-driven MRO
When the w ear m argin o f mechanical parts, such as plain or roller bearings or slideways
reaches its lim it, the processing q uality o f the machine deteriorates. The w o rk process
should be observed in regard to eventual indications.
W ith machines: • Changes to sm ooth running, rattling or w histling sounds are generated
• The process run exhibits a rising or fa lling trend
W ith tools: • W ear marks become d istinctly larger
• The workpiece surface is in poorer condition

The w ear m ark w id th (WW ), th e crater w id th (Cw) and the

crater depth ( Cd) are considered as criteria fo r the service
life. When the to o l reaches the preset lim it, its w ear m argin
is exhausted.
Ww w ear mark w id th in m m Cd crater depth in m m
Cw crater w id th in m m T service life in m inutes
Example: v0 cutting ve lo city in m /m in
Tv200VB0.2 = 15 min
Specified service life o f 15 m inutes at a cutting ve locity v0 =
200 m /m in and a w ear m ark w id th Ww = 0.2 m m

Possible num ber o f workpieces to be processed at a given

service life
N tool life q ua n tity in piece numbers
tmp m ain productive tim e in minutes
Example:
M ain productive tim e tmp = 1.3 minutes,
service life T = 15 m inutes
N = T/ tmp = 15 min/1.3 m in = 11.5; N = 11 pieces

Possible feed distance that a to o l travels during its service life

Lf to o l live travel in m fth feed per tooth
vf feed ve locity th num ber o f teeth
in m m /m in n speed 1/m in

Terms referring to tim e

Term Explanation Application
Life cycle Period during w hich plant or m achinery Specified in operating hours fo r m achinery
can be used w ith o u t interruption and plant
Specified in kilom eters o r m iles fo r cars
MTTF Mean operating tim e until failure as statis­ Parameter fo r the evaluation o f the machine
Mean Tim e To Failure tical average value or com ponent safety (roller bearing) in con­
fo rm ity exam inations as per EN ISO 13849-1
 Workplace health and safety, Documentation
Corrective MRO
Repair after Failure despite inspection and m aintenance, due to (examples)
failure • incorrect operation
• overload
• undetected w ear
Lack o f inspection and maintenance, possible failure is accepted and repaired on occurrence
• w ith non-critical parts, e. g. defect lights
• to avoid d ow n tim es due to repair
• if maintenance and inspection are not feasible or not economical

Risk-based MRO
RBM Risk-based MRO strives fo r the reduction o f MRO operations and costs w h ile ensuring
risk-based com pliance w ith the pre-defined safety standard in order to avoid plant failure.
maintenance • Evaluation o f failure risks
• Assessment o f failure frequencies
• D efinition o f effective m aintenance measures
• D efinition o f priorities fo r failure risks and corresponding m aintenance measures

Reliability-centered MRO
RCM R eliability-centered MRO makes best possible use o f va rio u s MRO strategies to prevent
functional disturbance. The applied strategy depends on the situation and th e type o f plant or
reliability-
centered m achinery.
m aintenance • Description o f the m achine or plant and its interaction w ith coupled plant parts
• Weak point analysis on each machine
• D efinition o f a MRO strategy

W orkplace safety and health protection

Accident Instruction
prevention An operator w ho is not fa m ilia r w ith his/her w orkplace bears a higher risk o f accident, even if
regulations m aintenance and repair measures are carried out regularly and properly. Personnel m ust be
made fa m ilia r w ith the w orkplace and the w orking processes. This also includes instructions
about safety-oriented behavior and health protection.
W ritten confirm ation o f the instruction m ust be draw n up fo r docum entation purposes.

The following should be observed in particular:

• Always use personal protective equipm ent, e. g. safety shoes, protective gloves or ear
protection
• W orkplace organization and tidiness
• Behavior in com pliance w ith safety regulations, e. g. never touch running m achine parts, never
put protective equipm ent and guards out o f operation
• Proper handling o f hazardous materials in accordance w ith the operating instructions
• Correct tra n spo rt o f loads, use o f lifting equipm ent, if required

Technical documentation System atic approach to docum entation DIN 6789 (1990-09)

Documentation of machines, products and production

Machine or plant Product and production

• General description o f the • Declaration o f Incorporation • Drawings and product creation

machine fo r the machine • BOMs
• Drawings • Operating instructions • W ork processing sheets
• Installation/assem bly draw ing • EC declaration o f co nfo rm ity • Deadline schedules

MRO documentation

All m alfunctions, m aintenance operations, inspections and repairs m ust be docum ented as evidence fo r w arranty
claim s and fo r q uality m anagem ent. Specifications in the MRO docum ent:

Actual condition Maintenance works Commissioning Confirmation

General

Details o f the Visual inspection, Cleaning, Functional testing, Date,

machine, m ainte­ noise, replacem ent o f parts, acceptance report, signature
nance personnel
 Documentation system
Computer-aided docum entation system (simplified)

Technical docum entation is supported by electronic data processing. Details o f all m achines are stored in a database
together w ith specifications concerning MRO m easures and th e ir execution. The records could be used to provide
quality evidence o r fo r other evaluations.
 Selection of tool and machining data (overview), Chip removal rate

Shapes of chips, feed

Regardless w hether pre-m achining or fine fin ishing is
concerned, the control o f the chip discharge is o f par­
ticu la r im portance in all chip rem oval processes. The
illustration on the left show s the influence o f the feed
f and the cutting depth ap on the shape o f the chips.
An increased feed produces also the fo llo w in g effects:
• reduction o f the cutting forces (page 295)
• reduction o f th e load on the cutting edges
• reduction o f the d rivin g power

Chip removal rate

In the pre-m achining o f w orkpieces (roughing), the
volum e o f rem oved metal is an im po rta n t com parative
parameter. The chip rem oval rate Q refers to the volum e
o f rem oved metal in cm3/m in. Machining cross
A m achining cross section in m m 2 section

ap cutting depth in m m
f feed in m m
Q chip rem oval rate in cm 3/m in
vc cutting ve lo city in m /m in

Example: Chip removal rate

Cutting velocity vc = 125 m /m in,

cutting depth ap = 5 m m , feed f = 0.8 mm
Find: chip rem oval rate Q
Solution:
 Forces and power in turning and drilling
Turning

Fc cu ttin g force in N
Correction factor C for
A chip section in m m 2
the cutting velocity
ap cu ttin g depth in m m
f feed per revolution in m m Cutting ve lo city
vc in m /m in C
h chip thickness in m m
x cutting edge angle in degrees (°)
10−30 1.3
C correction factor fo r th e cutting
speed 31− 80 1.1
vc cutting ve lo city in m /m in 81− 400 1.0
kc specific cu ttin g force in N /m m 2 Chip section
(page 295)
Pc cutting p ow e r in kW
P1 drive p ow e r o f the m achine to o l in kW
Cutting force
η efficiency o f the m achine tool
Example:

A shaft o f 16MnCr5, ap = 5 m m , f = 0.32 m m , vc = 110 m /m in, x = 75° Chip thickness

Sought after: h ; kc; C; A ; Fc; P1 w ith η = 0.75
Solution: h = f • s in x = 0.32 m m · sin 75° = 0.31 mm
kc = 3735 N/mm2 (see table on page 295), Cutting power
C = 1.0 (see correction fa cto r table)
A = ap • f = 5 m m · 0.32 m m = 1.6 m m 2

Drive power

Drilling

Fc cutting force per edge in N

Correction factor C for
z num ber o f cutting edges (tw ist d rill z = 2) the cutting velocity
A chip section in m m 2
d d rill diam eter in m m C utting velocity
vc in m /m in C
f feed per re volution in m m
fz feed per cu ttin g edge in m m
10− 30 1.3
σ d rill p o in t angle in degrees (°)
3 1 − 80 1.1
h chip thickness in m m
C correction factor fo r the cu ttin g speed Chip section per cutting
vc cutting ve lo city in m /m in edge
kc specific cutting force in N /m m 2 (page 295)
Pc cu ttin g pow er in kW
P1 drive pow er o f the m achine to o l in kW
η efficiency o f the m achine tool
Cutting force per cutting edge1)
Example:

M aterial 42CrMo4, d = 16 m m , vc = 28 m /m in, f = 0.18 m m , σ = 118°

Sought after: h ; kc; C; A; Fc; Pc Chip thickness

Solution:

Cutting power

Drive power

1) The specific cutting force values ke are assessed in tu rn in g tests.

The conversion to d rillin g is realized via the factor 1.2 in the form ula.
 Specific cutting force
The specific cutting force kc is the the force th a t is required to separate a chip
w ith a cross section o f A = 1 m m 2 fro m a w orkpiece. The values are assessed in
tu rn in g tests and fo rm the basis o f the calculation o f the cutting forces and the
drive pow er in chip-rem oving m achining processes.
kc specific cutting force N /m m 2
h chip thickness in m m
f feed in m m
ap cutting depth in m m
x angle o f incidence in degrees (°)
The chip thickness h depends on the applied m achining process.
Calculation o f chip thicknesses: pages 294 and 296.

Standard values for the specific cutting force1)

Specific cu ttin g force in N /m m 2 fo r the ch ip thickness h in m m
Material
0.05 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.80 1.00 1.50 2.00

S235 3850 3555 3425 3195 3040 2930 2840 2705 2605 2405 2315 2160 2055
E295 5635 4990 4705 4235 3930 3710 3535 3285 3100 2740 2585 2330 2160
E355 4565 4215 4055 3785 3605 3470 3365 3205 3085 2850 2745 2560 2340

C15 4575 4125 3925 3590 3370 3210 3085 2895 2755 2485 2365 2165 2030
C35 4425 3895 3670 3290 3045 2865 2725 2525 2375 2095 1970 1765 1635
C45 4760 4210 3975 3575 3320 3130 2985 2770 2615 2315 2185 1965 1825

C60, C60E 4750 4365 4190 3895 3700 3555 3440 3265 3135 2880 2770 2575 2445
11SMnPb30 2675 2460 2360 2195 2085 2000 1935 1840 1765 1625 1560 1450 1375
16MnCr5 5950 5265 4965 4470 4150 3915 3735 3465 3270 2895 2730 2455 2280

20MnCr5 5775 5135 4855 4385 4085 3860 3690 3435 3245 2885 2730 2475 2295
18CrMo4 4955 4575 4405 4110 3915 3770 3655 3480 3350 3095 2975 2780 2645
34CrAIMo5 4930 4360 4115 3705 3435 3245 3095 2870 2710 2395 2260 2035 1890

42CrMo4 7080 6265 5915 5320 4940 4660 4445 4125 3890 3445 3250 2925 2715
50CrV4 6290 5565 5250 4725 4385 4140 3945 3660 3455 3060 2885 2595 2410
102Cr6 5895 4910 4500 3840 3435 3145 2930 2620 2400 2000 1835 1565 1400

90MnCrV8 5610 5080 4850 4455 4195 4000 3850 3625 3460 3135 2990 2745 2585
X210CrW12 5155 4565 4305 3875 3595 3395 3235 3005 2835 2510 2365 2130 1975
X5CrNi18-10 5730 5190 4955 4550 4285 4085 3935 3705 3535 3200 3055 2805 2640

X 3 0C rl3 5155 4565 4305 3875 3595 3395 3235 3005 2835 2510 2365 2130 1975
TiAI6V4 3340 3025 2890 2655 2495 2385 2295 2160 2060 1985 1780 1635 1540

GJL-150 2315 2100 2005 1840 1730 1650 1590 1500 1430 1295 1235 1135 1065
GJL-200 2805 2495 2360 2130 1985 1875 1790 1670 1575 1405 1325 1200 1115
GJL-400 4165 3685 3480 3130 2905 2740 2615 2425 2290 2025 1910 1720 1595

GJS-400 2765 2455 2325 2100 1955 1845 1765 1645 1555 1380 1305 1180 1100
GJS-600 3200 2955 2845 2655 2530 2435 2360 2250 2165 2000 1925 1795 1710
GJS-800 5500 4470 4055 3390 2985 2710 2500 2200 1995 1625 1470 1230 1085

A lC u M g 1 2150 1930 1835 1670 1565 1485 1425 1335 1265 1135 1080 985 920

AIM g3 2020 1810 1725 1570 1470 1395 1340 1250 1190 1065 1015 925 865
AC-AISi12 2150 1930 1835 1670 1565 1485 1425 1335 1265 1135 1080 985 920

M gA I8Zn 895 820 785 725 690 660 635 605 580 530 505 470 445
CuZn40Pb2 1740 1600 1535 1425 1355 1300 1260 1195 1150 1055 1015 945 895
CuSn7ZnPb 1760 1565 1480 1335 1245 1175 1125 1045 990 880 830 750 700

1) The standard values apply to carbide to o lin g . Variations in tensile strength, even if in com pliance w ith standards,
th e degree o f p urity and the delivery condition (e.g. hot-rolled, cold-rolled, quenched & tem pered ...) have an
influence on the specific cutting force. Tool w ear increases th e specific cutting force by a pproxim ately 30%. The
values specified in the table above include this addition.
 Forces and power in milling
Face milling

Fc c u ttin g force per to o th in N Feed rate

A chip section per to o th in m m 2
ap cu ttin g depth in m m
ae e ngagem ent (m illin g w id th ) in m m
h chip thickness in m m
f feed per re volu tion in m m
fz feed per to o th in m m
d cu tte r d ia m e te r in m m Chip cross section
vc cu ttin g ve lo city in m /m in per tooth
vf feed rate in m m /m in
N n u m b e r o f teeth
Ne n u m b e r o f teeth engaged
ϕ angle o f engagem ent in degrees (°)
kc specific c u ttin g force in N /m m 2
(page 295)
C co rrection fa cto r fo r the Cutting force per tooth1)
cu ttin g speed
Pc c u ttin g p ow e r in kW
P1 drive p o w e r in kW
η effective p ow e r o f the m achine
to o l

Example:
Chip thickness
M aterial 16MnCr5; d = 180 m m ; N = 12; ae = 120 m m ; ap = 6 m m ; for d = (1.2−1.6)· ae2)
fz = 0.10 m m ; vc = 85 m /m in; η = 0.8.

Sought after: A; h; kc; Fc; ϕ ; Ne; Pc; P1

Solution: A = ap · fz = 6 mm · 0.1 m m = 0.6 mm2

h ≈ fz = 0.1 mm

Number of teeth
engaged

Cutting power

Angle of engagement ϕ
Correction factor C for
d /a e ϕ in ° d /a e ϕ in ° d /a e ϕ in ° the cutting velocity
1.20 113 1.35 96 1.50 83
1.25 106 1.40 91 1.55 80 Cutting velocity C
vc in m /m in Drive power
1.30 100 1.45 87 1.60 77

30− 80 1.1
81− 400 1.0

1) The values o f the specific cu ttin g force kc (page 295) are assessed in tu rn in g tests. The conversion to m illin g is
achieved via the fa cto r 1.2 in the form ula.
2) In o rd e r to ensure fa vo rab le c u ttin g co n d itio n s, th e cu tte r d ia m e te r sh ou ld be selected in th e range
d = (1.2−1.6) · ae.
 Speed graph
The speed n o f a m achine to o l fro m the w orkpiece o r to o l d iam eter d and the select­ Speed
ed cu ttin g ve lo city vc can be determ ined
• on a co m pu te r/calcu la to r using th e fo rm u la , or
• grap h ica lly using the speed graph.
Speed graphs have th e speeds u nder load w hich can be set on th e m achine.
These are stepped g eo m etrically. For in fin ite ly variable drives the calculated speed
can be set precisely.

Speed graph w ith logarithmically scaled coordinates

Example: d = 100 mm

Calculation: read fro m the speed graph above:

 Drilling
Tw ist drills made of high-speed steel (HSS)
T ype1) Application Helix Point
angle2) angle3)
Universal application fo r m aterials
N up to Rm ≈ 1000 N /m m 2, e.g. structural, case- 30° − 40° 118°
hardened, quenched and tem pered steels
Drilling o f brittle, short-chipping
H non-ferrous metals and plastics, e.g. 13° − 19° 118°
CuZn alloys and PM M A (Plexiglas)

Drilling o f soft, long-chipping non-ferrous

W metals and plastics, e.g. A l and Mg alloys, PA 40° − 47° 130°
(polyam ide) and PVC

1) Tool application groups fo r HSS tools according to DIN 1836

2) Depends on d rill diam eter and pitch
3) Standard version

Standard values for drilling w ith HSS tw is t drills and carbide drills1)
W orkpiece material Drill diam eter d in m m
Cutting velocity
Tensile
Vc 3 6 10 16 25
strength in m /m in
Material group in N /m m 2
Feed f in m m /revolutions
or
HSS drill Carbide d rill HSS and carbide drill
Hardness HB
Rm ≤ 500 25– 40 60– 80 0.05 0.14 0.25 0.32 0.43
Structural steel
Rm > 500 20– 30 50– 70 0.05 0.14 0.25 0.30 0.40
Free-cutting steel Rm < 900 20– 30 60– 80 0.05 0.14 0.25 0.32 0.40

Rm ≤ 700 15– 20 40– 70 0.04 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.30

Case-hardened steel
Rm > 700 10– 15 30– 60 0.04 0.08 0.15 0.22 0.30

Rm 1000
≤ 20– 25 50– 70 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.22 0.30
Quenched & tem pered steel
Rm > 1000 15– 20 40– 60 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.15 0.20
Tools steel Rm < 1000 8 – 12 25– 40 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.16 0.20
C orrosion-proof steel, austenitic Rm < 1000 10– 15 25– 40 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

m artensitic Rm < 1000 6–8 20– 40 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

Malleable cast iron < 250 HB 20– 25 60– 100 0.05 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.40

Spheroidal graphite iron < 300 HB 20– 25 60– 100 0.04 0.12 0.18 0.25 0.35

W ro u gh t alu m inu m alloy Rm < 300 40 – 60 100– 200 0.05 0.16 0.20 0.35 0.45

Cast a lu m inum alloy (>10% Si) Rm < 500 0 – 50 80– 120 0.03 0.10 0.16 0.30 0.40

Cu alloy, brass Rm < 600 40– 60 100– 160 0.06 0.10 0.20 0.35 0.45

Cu alloy, bronze Rm < 700 25– 40 80– 120 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.32

Thermoplastics, thermoset plastics – 20– 40 25– 60 0.04 0.12 0.20 0.30 0.40

Fiber-reinforced plastics – 15– 20 – 0.04 0.12 0.20 0.30 0.40

Application of standard values for the cutting velocity

Example: d rillin g in structural steel Rm > 500 N /m m 2, using HSS tw is t drills

Upper value Application Lower value Application

vc = 30 m /m in Steels o f low strength, vc = 20 m /m in Steels o f high strengths,
e. g. S235; low d rillin g depths e. g. S960; deep holes

M achining often starts w ith the m edium value (start value) as a test. In the exam ple: vc ≈ 25 m /m in.

1) Cooling lubrication on pages 311 and 314.

 Reaming, tapping and thread forming
Standard values for ream ing w ith HSS reamers and reamers w ith carbide blades1)

W orkpiece material Tool diam eter d in m m Reaming

Cutting velocity allowance
Tensile Vc 3 6 10 25 fo r d in m m
strength Rm in m /m in 16
Material group in N /m m 2 ≤ 20 > 20
Feed f in m m /revolution
or Hardness
HSS Carbide HSS and carbide reamers HSS & carbide
HB
Rm ≤ 500 12– 18 25– 40 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.25
Structural steel
Rm > 500 10– 16 25– 35 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.25

Free–cutting steel Rm < 900 10– 15 20– 30 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.25

700
Rm ≤ 8 – 12 15– 20 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20
Case–hardened steel
Rm > 700 6– 10 10– 15 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.25

Rm ≤ 1000 8– 12 20– 30 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.25

Quenched & tem pered steel 0.2 0.3
Rm > 1000 6– 10 15– 25 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.25

Tool steel Rm < 1000 – 15– 25 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.25

C orrosion–p roo f steel, austenitic Rm < 1000 – 20– 30 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.25

martensitic Rm < 1000 – 15– 40 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.25

M alleable cast iron < 250 HB 8 – 14 50– 80 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.30

Spheroidal graphite iron < 300 HB 8 – 14 30– 60 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.25

W ro u gh t alum inum alloy Rm < 300 14– 20 30– 60 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.30

Cast alu m inu m alloy (> 10% Si) Rm < 500 14– 20 30– 60 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.30
0.3 0.4
Cu alloy, brass Rm < 600 14– 20 20– 50 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

Cu alloy, bronze Rm < 700 – 20– 40 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

Thermoplastics, thermoset plastics – 8 – 14 20– 30 – – – – – – –

Fibre–reinforced plastics – – 15– 25 – – – – – – –

Standard values for tapping and thread form ing1)

Workpiece material Material group Thread forming
Tensile Tapping ve lo city vc Tapping velocity vc
strength Rm in m /m in in m /m in
Material group
in N /m m 2 or
Hardness HB HSS Carbide HSS Carbide

Steels, low strength Rm ≤ 600 16– 20 – 16– 20 24– 40

Steel, high strength Rm > 600 10– 15 – 10– 15 15– 25
Stainless steels 800
≥
Rm 4– 6 – 10– 15 15– 25
Cast iron (malleable cast iron) ≤ 250 HB 10– 16 20– 30 – –

Al alloys Rm ≤ 350 16– 30 40– 60 16– 20 30– 50

Cu alloys Rm ≤ 500 16– 25 25– 35 16– 20 30– 45
Therm oplastics – 15– 20 30– 50 – –

Therm oset plastics, reinforced – 10– 15 25– 40 – –

Application of standard values for the cutting velocity

Example: ream ing o f alum inum alloy workpieces w ith HSS tools

Upper value Application Lower value Application

vc = 20 m /m in Al alloys w ith low strength, vc = 14 m /m in Al alloys w ith high strength or high

e.g. A IM g 1 Si content, e.g. AC-AISi12

M achining often starts w ith the m edium value (start value) as a test. In the example: vc ≈ 17 m /min.

1) Cooling lubrication on pages 311 and 314.

 Drilling
M ain productive tim e for drilling, ream ing and counterboring

tp m ain productive tim e L travel Productive time

Lead lc
d tool diam eter f feed per revolution σ lc
l bore depth n speed
80° 0.6 ·d
lsi starting idle vc cu ttin g velocity
118° 0.3 ·d
loi overrun idle travel i num ber o f cuts Speed
130° 0.23 · d
lc lead σ p o in t angle
140° 0.18 · d

Calculating travel L
for drilling and reaming for counterboring
Through hole Blind hole

Example:

Blind hole o f d = 30 m m ;
l = 90 m m ; f = 0.15 m m ;
n = 450/min; i = 15; /si = 1 m m ;
σ = 130°; L = ?; tp = ?

Troubleshooting and corrective measures for drilling problems

Problems Possible corrective measures
Wear on outside

cutting edge
Chipping of

N oncircular
Chips stuck

V ibrations
Drill p o in t
dam aged

diam eter

Hole too

in flutes

tool life
Short
large

hole

• • • • Check cutting geom etry

• • Increase supply o f lubricant

• • • • Decrease feed f

• • Increase cutting velocity vc

• • • • • Decrease projection length

• • • • • • Check cutting parameters

• • • • Check type o f carbide

 Turning
Roughness depth depending on tool nose radius and feed
Rth theoretical r tool nose radius Theor. rough­
roughness depth f feed ness depth
ap cutting depth
Example:

Roughn. depth Tool nose radius r in m m

Rth 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
in µm Feed f in m m
1.6 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.14
4 0.11 0.16 0.20 0.23
10 0.18 0.25 0.31 0.36
16 0.23 0.32 0.39 0.45
25 0.28 0.40 0.49 0.57

Standard values for turning w ith HSS and carbide tools

Workpiece material Cutting velocity Feed Cutting depth
Vc f ap
Tensile strength Rm
in m /m in in m m in mm
Material group in N /m m 2
or Hardness HB HSS Carbide HSS and Carbide
Rm ≤ 500 40– 80 150– 200
Structural steel
Rm > 500 30– 60 120– 180

Free-cutting steel Rm < 900 40– 80 120– 180

Rm < 700 40– 80 150– 220

Case-hardened steel
Rm > 700 30– 60 100– 160

Rm ≤ 1000 40– 80 120– 180

Quenched & tem pered steel
Rm > 1000 30– 60 120– 180

Tool steel Rm < 1000 30– 60 100– 180

C orrosion-p ro o f steel, austenitic Rm < 1000 30– 60 100– 180

0.1– 0.5 0.5– 4.0
m artensitic Rm < 1000 20– 40 80– 150

Malleable cast iron < 250 HB 20– 40 100– 180

Spheroidal graphite iron < 300 HB 15– 30 80– 160

W ro u gh t alu m inum alloy Rm < 300 120– 180 400– 800

Cast a lu m inum alloy (>10% Si) ffm < 500 80– 120 300– 600

Cu-Cu alloy, brass Rm < 600 80– 120 300– 600

Cu alloy, bronze Rm < 700 60– 100 200– 400

Thermoplastics, thermoset plastics – 200– 300 500– 1500

Fiber-reinforced plastics – 150– 250 400– 1000

Application of standard values for the cutting velocity, feed and cutting depth
Example: tu rn in g o f structural steel w ith low strength using carbide tools

Upper values Application Lower values Application

vc = 200 m /m in • Finish-m achining (finishing) vc = 150 m /m in • Pre-machining (roughing)

• Stable tool and workpiece • D ifficult clam ping conditions

f = 0.5 mm, • Pre-machining (roughing) f = 0.1 mm, • Finish-m achining (finishing)

ap = 4.0 m m • Stable tool and workpiece ap = 0.5 m m • Unstable tool or w orkpiece

M achining often starts w ith the m edium values. In the example: vc ≈ 170 m /m in, f ≈ 0.3 m m , ap ≈ 2 mm.

1) Cooling lubrication on pages 311 and 314.

 Turning and taper turning
Taper turning by setting the compound rest

D large taper diam eter Setting angle

d sm all taper diam eter
L taper length
α taper angle
C taper ratio
setting angle

Example:

Taper angle

Taper ratio

Taper tu rn in g on NC machines on page 412

Tapered profiles on machine elem ents (examples)

Taper Taper ratio Taper angle Setting angle Application Page
- - - vd. Bevel gears, circum ferential surface o f gearing 255
- - - vd. Cylindrical roller bearings, inclined feeds 262
- - - vd. Tapered roller bearings, running and sliding surfaces 263
40° 1:1.374 40° 20 ° Draw-in collets -

60° 1 :0.866 60° 30° Centering points on tu rn in g and grinding machines -

136° 1 : 0.202 136° 68 ° Indenters fo r Martens hardness test 195

7 :24 1:3.429 16°36' 8°17'50" Steep tapers fo r m illing spindle heads 240
1:16 1:16 3°35' 1°47'24" Tapered threads 205
MK 2 1 :20.020 2.862° 1.431° M orse tapers, size 2 fo r tools and jigs 240
1:20 1:20 2°52' 1°25'56" M etric tapers fo r tools and jigs 240
1:50 1:50 1°9' 34'23" Pins, taper gages 236

Troubleshooting for turning

Problems Possible corrective measures
High wear at the flank

Cracks perpendicular
Deformation of the

to the cutting edge

and cutting faces

Long spiral chips

indexable insert
cutting edges
Galling of the
cutting edge

cutting edge
Chipping o f

Fracture o f

V ibrations

⇓ ⇓ ⇑ ⇑ ⇓ Change cutting velocity vc

⇓
⇓ ⇓ ⇑ ⇑ Change feed f
• • Decrease cutting depth
• • Choose a m ore w ear-resistant carbide type
• • • Choose a to u g he r carbide type
• • • • Choose a positive cutting geom etry
• problem to be solved ⇑
n
i crease value o f cutting param eter ⇓ decrease value o f cutting param eter
 Turning, Thread cutting
Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant rotational speed

tp productive tim e /oi overrun idle travel

d outside diam eter L travel Productive tim e
d1 inside diam eter f feed per revolution
dm mean diam eter1) n rotational speed
I workpiece length / num ber o f cuts
/si starting idle vc cutting velocity

Calculating travel L, mean diameter dm and rotational speed n

Straight cylindrical turning Facinwg

Solid cylinder Hollow cylinder

without shoulder with shoulder without shoulder with shoulder

)1
Use o f mean diam eter dm leads to higher cutting velocities. This ensures acceptable cutting conditions fo r small
diam eters (inside area).

Example:

Straight cylindrical turning w ithout shoulder, l = 1240 mm;

lsi = /oi = 2 m m ; f = 0.6 m m ; vc = 120 m /m in;
i = 2; d = 160 mm ;
L = ?; n = ? (for infin ite ly variable speed adjustm ent)

Thread cutting

tp productive tim e P thread pitch Productive time

L total travel o f thread cutting tool n rotational speed
/ thread length s no. o f starts
lsi starting idle h thread depth
l0i overrun idle travel ap cutting depth
i num ber o f cuts vc cutting velocity Number of cuts

Example:

Threads M 24; / = 76 mm; /si = loi = 2 mm;

f = 0.6 mm; vc = 6 m /m in; i = 2; ap = 0.15 mm;
h = 1.84 mm; P = 3 m m ; s = 1;
L = ?; n = ? ; i = ?; tp = ?
 Turning
Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant cutting speed

If the rotational speed m ust be lim ited fo r safety reasons to a rotational speed Transition diameter
lim it nlim, a tu rn in g diam eter o f d < transition diam eter dt is turned at constant
rotational speed (page 303).

dt transition diam eter i n um ber o f cuts

Productive tim e
vc cutting velocity d outside diam eter
nlim rotational speed lim it d1 inside diam eter
tp productive tim e ap cutting depth
de effective diam eter /si starting idle
Number of cuts for
L travel /oi overrun idle travel
straight cylindrical turning
f feed

Calculating travel L and effective diameter de

Straight cylindrical turning Facing

Example:
Facing; /si = 1.5 m m ; vc = 220 m /m in; f = 0.2 m m ;
i = 2; nlim = 3000/m in; dt = ? ; L = ?; de = ?; tp = ?
 Milling

vc cutting velocity in m /m in
ft feed per tooth in m m
ap cutting depth in m m
ae engagem ent
(cutting w id th ) in m m
d cutting diam eter in mm

Standard values for milling w ith HSS and carbide milling cutters
W orkpiece material Feed per tooth ft
Cutting
Tensile Cutting velocity in m m
depth ap
strength Rm Vc fo r m illing fo r end m ills in
Material group in N /m m 2 in m /m in cutters (ex­ dia. mm
or Hardness cept end mill) 6 – 20 m m
HB HSS Carbide HSS and carbide cutters
Rm ≤ 500 50 – 60 250 – 300
Structural steel
Rm > 500 40 – 50 200 – 250
Free-cutting steel Rm < 900 50 – 60 250 – 300
Rm ≤ 700 50 – 60 120 – 150
Case-hardened steel
Rm >700 40 – 50 100 – 130
Rm ≤ 1000 40 – 50 100 – 120
Quenched & tem pered steel
Rm > 1000 30 – 40 80 – 100
Tools steel Rm < 1000 30 – 40 100 – 120
0.05 – 0.15 0.06 – 0.10 – 5.0
C orrosion-proof steel, austenitic Rm < 1000 30 – 40 150 – 200
m artensitic Rm < 1000 20 – 30 120 – 150
Malleable cast iron < 250 HB 50 – 60 180 – 220
Spheroidal graphite iron < 300 HB 50 – 60 180 – 240
W ro u gh t alu m inu m alloy Rm < 300 200 – 300 600 – 1000
Cast alu m inu m alloy (> 10% Si) Rm < 500 80 – 100 400 – 600
Cu alloy, brass Rm < 600 70 – 90 400 – 600
Cu alloy, bronze Rm < 700 50 – 70 250 – 300
Thermoplastics, thermoset plastics – 100 – 200 500 – 800
0.10– 0.20 0.10– 0.20
Fiber-reinforced plastics – 40 – 60 300 – 600

Increasing the recom m ended feed per cutting edge ft for slotting w ith side milling cutters
Cutting depth ap referenced to the diam eter d
o f the m il ing cutter
Feed
per tooth 1/3 d
· 1/6 · d 1 /10 · d 1/20 · d

increase 1 ft
· 1.15 · ft 1.45 · ft 2 ·ft

to be adjusted 0.25 m m 0.29 mm 0.36 m m 0.50 m m

Application of standard values for the cutting velocity, engagem ent and feed per tooth
E x a m p le : m illinq o f structural steel w ith low strength using HSS cutters

Upper values Application Lower values Application

vc = 60 m /m in • finish-m achining (finishing) vc = 50 m /m in • pre-m achining (roughing)

• stable to o l and w orkpiece • unstable to o l and workpiece
• low cutting depth aD • high cutting depth ap
ft = 0.15 m m • pre-m achining (roughing) ft = 0.05 m m • finish-m achining (finishing)
• stable to o l and w orkpiece • unstable to o l and workpiece
M achining often starts w ith the m edium values (start values). In the example: vc ≈ 55 m /m in, ft ≈ 0.10 mm,
ap ≈ 3 mm.
1) Cooling lubrication on pages 311 and 314
 Milling, Indexing with a dividing head
Troubleshooting for milling
Problems Possible corrective measures

High wear at the flank

Cracks perpendicular

Poor surface quality

Deformation of the

to the cutting edge

and cutting faces

indexable insert
Fracture of the
cutting edges
Galling of the
cutting edge

cutting edge
Chipping o f

Vibrations
⇓ ⇓ ⇑ ⇓ ⇑ Change cutting velocity vc

⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇓ ⇓ ⇑ Change feed per tooth ft

• • Choose a m ore wear-resistant carbide type
• • • Choose a tou g he r carbide type
• Use m illing cutter w ith w id e r spacing
• • Change m illing cutter position
• • • Dry m illing

• problem to be solved ⇑ increase value o f cutting param eter ⇓ decrease value o f cutting parameter

Indexing w ith a dividing head

Direct indexing

In direct indexing, the dividing head spindle, along with

the indexing plate and workpiece, is turned to the Indexing step
desired indexing step. The w orm is disengaged from the
w orm wheel.
D no. o f divisions a angular division
nh no. o f holes in the indexing plate
ni indexing step; no. o f hole spacings to be indexed

Example:

Indirect indexing

In indirect indexing the d ivid in g head spindle is driven Indexing step

by the w o rm and w o rm wheel.
D no. o f divisions α angular division
i gear ratio o f d ividing head
nc indexing step; no. o f indexing crank revolutions
fo r one division

E x a m p le 1:

Circles of holes on
indexing plates
15 16 17 18 19 20
21 23 27 29 31 33
Example 2:
37 39 41 43 47 49
or
17 19 23 24 26 27
28 29 30 31 33 37
39 41 42 43 47 49
51 53 57 59 61 63
 Milling
tp productive tim e Productive time
/ workpiece length
ap cutting depth
ae engagement (m illing width)
/a approach
Feed per revolution of milling cutter
/oi overrun idle travel
/st starting travel
L total travel
Feed rate
d cutter diam eter
n rotational speed
f feed per revolution
ft feed per tooth Rotational speed
N n um ber o f teeth
vc cutting velocity
vf feed rate
i n um ber o f cuts

Total travel L and starting travel ls

in
t relation to the milling process

Face m illing
Peripheral
eccentric
centric face m illing

Example:
Face m illin g (see left illustration): N = 10, ft = 0.08 m m ,
vc = 30 m /m in, /a = /oi = 1.5 m m , i = 1 cut
Sought after: n; vf; L; tp

Solution:
 Designation of indexable inserts for cutting tools
Designation of indexable inserts (selection) cf. DIN ISO 1832 (2005- 11)

Designation examples:
Indexable carbide insert w ith rounded corners (DIN 4968) w ith o u t m o un tin g hole

➀ basic shape ➅ thickness o f insert

➁ clearance angle ➆ design o f the cutting edge corners
➂ tolerance class ➇ cutting edge
➃ cutting face and clamping features ➈ cutting direction
size o f insert ➉ cutting to o l material
➄

Basic shape
Equilateral, equiangular
and round

Equilateral and
n on -e quiangluar

N on-equilateral and
L equiangular
A, B, K non-equiangular

M any com pany-specific shapes are used in addition to the standard ones.
Standard clearance angle A B C D E F G N P O
a n to th e insert 3° 5° 7° 15° 20° 25° 30° 0° 11° special specific.

Selection of indexing inserts according to the clearance angle and the cutting edge geometry
Basic shape Examples of cutting edges Application examples
(depending on manufacturer)
Rough turning for medium or heavy-duty machining
f = 0.1 to 1.2 mm , ap = 0.3 to 12.0 m m
longitudinal and face turning o f cast iron materials
f = 0.3 to 1.3 mm , ap = 0.8 to 6.5 m m
longitudinal and face turning o f steel, fo r forged and
pre-machined workpieces w ith low allowance
f = 0.2 to 1.4 m m , ap = 0.7 to 15.0 mm
longitudinal and face tu rn in g o f steel,
high cutting edge stability
Finish-turning
f = 0.15 to 0.9 m m , ap = 0.6 to 5.0 mm
longitudinal and face tu rn in g o f steel and cast iron
materials
f = 0.2 to 1.4 m m , ap = 0.7 to 15.0 m m
longitudinal and face finish-turning o f heat-resisting
steel, easy-cutting geom etry fo r low cutting forces
Rough and finish-turning for medium-duty machining
f = 0.05 to 0.5 m m , ap = 0.1 to 6.0 m m
longitudinal and face tu rn in g o f cast iron materials
Finish-turning o f steel, heat-resisting steels and cast iron
materials
f = 0.05 to 0.3 m m , ap = 0.06 to 2.0 mm
easy-cutting geom etry fo r lo w cutting forces
Finish-turning o f alum inum and other non-ferrous metals
f = 0.05 to 1.0 m m , ap = 0.1 to 7.0 mm
longitudinal and face turning at high cutting velocities
Rough turning w ith high chip removal rate
f = 0.1 to 0.5 m m , ap = 0.8 to 5.0 m m
longitudinal and face tu rn in g w ith interrupted cutting
 Indexable inserts. Turning
Selecting the turning m ethod in accordance w ith the shape of the indexable insert

f= 0.3 to 0.5 mm, ap = 1.5 to 5.0 m m

f= 0.1 to 0.3 mm, ap = 0.5 to 2.0 mm

Tendency to vibration (workpiece)

f = 0.5 to 1.5 mm, ap = 5 to 15 m m

Versatile application options

Light roughing/pre-finishing

Limited machine pow er

Shapes of
indexable inserts,

Longitudinal turning

Small setting angle

Large setting angle
Interrupted cutting
designation

Contour turning
cf. page 308

Hard materials
Face turning
Roughing

Finishing
d in m m 1)

1 0 – 32 1 0 -1 2 1 5 -3 2
○ ○ ◐ ◐ ○ ○ ● ● ○ ●
● ○ ○
l in m m 1)

9 -2 5 9 -3 8 1 5 -3 8
○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ ● ● ○ ●
● ◐ ○
I in m m

6 -1 2 6 -2 5 1 6 -2 5
● ◐ ● ● ◐ ○ ○ ◐ ● ○
● ● ○
I in m m

6 -8 6 -8 – ◐ ◐ ● ◐ ◐ ◐ ○ ◐ ● ●
○ ● –

/ in m m

1 1 -2 2 1 1 -3 3 2 2 -3 3
◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ ● ● ○ ◐ ● ●
○ ● ●
l in m m

6 -1 5
● ● ◐ ● ● ● ○ ○ ● ○
○ ● ●
/ in m m

1 1 -2 2
● ● ○ ◐ ● ● ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ●
● very w ell suited ◐ suitable ○ not suitable

1) Diameter and side length o f indexable inserts, cf. page 308

The d iam ond–shaped indexable insert type C w ith a point angle o f 80° is an efficient com prom ise o f m ost various
insert shapes and therefore suitable fo r m any applications. It is used quite frequently.
 Milling tools with indexable inserts
Application examples for various milling cutters w ith indexable inserts

M illing cutter type

Cutting
Diam eter depth ap Slot m illing, Bidirectional Corner Face Profile Helical
in m m in m m parting o ff m illing m illing m illing m illing plunging

Face m illing cutter

6 -1 0 ○ ○ ● ● ○ ◐
3 2-2 5 0

Face m illin g cutter

w ith close pitch
(finishing cutter)
1 -8 ○ ○ ● ● ○ ◐
8 0-5 0 0

Face m illing cutter

w ith coarse pitch
(roughing cutter)
12 ○ ○ ● ● ○ ◐
100-400

Ball nose cutter

(copy m illing)
2 -5 ◐ ○ ○ ○ ● ●
5 -3 2

Corner cutter
10 ◐ ○ ○ ● ○ ◐
40-2 5 0

Side m illin g cutter

6 -3 0 ● ● ● ◐ ○ ○
4 0-3 1 5

Slotting cutter
2 -6 ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
8 0-3 1 5

End m ill cutter

1 0-18 ◐ ○ ● ◐ ◐ ●
12-100

Shell end m ill

cutter
5 -1 0 0 1) ○ ○ ● ◐ ○ ◐
20-100

Cutter w ith round

indexable inserts
1-10 ◐ ○ ◐ ● ● ●
10-160

1) The upper value applies to corner m illing o f non–ferrous metals and fin ish corner m illing.

● very w ell suited ◐ suitable ○ not suitable

 Cooling lubricants for cutting metals
Term inology and applications for cooling lubricants1) cf. DIN 51385 (1991–06)

Type of cooling Effect Explanation

lubricant Group
Composition Applications

Inorganic m aterials
in w ater Grinding
SESW
Solutions/
cooling
dispersions
lubricants Organic or synthetic M achining at high
m aterials in w ater cutting speed

Good cooling effect, but

lo w lubrication,
SEMW e.g. m achining (turning, m illing,
2 % – 20% em ulsive
cooling d rilling) o f easy-to -machine
Emulsions (soluble) cooling
lubricants materials, at high cutting speed;
lubricant in w ater
(oil in water) fo r high w orking tem peratures;
susceptible to bacterial or fu n ­
gal attack

SN Mineral oils w ith polar For low er cutting speed,

cooling additives (greases or higher surface quality, fo r
lubricants Cutting oil synthetic esters) or EP d ifficult-to -m achine materials;
insoluble in additives2) to increase very good lubrication and
w ater lubricating perform ance corrosion protection

1) Cooling lubricants m ay be hazardous to health (page 198) and are therefore only used in sm all quantities.
2) EP = Extreme Pressure; additives to increase acceptance o f high surface pressure between chip and tool

Guidelines for selecting cooling lubricants

Manufacturing process Steel Cast iron, Cu, Al, Mg alloys
malleable cast iron Cu alloys Al alloys

em ulsion, em ulsion, dry,

Roughing dry dry
solution cutting oil cutting oil
Turning
em ulsion, em ulsion, dry, dry, dry,
Finishing
cutting oil cutting oil em ulsion cutting oil cutting oil

em ulsion, dry,
dry, cutting oil, dry,
M illing solution, em ulsion,
em ulsion em ulsion cutting oil
cutting oil cutting oil

dry,
em ulsion, dry, cutting oil, dry,
Drilling cutting oil,
cutting oil em ulsion em ulsion cutting oil
em ulsion

cutting oil, dry, dry,

Reaming cutting oil cutting oil
em ulsion cutting oil cutting oil

em ulsion dry, dry, cutting oil, dry,

Sawing
em ulsion, cutting oil em ulsion cutting oil

cutting oil,
Broaching em ulsion cutting oil cutting oil cutting oil
em ulsion

Hobbing, cutting oil,

cutting oil - - -
gear shaping em ulsion

cutting oil, cutting oil,

Thread cutting cutting oil cutting oil cutting oil
em ulsion dry

em ulsion,
solution, em ulsion,
G rinding solution, em ulsion -
em ulsion solution
cutting oil

Honing, lapping cutting oil cutting oil - - -

 Waste types and disposal of cooling lubricants
Used up cooling lubricants, either m ixed w ith w ater or not m iscible, can be harm ful to the ground w ater and affect
the operation o f sewage treatm ent plants if th e y are not disposed o f properly. Therefore, a special tre a tm e n t is
required before th e ir disposal. In G erm any fo r instance, the W ater Resources Act and the Waste W ater Ordinance
provide the legal basis. A possible solution to th is problem is a m in im u m cooling lubrication system . Its low
dem and on cooling lubricant o f 20 to 50 m l/h r makes sure th a t th e machine tool, the workpiece and th e chips
remain dry and need no cleaning. M oreover, the am ou n t o f used cooling lubricant requiring treatm ent is very low.

W aste types and w aste codes in accordance w ith th e European W aste Catalog (EWC)
and the Hazardous W aste List
Code letter as
Designation1) Example Waste code as per EWC
per DIN 51385
Cooling lubricants
Drilling, cutting and Unserviceable and used up cooling SN 120106 (containing halogen)
grin d in g oils lubricants, that are not w ater miscible,
unserviceable cooling lubricants that SEM 120107 (free o f halogens)
are w ater-m iscible, but w ith o u t oil-
w ater m ixtures
Synthetic machining Unserviceable or used up cooling SES 120110
oils lubricants on a synthetic basis w ith o u t
o il-w ater m ixtures
Finishing oils Unserviceable or used up honing, SN 120106 (containing halogen)
lapping and finishing oils 120107 (free o f halogens)
Biogenic oils Unserviceable vegetable oils SN 130207
Drilling or grinding Unserviceable and used up cooling SEMW 120108 (containing halogen)
e m ulsions2), em ulsion lubrication em ulsion, 120109 (free o f halogens)
m ixtures or other unserviceable and used up cooling SESW
o il-w ater m ixtures lubrication solutions
Retentates3) fro m diaphragm separa­ 130505
tion plants, evaporation residues fro m
evaporation plants
Other w astes
Oil separator contents, Sludge fro m oil and w ater separators 130502
sludge fro m oil separating
plants
Oils fro m oil or w ater Oil fro m oil o r w ater separators 130506
separators
Sludge fro m honing and Honing, lapping and grinding sludge 120111
lapping and oil containing fro m cooling lubricant maintenance 120202
grinding sludge facilities, such as filters, centrifuges or
m agnetic separators
1) Terms that co m ply w ith the waste oil disposal regulations and are custom ary in practice.
2) Emulsion: fine m ixture o f liquids that do not m ix under normal conditions, such as oil and water.
3) Retentate: flu id th a t is retained by the diaphragm in the separating processes.

Treatm ent of cooling lubricants

Cooling lubricants mixed w ith water Cooling lubricants not miscible with water
1. Treatm ent w ith organic decom posing agents (dem ul­ 1. If extrem ely polluted w ith solid substances, removal of
sification) and splitting o f the cooling lubricant into an the m etallic particles via suitable cleaning processes in
oil and a w ater phase the first place
Duration o f the separation process: approx. one day 2. If m ixed w ith w ater, it m ust be checked w hether the
2. Treatment by diaphragm filtration (cross–flo w filtration) cooling lubricant is disposable w ith o u t p rio r treatm ent
broken down according to their retaining capacity: or w hether splitting into an oil and a w ater phase is
required like w ith w ater–m ixed cooling lubricants
• m icrofiltration
• ultrafiltration Other (oil–containing) residues
Duration o f the filte rin g process: approx. one week
1. Reduction o f waste accrual (oil–polluted chips, g rin ­
3. Treatm ent by evaporation in a vacuum evaporator at ding sludge) by removal o f the oil or w ater in suitable
a tem perature o f approxim ately 3 5 °C (95°F) centrifuges and presses
Duration o f the evaporation process: a fe w hours 2. Reuse o f the separated cooling lubricants
4. Post–treatm ent o f non–evaporable residues by chem i­ 3. Collection and disposal o f non–reusable, o il–containing
cal treatm ent (com bustion) and o f the filtrate by nano wastes in accordance w ith local waste managem ent
filtration and reverse osmosis laws (see paqe 197)
 cf. DIN 4983
Designation of indexable and short indexable insert holders (2004-07)

1) For indexable inserts, see page 308

Designation Configurations

Insert Letter sym bol C M P S

holding

H olding o f clamped clam ped fro m clam ped from countersink hole
indexable insert fro m above above and hole and screw
fro m hole

Design o f holder
Letter sym bol A B D E M N V G H J R T

Side cutting
90° 75° 45° 60° 50° 63° 72.5° 90° 107.5° 93° 75° 60°
edge angle kr

Type o f holder straight offset

Letter sym bol C F K S U W Y Forms D and S also

available w ith round
Side cutting
90° 90° 75° 45° 93° 60° 85° indexable inserts
edge angle kt
o f basic fo rm R

Type o f holder straight offset

Type o f holder neutral

Letter sym bol R righ t holder L left holder N
(both sides)

Length Letter sym bol A B C D E F G H J K L M

o f holder
l1 in m m 32 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 125 140 150

Letter sym bol N P Q R S T U V W X Y

in m m 160 170 180 200 250 300 350 400 450 Cust. lengths 500

⇒ Holder DIN 4984 – CTWNR 3225 M 16: holder w ith square shank, clamped above (C), triangular
indexable insert (T), K r = 60° (W), αn = 0° (N), righ t hand (R), h 1 = h2 = 32 m m , w = 25 m m ,
l 1 = 150 m m (M), /3 = 16.5 mm (16).
 Hard and dry machining, High-speed milling, MQCL
Hard turning w ith cubic b o ro n n itrid e (CBN)

Material Cutting Cutting depth

Turning process hardened steel velocity Feed f ap
HRC vc m /m in m m /revolution mm

External turning 60-2 2 0 0.05-0.3 0.05-0.5

45–58
Internal tu rn in g 60-1 8 0 0.05-0.2 0.05-0.2

External tu rn in g 50-1 9 0 0.05-0.25 0 .0 5-0.4

> 58-65
Internal tu rn in g 50-1 5 0 0.05-0.2 0.05-0.2

Hard milling w ith coated so lid carbide (VHM) to o ls

Material Cutting w orking Feed per to o th ft in m m
hardened steel velocity Vc engagem ent
fo r lathe diam eter d in m m
ae
max
HRC m /m in mm 2-8 > 8 -12 > 1 2 -2 0

to 35 8 0 -9 0 0.05 · d
0.04 0.05 0.06
3 6 -4 5 6 0 -7 0 0.05 · d
4 6 -5 4 5 0 -6 0 0.05 · d 0.03 0.04 0.05

High–speed cutting (HSC) w ith PCD

Cutter diam eter d in m m
Cutting
velocity 10 20
Material group
ae ft ae ft
m /m in mm mm mm mm

Steel Rm
850-1100 280-360 0.25 0.09-0.13 0.40 0.13-0.18
> 1 1 00 -1 40 0 210-270

Hardened steel
>48 -5 5 HRC 90-2 4 0 0.25 0.09-0.13 0.40 0.13-0.18
> 5 5 -6 7 HRC 75-1 2 0 0.20 0.35

EN-GJS > 180HB 300-360 0.25 0.09-0.13 0.40 0.13-0.18

Titanium alloy 90 -2 7 0 0.20-0.25 0.09-0.13 0.35-0.40 0.13-0.18
Cu alloy 90 -1 4 0 0.20 0.09-0.13 0.35 0.13-0.18

Dry machining
Cutting to o l material and cooling lubricant for:
Process Iron m aterials Al m aterials
tem pered
d
e
h
a
n
Q
cu steels H igh-alloy steels Cast iron Cast alloy W ro u gh t alloy

Drilling TiN, dry TiA IN 11, MQCL TiN, dry TiAIN, MQCL TiAIN, MQCL

_2) TiAIN, PCD,

Reaming PCD, MQCL PCD, MQCL TiAIN, MQCL
MQCL

M illing TiN, dry TiAIN, MQCL TiN, dry TiAIN, dry TiAIN, MQCL

Sawing MQCL MQCL _2) TiAIN, MQCL TiAIN, MQCL

M inim u m quantity cooling lubrication (MQCL or M Q L)3

Dependency of MQCL volume on Suitability of minimum quantity lubrication

machining method for the material to be machined

1) Titanium alu m inu m nitride (super hard coating) 2) Application uncom m on 3) Generally 0.01-3 I/hr
 Cutting tool materials
Designation of hard cutting tool materials cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005-11)

Example:

Cutting tool
K1) Com ponents Properties A pplications
material group
Uncoated hard metal, m ain com ponent High hot hardness up to Indexable inserts for
is tungsten carbide (WC) 1000 °C, high w ear resist­ d rilling, tu rn in g and
ance, high com pression m illing tools, also
HW Grain size > 1 µ m strength, vibration fo r solid hard metal
HF Grain size < 1 µ m dam ping tools
HT Uncoated hard metal o f tita ­ Like HW, but w ith high Indexable inserts
nium carbide (TiC), tita n iu m cutting edge stability, fo r lathe and m illing
nitride (TiN) or o f both, also chem ical resistance tools fo r finishing
called at high cutting
cermet. velocities
HC HW and HT, but coated w ith Increase o f w ear Increasingly replacing
tita n iu m carbonitride (TiCN) resistance w ith o u t the uncoated hard
reducing tough-ness metals
CA Cutting ceramics, p rim a rily of High hardness and hot Cutting o f cast iron,
alu m inu m oxide (Al2O3) hardness up to 1 200 °C usually w ith o u t
sensitive to severe tem pe­ cooling lubricant
rature changes
CM Mixed ceramics w ith alum inum Tougher than pure cera­ Precision hard
oxide (Al2O3) base, as w ell as mics, better resistance to tu rn in g o f hardened
other oxides tem perature variations steel, cutting at high
cutting velocity
CN Silicon nitride ceramics, prim a­ High toughness, high Cutting o f cast iron at
rily o f silicon nitride (Si3N4) cutting edge stability high cutting velocity

CR Cutting ceramics w ith a lu m i­ Tougher than pure ceramics Hard tu rn in g of

num oxide (Al2O3), as a main due to reinforcement, im ­ har-dened steel,
com ponent, reinforced proved resistance against cutting at high
temperature variations cutting velocity
CC Cutting ceramics such as CA, Increase o f wear Increasingly replacing
CM and CN, but coated w ith resistance w ith o u t the uncoated cutting
titanium carbonitride (TiCN) reducing tough-ness ceramics
Cubic crystalline boron nitride (BN), Very high hardness and Dressing o f hard
also designated CBN or PCB or hot hardness up to materials (HRC > 48)
"superhard cutting to o l m aterial" 2000°C, high wear w ith high surface
resistance, chemical quality
BL W ith low boron nitride content resistance

BH W ith high boron nitride content

BC BL and BH, but coated
Cutting tool material o f carbon (C), High w ear resistance, Cutting o f non-ferrous
also designated CBN, PCB or „super- very brittle, tem perature metals and Al alloys
hard cutting to o l m aterial" resistance up to 600 °C, w ith high silicon
reacts w ith alloying ele­ content
DP Polycrystalline diam ond (PCD) ments
DM M onocrystalline diam ond
HS High-performance high-speed High toughness, high For severe alternating
steel w ith alloying elements bending strength, low cutting forces,
tungsten (W), m olybdenum (Mo), hardness, tem perature machining o f plastics,
vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co), resistant up to 600 °C fo r the cutting o f Al
usually coated w ith titanium and Cu alloys
nitride (TiN)

1) Code letters according to DIN ISO 513

2) Tool steels are not included in DIN ISO 513 but in ISO 4957
 Cutting tool materials
Classification and application of hard cutting tool materials cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005–11)

Cutting to o l material Possible cutting

Code letter p roperties1) param eters1)
Application
W orkpiece - material
co lo r code group W ear Cutting
Toughness Feed
resistance speed

Steel
P01
P05
P10 All types o f steels and cast
P15
P20 steels, w ith the exception
P25
P30 o f stainless steel w ith
P35 austenitic structure
P40
P45
P50

Stainless steel

M01
M05
M10 Austenitic and austenitic
M15
M20 fe rritic stainless steels and
M25 cast steels
M30
M35
M40

Cast iron

K01
K05
K10 Cast iron w ith flake
K15
K20 and spheroidal graphite
K25 malleable cast iron
K30
K35
K40

Non-ferrous metals and other non-ferrous materials

N01 A lu m in u m and other

N05 non-ferrous metals
N10
N15 (e.g. Cu, Mg),
N20 non-ferrous m aterials
N25
N30 (e.g. GPR, CFRP)

Special alloys and titanium

S01 High-tem perature special

S05 alloy on the basis o f iron,
S10
S15 nickel and cobalt,
S20 tita n iu m and titanium
S25
S30 alloys

Hard materials

H01
H05 Hardened steel,
H10 hardened cast iron
H15
H20 materials, cast iron
H25 fo r ingot casting
H30

1) Increasing in direction of the arrow

 Grinding
Surface grinding Vc cutting velocity
Cutting velocity
dg diam eter o f g rin d in g wheel
ng rotational speed o f grinding wheel
Vf feed rate
L travel
ns no. o f strokes Feed rate

d1 diam eter o f w orkpiece Surface grinding

n w orkpiece rotational speed
q speed ratio Cylindrical
grinding

Example:
Speed ratio

Standard values for cutting velocity vc, feed rate vf, speed ratio q
Surface grinding Cylindrical grinding
Material Peripheral grinding Side wheeling External cyl. grinding Internal cyl. grinding
vc Vf Vc Vf vc Vf
m /s m /m in q m /s m /m in q m /s m /m in q m /s m /m in q
Steel 30 10-35 80 25 6-25 50 35 10 125 25 19-23 80
Cast iron 30 10-35 65 25 6-30 40 25 11 100 25 23 65
Carbide 10 4 115 8 4 115 8 4 100 8 8 60
Al alloys 18 15-40 30 18 24-45 20 18 24-30 50 16 30-40 30
Cu alloys 25 15-40 50 18 20-45 30 30 16 80 25 25 50
Grinding data for steel and cast iron w ith corundum or silicon carbide grinding w heels
Processes Grain size G rinding allowance D epth o f cu t in m m Rz in µm
Rough grind 30–46 0.5–0.2 0.02–0.1 3– 10
Finishing 46–80 0.02–0.1 0.005–0.05 1–5
Precision grinding 80– 120 0.005–0.02 0.002–0.008 1.6–3
M axim um speed of grinding w heels cf. DIN EN 12413 (2007–09)
Shape of grinding wheel Type of grinding machine Guide1) Maximum speed vc in m /s for bond type2)
B BF E M R RF PL V
Straight grinding wheel stationary pd or ho 50 63 40 25 50 - 50 40
hand-held grinder free-hand 50 80 - - 50 80 50 -

Straight cutting wheel stationary pd or ho 80 100 63 - 63 80 - -

hand-held grinder free-hand - 80

1) pd p ositively driven: feed by mechanical means; ho hand operated: feed by operator;
free–hand g rinding: g rinding machine is guided entirely by hand; 2) Type o f bond, see page 318

Restrictions for use of grinding tools3)* cf. BGV D124) (2001- 10)
VE M eaning VE M eaning
VE1 Not allowed fo r free–hand or hand operated VE6 N ot allowed fo r side w heeling
grinding VE7 N ot allowed fo r free–hand grinding
VE2 Not allowed fo r free–hand abrasive cutting VE8 N ot allowed w ith backing pad
VE3 Not allowed fo r w et grinding VE10 N ot allowed fo r d ry g rinding
VE4 Not allowed in enclosed w ork area VE11 N ot allowed fo r free–hand or hand operated abra­
VE5 Not allowed w ith o u t vacuum exhaust sive cutting
3) If no restriction is given, the g rinding to o l is suitable fo r all applications.

Color stripes for m axim um allow able peripheral speeds ≥ 50 m /s * cf. BGV D124) (2001- 10)
Color stripe blue yellow red green blue & yellow blue & red blue & green
Vc m ax in rn/s 50 63 80 100 125 140 160
Color stripe yellow & red yell. & green red & green blue & blue yellow & yell. red & red green & green
Vc m ax in m/s 180 200 225 250 280 320 360

4) BGV Berufsgenossenschaftliche V o rschrift (Em ployers' L iability Insurance Association Provisions)

*) According to European standards
 Abrasives, Bonds
Abrasives cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000–08)

S ym ­ Chemical com position Knoop–

Areas of application
bol Abrasive hardness

Norm. corundum A l2O3 + additions 18000 Carb. steel, unhardened steel, cast steel, malleable cast iron
A A l2O3 in crystalline High and lo w alloyed steel, hardened steel, case hardened
w hite fused
2 10 0 0 steel, tool steel, tita n iu m
alum ina form
Z zircon corundum AI2O3 + ZrO2 – Stainless steels
Hard materials: carbide, cast iron, HSS, ceramic, glass;
C silicon carbide SiC + additions 24800 soft materials: copper, alum inum , plastics

BK boron carbide B4C in crystalline form 47000 Lapping, polishing o f carbide and hardened steel
CBN boron nitride BN in crystalline form 60000 H igh–speed steels, cold and hot w ork steels
Carbide, cast iron, glass, ceramic, stone, non–ferrous m et­
D diam ond C in crystalline fo rm 70000 als, not fo r steel; dressing o f grinding wheels

Hardness grade cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)

Designation Hardn. grade Application Designation Hardn. grade Application

extremely soft A B C D Deep and side w heeling of hard P Q R S External cylindrical g rin d ­
very soft E F G hard materials very hard T U V W ing; soft materials

soft H I J K Conventional metal extremely hard X Y Z

m edium L M N O grinding

Grain size cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)

Grain designation fo r bonded abrasives

Grain ranges coarse m edium fine very fine
Grain designation F4, F5, F6 to F24 F30, F36, F46 to F60 F70, F80, F90 to F220 F230 to F1200
Attainable Rz i n µm ≈ 10–5 ≈ 5–2.5 ≈ 2.5– 1.0 ≈ 1.0–0.4

Structure cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000–08)

Code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, etc. up to 30

Structure

Bond cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000–008) and VDI 3411 (2000–08)

Code Type of bond Properties Areas of application

B synthetic resin bond, N onporous or porous, elastic, Rough or cut-off grin d in g , fo rm g rin d in g w ith
BF fib e r reinforced resistant to oil, cool grinding diam. and boron nitride, high pressure grinding
Sensitive to tem perature, tough Saw to o th g rin d in g , fo rm g rin d in g , control
E shellac bond w heel fo r centerless grinding
elastic, im pact resistant
T ig ht g rip due to protruding Internal g rin d in g o f carbide,
G galvanic bond hand grin d in g
grains
N onporous or porous, tough, Form and to o l grin d in g using diam ond
M metal bond insensitive to pressure and heat or boron nitride, w et grinding
Soft, elastic, sensitive to
MG magnesite bond Dry g rinding, knife grinding
w ater
Soft, elastic depending upon Plastic abrasive m aterial fo r finishing,
PL plastic bond precision fin ish ing and polishing
plastic and degree o f hardening
R rubber bond, Elastic, cold grinding,
C ut-off grin d in g
RF fib e r reinforced sensitive to oil and heat
Porous, brittle, insensitive Rough and finish grin d in g o f steels using
V vitrified (ceramic) bond to w ater, oil, heat corundum and silicon carbide
⇒
Grinding wheel ISO 603-1 1 N-300 x 50 x 76.2 - A /F 36 L 5 V - 50: Form 1 (straight grin d in g w heel), wheel
face N, outside diam eter 300 m m , w id th 50 m m , hole diam eter 76.2 m m , abrasive A (norm al corundum or
w h ite fused alum ina), grain size F36 (m edium ), hardness grade L (m edium ), structure 5, vitrified (ceramic)
bond (V), m a xim u m peripheral speed 50 m/s.
 Selecting grinding wheels
Standard values for selecting grinding w heels (excluding diam ond and boron nitride)
Cylindrical grinding

Roughing Finishing with wheel diameter Fine finishing

Abrasive
Material up to 500 mm over 500 mm
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Steel, unhardened A 54 M -N 80 M -N 60 L-M 180 L-M
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy. A 46 L-M 80 K-L 60 J-K 240-500 H-N
Steel, hardened, high alloyed A, C 80 M -N 80 N -O 60 M -N 240-500 H-N
Carbide, ceramic C 60 K 80 K 60 K 240-500 H-N
Cast iron A, C 60 L 80 L 60 L 100 M
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn C 46 K 60 K 60 K - -
Internal cylindrical grinding
Grinding wheel diameter in mm
Abrasive
Material up to 20 from 20 to 40 from 40 to 80 over 80
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Steel, unhardened A 80 M 60 L-M 54 L-M 46 K
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy. A 80 K-L 120 M -N 80 M -N 80 L
Steel, hardened, high alloyed A, C 80 J-K 100 K 80 K 60 J
Carbide, ceramic C 80 G 120 H 120 H 80 G
Cast iron A 80 L-M 80 K-L 60 M 46 M
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn C 80 l-J 120 K 60 J-K 54 J
Peripheral face grinding
Cup wheel Straight grinding wheels Abrasive
Abrasive
Material D < 300 mm D ≤ 300 mm D > 300 mm segments
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Steel, unhardened A 46 J 46 J 36 J 24 J
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy. A 46 J 60 J 46 J 36 J
Steel, hardened, high alloyed A 46 H-J 60 l-J 46 l-J 36 l-J
Carbide, ceram ic C 46 J 60 J 60 J 46 J
Cast iron A 46 J 46 J 46 J 24 J
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn C 46 J 60 J 60 J 36 J
Tool grinding
Straight grinding wheels Dish wheels Cup
Abrasive
Cutting tool material D ≤ 225 D > 225 100
D≤ D > 100 wheels
Grain size Grain size Hardness Grain size Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Tool steel A 80 60 M 80 60 M 46 K
High-speed steel A 60 46 K 60 46 K 46 H
Carbide C 80 54 K 80 54 K 46 H
Cutting on stationary machines
Straight cut-off wheels vc up to 80 m/s Straight cut-off wheels vc up to 100 m/s
Abrasive
Material D ≤ 200 mm D > 200 mm D ≤ 500 mm D > 500 mm
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Steel, unhardened A 80 Q-R 46 Q-R 24 U 20 Q-R
Cast iron A 60 Q-R 46 Q-R 24 U -V 20 U -V
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn A 60 Q-R 46 Q-R 30 S 24 S
Grinding and cutting w ith hand tools
Cut-off wheels Rough grinding wheels
Abrasive Mounted points
Material vc up to 80 m /s vc up to 45 m /s vc up to 80 m /s
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Steel, unhardened A 30 T 24 M 24 R 36 Q-R
Steel, corrosion resistant A 30 R 16 M 24 R 36 S
Cast iron A, C 30 T 20 R 24 R 30 T
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn A, C 30 R 20 R - - - -
 Grinding with diamond and boron nitride
Grain designation cf. DIN ISO 6106 (2006-03)
Areas of application Rough grind Finishing Fine finishing Lapping
Grain diamond D251-D151 D126-D76 D64, D54, D46 D20, D15, D7
designation1) boron nitride B251-B151 B126-B76 B64, B54, B46 B30, B6
Attainable Ra in µm ≈ 0.55-0.50 ≈ 0.45-0.33 ≈ 0.18-0.15 « 0.05-0.025
1) Mesh size o f test sieve in µ m; m icro qrits < D46, B46, not standardized by ISO 6106.
Standard values for cutting velocities
Process Abrasive Cutting velocity vc in m /s by bond type1)
B M G V
dry w et dry wet dry wet dry w et
Surface g rinding CBN - 30-50 - 30-60 - 30-60 - 30-60
D - 22-50 - 22-27 20-30 22-50 - 25-50
External cylindrical CBN - 30-50 - 30-60 - 30-60 - 30-60
g rin d in g 2) D - 22-40 - 20-30 20-30 22-40 - 25-50
Internal cylindrical CBN 27-35 30-60 - 30-60 24-40 30-50 - 30-50
g rinding D 12-18 15-30 8-15 18-27 12-20 18-40 - 25-50
Tool CBN 27-35 30-50 22-30 30-40 27-35 30-50 - 30-50
g rinding D 15-22 22-50 15-22 15-27 15-30 22-35 - -

Cut-off CBN 27-35 30-50 - 30-60 27-40 30-60 - -

g rinding D 12-18 22-35 - 22-27 18-30 22-40 - -

1) Bond types, see page 318 2) A pprox. fo u r tim es the value fo r high speed g rin d in g (HSG)

Standard values for depth of cut and feed of diam ond grinding w heels
Process Depth per stroke in mm for grain size Crossfeed
Feed
relative to wheel
D181 D126 D64 m /m in width w
Face g rin d in g 1) 0.02-0.04 0 . 01- 0.02 0.005-0.01 10-15 1/4 – 1/2 · w
External cyl. g rin d in g 1) 0.01-0.03 0 . 0- 0.02 0.005-0.01 0 .3- 2.0 -

Internal cyl. grinding 0.002-0.007 0.002-0.005 0.001-0.003 0 .5 -2 .0 -

Tool g rinding 0.01-0.03 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 0 .3 - 4.0 -

Groove g rinding - 1.0-5.0 0.5-3.0 0. 01- 2.0 -

1) A pprox. three tim es the value fo r high speed g rinding (HSG)

Standard values for depth of cut and feed of CBN grinding w heels
Process Depth per stroke in mm for grain size Crossfeed
Feed
relative to wheel
B252/B181 B151/B126 B91/B76 m /m in width w
Surface g rinding 0.03-0.05 0.02-0.04 0.01-0.015 20-30 1/ 4 – 1/3 · W
External cyl. g rin d in g 0.02-0.04 0.02-0.03 0.015-0.02 0.5-2.0 -

Internal cyl. g rinding 0.005-0.015 0.005-0.01 0.002-0.005 0.5-2.0 -

Tool g rinding 0 . 002 - 0.1 0.01-0.005 0.005-0.015 0.5-4.0 -

Groove g rinding 1.0-10 1.0-5.0 0.5-3.0 0 .01- 2.0

High–perform ance grinding w ith CBN grinding w heels cf. VDI 3411 (2000-08)
G rinding processes achieving extrem ely high m aterial rem oval rates by utilization o f special m achines and to o ls w ith
increased cutting velocities (> 80 m/s) and appropriate m achine coolant. P redom inantly used fo r side and external
cylindrical g rinding o f m etallic materials.

Grinding wheel preparation (conditioning)

Processing step Dressing
Truing S harpening Cleaning

Action Removal o f grain and Reduction o f the No effect on abrasive

bond bond layer

Goal Establishing concentricity Creating the g rinding Remove chips fro m pores
and wheel p rofile w heel surface structure

Maximum allowable peripheral speeds in high-performance grinding

Bond typ e 1) B V M G
Highest allowable
140 200 180 280
peripheral speed in m/s

1) Bond types, see page 318

 Grinding, Productive time
Straight cylindrical grinding

tp productive tim e Workpiece rotational

Productive tim e speed
L travel
i num ber o f cuts
n workpiece rotational speed
f workpiece feed per revolution
Vf feed rate Number of cuts
d1 initial diam eter o f workpiece for external straight for internal straight
d final diam eter o f workpiece grinding grinding
ap cutting depth
/ w orkpiece length
wg grin d in g wheel w id th
/0i overrun idle travel 1) 2 cuts to spark out, fo r low er tolerance grades
t grin d in g allowance additional cuts are necessary

Calculating travel L

Workpieces w ith o u t shoulder Workpieces

w ith shoulder

Feed fo r ro ughing f = 2/3 · wg to 3/4 · wg; feed fo r fin ish ing f = 1/4 · wg to 1/2 · wg

S u rfac e g rin din g

tp productive time f transverse feed per stroke Number of cuts No. of strokes
/ workpiece length n no. o f strokes per minute
li start. idle, overrun idle travel Vf feed rate
L travel i num ber of cuts
w w idth o f workpiece t grinding allowance Productive time

wo overrun width wg grinding wheel width

W grinding width 1) 2 cuts to
ap cutting depth
spark out

Calculating travel L and grinding width W

W orkpieces w ith o u t shoulder W orkpieces w ith shoulder

Transverse feed fo r roughing f = 2/3 · wg to 4/5 · wg; feed fo r fin ish ing f = 1/2 · wg to 2/3 · wg
 Honing
vc cu ttin g velocity A contact area of Cutting velocity
va axial speed honing stone

vp peripheral speed Fr radial infeed force

α angle o f intersection n n um ber o f honing stones

betw. abrading tracks w w id th o f honing stones
p contact pressure l length o f honing stones Angle of
intersection

Example:

Hardened steel, finish honing, vp = ?; va = ?; vc = ?; α = ?

read fro m table: vp = 25 m /m in ; va = 12 m /m in

Contact pressure

Cutting velocity and machining allowances

Peripheral velocity Axial velocity M achining allowances in m m
Material vp in m /m in va in m /m in fo r hole diam eter in m m
R o u g h h o n in g F in is h h o n in g R o u g h h o n in g F in is h h o n in g 2– 15 15– 100 100–500
Steel, unhardened 18–40 20–40 9–20 10–20 0.02–0.05 0.03–0.15 0.06-0.3
Steel, hardened 14–40 15–40 5–20 6– 20 0.01–0.03 0.02–0.05 0.03–0.1
A llo y steels 23–40 25–40 10–20 11–20
Cast iron 23–40 25–40 10–20 11–20 0.02–0.05 0.03–0.15 0.06–0.3
A lu m in u m alloy s 22–40 24–40 9–20 10–20
H oning w ith diam ond g rit vp up to 40 m /m in and va up to 60 m /m in ; α = 60°– 90°

Contact pressure of honing tools

Contact pressure p in N/cm2

H oning process Ceramic Plastic bonded D iam ond Boron nitride
honing stone honing stone honing stick honing stick

Rough honing 50–250 200–400 300–700 200–400

Finish honing 20– 100 40–250 100–300 100– 200

Selection of corundum, silicon carbide, CBN and diamond honing stones

Roughness H oning stone m ade o f

Tensile corundum and silicon carbide2) CBN or diamond
Mate­ depth
strength N/ Process
rial Rz Honing Grain Hard­ Bond Struc­ Grain size
mm2
μm abrasive size ness ture
Steel < 500 rough honing 8– 12 A 700 R 1 D126
(unhardened) interm ed. honing 2–5 400 R B 5 D54
finish honing 0.5– 1.5 1200 M 2 D15
500–700 rough honing 5– 10 A 80 R 3 B76
(hardened) interm ed. honing 2–3 400 O B 5 B54
finish honing 0.5–2 700 N 3 B30
Cast – rough honing 5–8 C 80 M 3 D91
iron finish honing 2–3 120 K V 7 D46
plateau h o n in g 1) 3–6 900 H 8 D25
Non- – rough honing 6– 10 A 80 O 3 D64
lsmferrous
ta
e interm ed. 2–3 A 400 O V 1 D35
finish honing 0.5– 1 C 1000 N 5 D15
1) In p lateau hon in g the peaks o f the material surface are removed. 2) see page 318

Selection of honing stone made of diamond and cubic boron nitride (CBN)

Abrasive Natural diam ond S ynthetic d iam ond CBN

Material Steel, carbide Cast iron, nitrided steel, non-ferrous metals, glass, ceramic Hardened steel
 Productive time and Standard values for material removal
Electric discharge machining (w ire EDM)

tp productive tim e in m in Productive tim e

vf feed rate in m m /min
L travel, cutting length in m m
H cutting height in mm
T geom etric tolerance in μ m

Example:

Material: Steel, H = 30 m m ; L = 320 m m ;

T = 30 μ m; vf = ?; tp = ?
vf = 1.8 m m /m in (from table)

Feed rate vf (standard values)1)

Feed rate vf in m m /m in
Cutting Steel eroding Copper eroding Carbide eroding
height H Desired geom etric tolerance T in μ m
in m m 60 40 30 20 10 40 20 10 80 20 10
10 9.0 8.5 4.0 3.9 2.1 7.5 3.5 2.0 4.5 0.7 0.6
20 5.1 5.5 2.5 2.5 1.5 4.7 2.4 1.5 3.1 0.3 0.3
30 3.7 4.0 1.8 1.8 1.1 4.0 1.9 1.1 2.3 0.2 0.2
50 2.5 2.5 1.2 1.2 0.8 2.6 1.4 0.7 1.4 0.2 0.2
1) These standard values are average values from the main cut and all subsequent cuts required to reach geom etric tolerance.
With unfavorable flushing conditions the achievable feed rate drops considerably.

Characteristics and application of common wire electrodes

W ire El. conductivity Tensile strength Typical w ire
Application
material in m/(Ω · m m 2) in N/mm2 diameter in mm
CuZn alloy 13.5 400–900 0.2–0.33 Universal
M olybdenum 18.5 1900 0.025–0.125 Cuts w ith very tig ht geometric tolerance
Tungsten 18.2 2500 0.025–0.125 N arrow slots, sm all corner radii

Electric discharge machining (sink EDM)

tp productive tim e in min Productive tim e
S rem oval area
o f electrode in m m 2
V rem oval vo lu m e in m m 3
VW rem oval rate in m m 3/m in

Example:
Roughing o f steel; graphite electrode,
S = 150 m m 2; V = 3060 m m 3; VW= ?; tp = ?
\/W = 31 mm3/m in (from table)

Removal rate VW (standard values)1)

Removal rate Vw in m m3/m in
Roughing Finishing
W ork­ rem oval area S in m m 2 desired roughness depth Rz in μ m
piece Electrode
10 50 100 200 300 400 2 3 4 6 8
material
to to to to to to to to to to to
50 100 200 300 400 600 3 4 6 8 10
G raphite 7.0 18 31 62 81 105 – – – 2 5
Steel
Copper 13.3 22 28 51 85 105 0.1 0.5 1.9 3.8 5
Carbide Copper 6.0 15 18 28 30 33 – 0.1 0.5 2.2 5.2
1) Actual values w ill vary w id e ly due to the effects o f different processing methods. Refer to page 324.
 Process parameters in EDM erosion
VW rem oval rate in m m 3/m in Removal rate
V rem oval vo lu m e in m m 3
t rem oval tim e in min
VE absolute to o l w ear in
mm3
Vrel relative tool w ear in % Relative tool wear

Parameter Explanations, characteristics and applications

Electrolytic Universal application; lo w wear behavior; high rem oval rate;

copper fo r finish and rough m achining; difficult to m anufacture electrode by m achining;
high therm al expansion; no cracked edges;
tendency to w arp

Graphite Universal application; very lo w wear; greater current density than Cu;
in various grain low electrode w eight; easy to m anufacture electrode by m achining;
Electrode sizes non-w arping; low therm al expansion; m ore detailed electrodes are made by
Material selecting a fin er graphite grain; unsuitable fo r carbide m achining

Detailed electrodes; very low wear; very high material rem oval rate w ith relatively
Tungsten-copper lo w discharge currents even w ith large current densities;
only m anufactured in lim ited sizes, high electrode w eig ht

Special applications involving sm all electrode dim ensions w ith sim ultaneous high
Copper-graphite electrode strength; w ear and m aterial rem oval rate play a subordinate role in these
special applications

Synthetic oils, Requirements fo r dielectric fluids:

filtered and • low and constant conductivity fo r stable sparking
cooled; according • low viscosity fo r filtra b ility and penetrating a bility in narrow gaps
Dielectric
to machine • lo w evaporation to reduce hazardous vapors
fluid
m anufacturer • high flash point to avoid fire hazard
• high heat conductance value fo r good cooling
• extrem ely low health hazard fo r operators

Replacement of Depending on requirem ents and available options, different flushing m ethods can
dielectric fluid be used to m aintain stable erosion perform ance:
at the erosion site • flo od in g (m ost c o m m on ly used m ethod, sim ultaneous heat rejection)
Remove eroded • pressure flushing th ro ug h h o llo w electrodes or next to electrode
Flushing
particles from • vacuum flushing through h ollow electrode or next to electrode
• interval flushing caused by retracting electrode
gap
• m ovem ent flushing by relative m ovem ent between w orkpiece and electrode,
w ith o u t interrupting erosion cycle

Electrode is positively polarized; fo r low electrode burn rate during roughing w ith
positive
long pulse duration and low frequency
Polarity
negative Electrode is negatively polarized; fo r erosion w ith short pulse duration and high
frequency

Kept constant during feed (controlled by discharge voltage).

C ontrol sensitivity set to o high: Electrode co ntinually pulses on and off, controlled
face discharge im possible.
Gap C ontrol sensitivity set to o low : A bnorm al discharges increase or gap rem ains too
large fo r discharge.

Determ ined p rim a rily by duration and size o f discharge pulse, depends on material
side
m atching and no-load voltage

low Low rem oval perform ance, low tool w ear on copper electrodes, high w ear on graph­
Discharge ite electrodes
current
high High rem oval perform ance, high tool w ear on copper electrodes, lo w w ear on
graphite electrodes

Pulse short Electrode w ear w ith positive p ola rity is larger, low er rem oval rate
duration long Electrode w ear w ith positive p ola rity is sm aller, higher rem oval rate
 Cutting force, Operating conditions for presses
Cutting force, cutting w ork

F cutting force C u t t i n g fo r c e
Fm calculated cutting force
S shear area
Rm max m axim um tensile strength
τsB m a x m axim um shear strength
W cutting w ork Max. shear strength
s sheet metal thickness

Example: C u ttin g w o rk

S = 236 m m 2; s = 2.5 m m ; Rm max = 510 N /m m 2

Wanted: τsB max; F; W

Solution:

Operating conditions for eccentric and crank presses

Press drives are usually designed such that the Work capacity in
nom inal pressing force is applied at crank angle continuous mode
α = 30°.
Machines operate w ith o u t interruption in c ontinu­
ous m ode or can be stopped after each cycle in
single-stroke mode. For presses w ith adjustable
strokes, the allow able pressing force is less than
the nom inal pressing force.
Work capacity in
F cutting force, shaping force single-stroke mode
Fn nominal pressing force
Fallow allow . pressing force fo r adjustable stroke
S stroke, maxim um stroke fo r adjustable
stroke
Sa adjusted stroke
h working distance (≙ sheet metal thickness s)
α crank angle
W cutting work, shaping w ork Operating conditions
Wc w ork capacity in continuous mode Fixed stroke
Ws w ork capacity in single-stroke mode
F ≤ Fn
Example: W ≤ Wc or
Eccentric press w ith fixed stroke Fn = 250 kN; S = 30 mm; W ≤ Ws
F = 207 kN; s = 4 m m
Find: W ; Wc. Can the press be put into continuous mode? Adjustable stroke

F ≤ Fa||ow
Solution:

W ≤ Wc or
If F < Fn' but W > WC' th e press cannot be used in continuous m ode fo r
this workpiece. W ≤ Ws
 Stamping tool
Stam p ing process: Lids m a de o f sh e e t m e ta l are p ro d u c e d on th e p o s t-g u id e d p ro g re s s iv e s ta m p in g to o l.
T h e m e ta l s trip to be c u t is fe d in to th e to o l fr o m th e left. In p ro g re s s io n A, th e c u ttin g p u n c h e s (15, 16) c u t
th e fo u r ro u n d h ole s in th e c o rn e rs and th e sq ua re h ole in th e m id d le in o n e stroke. S im u lta n e o u s ly , th e c u t­
tin g p u n ch (20) n o tch es th e s trip and sets th e d im e n s io n fo r th e p ro g re s s io n . In p ro g re s s io n B, th e p e rim e te r
o f th e lid is b la n ke d o u t w ith th e h e lp o f th e c u ttin g p u n ch (14). A fte r each stro ke , th e sh e e t m e ta l s trip is
a dva n ce d b y th e set p ro g re s s io n fe e d d im e n s io n .

Bill of materials
Item Designation Standard/m aterial Item Designation Standard/m aterial
1 Guide rail, fro n t S235JR 12 Socket head cap screw ISO 4762
2 Stock shelf DC01 13 Socket head cap screw ISO 4762
3 Guide rail, rear S235JR 14 Cutting punch, (hardened) X210CrW12
4 Lower die shoe DIN 9819 15 Cutting punch, (hardened) S6-5-2
5 Die section, hardened X210CrW12 16 Cutting punch, (hardened) DIN 9861
6 Socket head cap screw ISO 4762 17 Socket head cap screw ISO 4762
7 Stripper S235JR 18 Guide post, hardened DIN 9825-2
8 Punch holder S235JR 19 Guide bushing DIN 9831-1
9 Backing plate, hardened 90MnCrV8 20 Notching punch, hardened X210CrW12
10 Dowel pin, hardened ISO 8734 21 Dowel pin, hardened ISO 8734
11 Die shank DIN 9859
 Standard parts for punching tools
Dimensions
Illustration Standard, material Properties, function
from – to in mm

Die sets cf. DIN 9819 (1981-12)

DIN 9819: Form C DIN 9819: Rectangular or round w orking
diagonal posts surface w ith tw o or fo u r guide
W orking surfaces: DIN 9812: posts, o ptio n a lly available w ith
a× b= centrally positioned plain or ball bearing guides.
8 0 × 63 to 315 × 125 posts
Materials:
steel, cast iron,
alum inum

Guide posts cf. DIN 9825-2 (2004-10)

d1 × l = DIN 9825-2 Guide diam eter, tolerance zone h3,
11 × 80 to 80 × 560 Materials: fine ground. The diam eter o f one
e. g. C60E post should be sm aller than that of
hardness the other(s) in order to ensure that
780+40 HV10 the die set always is assembled in
CHD = m in. 0.8 mm the right position.

Guide bushings for die sets cf. DIN 9831-1 (2004-10)

d1 × d2 × l1 = DIN 9831-1: Guide bushings are used fo r guide
11 × 22 × 23 to w ith plain bearing posts co m plying w ith DIN 9825-2.
80 × 105 × 135 guide
DIN 9831-2: Benefits:
w ith ball bearing guide • accurate guide
Materials: • long service life
e. g. steel, bronze,
cast resin, sintered
material

Round cutting punches w ith straight shaft cf. DIN 9861-1 (1992-07)
d1 = 0.5 to 20 DIN 9861-1 M ostly used as piercing punch
l1 = 7 1 , 80, 100 ISO 6752 Shaft hardness w ith
to o l steel: HRC 62±2
Materials: high-speed steel: HRC 64±2
Tool steel, high-speed Head hardness w ith
steel, o ptio n a lly TiN- to o l steel: HRC 50±5
coated high speed steel: HRC 50±5
ground head and shaft

Quick-change cutting punches cf. DIN ISO 10071-1 (2010-11)

Form A: DIN ISO 10071-1 Short change-over tim es
d ×l = Straight shaft: W orkable sheet thickness:
6 × 63 to 32 × 100 Form A: cylindrical up to 3 m m
Form BS: Reduced shafts: Matching die buttons are available
a = 1.6 to 22.5 Form B: cylindrical at specialized retailers fo r standard
Form BR: Form BS: square parts
a = 1.6 to 12 Form BR: rectangular
b = 5.9 to 31.9 Form BO: oval

Die set shank, form A cf. DIN ISO 10242-1 (2000-03)

d1 × d2 × l1 = Form A: The punch holder shank is used to

20 × M 16 × 58 to DIN ISO 10242-1 fix sm all and m edium sized upper
50 × M 3 0 × 108 Form C: die shoes to the punch press ram.
DIN ISO 10242-2 Punch press die sets are often fixed
to the press ram w ith the help of
Materials: a coupling shank and a receiving
e.g. E295, C45 chuck.
 Tool and workpiece dimensions
Punch and cutting die dimensions cf. VDI 3368 (1982-05)

d punch Process Piercing Blanking

dim ension
Shape of
D cu ttin g die
w orkpiece
dim ension
u die clearance
s sheet metal G overning dim ension of d im ension o f
thickness specified size is: punch d cu ttin g die D
α clearance angle D im ension of cu ttin g die punch
o pposite tool D = d + 2 ·u d = D –2 · u

Die clearance u as a function of material and sheet metal thickness

C utting die opening Cutting die opening
sheet metal w ith clearance angle α w ith o u t clearance angle α
thickness s shear strength τ sB in N /m m 2 shear strength τsB in N /m m 2
mm up to 250 251–400 401–600 o ver 600 up to 250 251–400 401–600 o ver 600
die clearance u in m m die clearance u in m m
0.4–0.6 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0.7–0.8 0.015 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.025 0.03 0.04 0.05
0.9– 1 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05
1.5–2 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11
2.5–3 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.17
3.5–4 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.16 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.23

W eb w idth , edge w idth , trim stop w aste for metallic materials

a edge w id th Polygonal workpieces:

e w eb w id th The w eb o r edge length, w hich eve r is larger,
la edge length is used to determ ine w eb and edge w idths.
le w eb length
B s trip w id th Round workpieces:
i trim stop w aste For all diam eters values g iven fo r le = la =
(french stop waste) 10 m m o f p o lyg o na l w orkp iece s a pp ly to
w eb and edge w id th s.

Strip Web length le W eb

Sheet metal thickness s in m m
w id th B Edge length la w id th e
mm mm Edge
w id th a 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0

e 0.8 0.8 0.8

up to 10 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.1
a 1.0 0.9 0.9

e 1.6 1.2 0.9

11–50 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.3
a 1.9 1.5 1.0
up to
100 m m e 1.8 1.4 1.0
51–100 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.5
a 2.2 1.7 1.2

e 2.0 1.6 1.2

over 100 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7
a 2.4 1.9 1.5
trim stop w aste i 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.5

e 0.9 1.0 1.0

up to 10 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.3
a 1.2 1.1 1.1

e 1.8 1.4 1.0

11–50 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.5
over a 2.2 1.7 1.2
100 m m e 2.0 1.6 1.2
51– 100 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7
to a 2.4 1.9 1.5
200 m m
e 2.2 1.8 1.4
101–200 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.6 2.9
a 2.7 2.2 1.7
trim stop waste i 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
 Location of punch holder shank, Utilization of strip stock
Location of punch holder shank for punch geom etry w ith known center of gravity

Punch layout Workpiece Distance of the center of forces

Example:

Based on the figure at left, calculate the distance x of

center of forces S .
Solution:
The outer perimeter of the cutting punch is chosen as
reference edge.
Blanking punch: C1 = 4 · 20 mm = 80 mm; a1 = 10 mm
Piercing punch: C2 = π · 10 mm = 31.4 mm; a2 = 31 mm

C1, C2, C3 ... circum ferences o f individual punches

a1, a2, a3 ... distances fro m punch centers o f gravity
to selected reference edge
x distance o f center o f forces S
fro m chosen reference edge

Location of punch holder shank for punch geom etry w ith unknow n center of gravity
Center o f forces corresponds to centroid o f the lin e 1) of Distance of the center of forces
all cutting edges.
Punch layout Workpiece

Example:

Calculate the location o f the punch holder shank on

the progressive die fo r the workpiece show n in the
fig ure at the left.
Solution:
n ln in m m an in m m ln · an in m m 2
1 15 5 75
2 23.6 9.8 231.28
cutting edge lengths 21 420
3 20
distance fro m line centroids 1240
4 2 · 20 31
to selected reference edges
5 20 41 820
distance fro m center o f forces
to selected reference edge Σ 118.6 – 2786.28

num ber o f ind ivid u a l cutting edge

1) For line centroids, see page 28

Utilization of strip stock for single row stamping

l workpiece length Strip width

w workpiece w id th
W strip w id th
a edge w id th
Strip feed
e w eb w id th
V strip feed
A area o f workpiece
(including holes)
Utilization factor
R n um ber o f rows
η degree o f utilization
 Bending tool

Bill of materials
Item Designation Standard/m aterial Item Designation Standard/m aterial
1 Socket head cap screw ISO 4762 7 Locator C60
2 Bending section 90MnCrV8 8 Dowel pin (6 × 18) ISO 2338
3 Flat head screw ISO 10642 9 Low er die shoe S235JR
4 Pilot pin C45 10 Pressure pad C45
5 Bending punch C45 11 Com pression spring DIN 2098
6 Dowel pin (4 × 8) ISO 2338 12 Shoulder bolt C60
 Bending processes
Illustration Function Application

Free bending
The die supports the sheet metal at tw o Various angles can be bent w ith ­
points. The punch forces the material out having to change the tool.
dow nw ards thereby producing a ro und­ This m ethod is also used fo r the
ing, w hich shape p rim a rily depends on straightening o f workpieces.
the opening w id th o f the die (w ).

Die bending
The punch forces the sheet metal d o w n ­ This m ethod is m ore accurate
w ards to match perfectly the shape o f than free bending.
the die, causing a perm anent deform a­ M ore accurate inner dim ensions
tio n o f the material. Depending on the are obtained th ro ug h movable
shape o f the die, a distinction is made jaws, w hich are pressed inwards
between: by cams.
• V-bending and
• U-bending A ccordingly, the cams press
A pressure pad is often used in U-bend­ against the bending part fro m
ing. The force F2 prevents the blank outside, if the outer dim ensions
fro m w arping up at the bottom during need to be m ore accurate.
the bending process.

Sw ing folding
The sheet metal to be bent is clam ped • Bending o f short legs
between the upper and the low er beam. • Bending o f delicate surfaces
The p ivoting bending beam rotates w ith o u t scratches (e. g. copper
w ith the sheet metal around the bend and a lu m inum alloys, stainless
profile until the required bending angle steel and coated surfaces)
is attained. The pivoting beam can be
m oved m anually or m o to r driven. CNC-
controls are w id e ly used to produce
sophisticated bent parts.

Curling
W hen the curling punch moves dow n Sim ple m ethod to produce:
it forces the material into its cylindrical • beads
c u tout thereby producing the rolled • hinges
shape. To facilitate rolling, the w o rk­ • jo in t hinges
pieces should be pre-bend beforehand.
In progressive dies, w orkpieces are
pre-bend in the first stage and rolled in
the second.

Roll bending
The metal sheet m oves between three Bending o f metal sheets fo r
rolls. Various bending radii can be boilers, vessels and tanks.
produced by adjusting the rolls accor­ A com parable m ethod is roll
dingly. straightening. Several roller sets
o f three straighten sheet metal,
bars, w ires o r tubes.
 Bending radius, Bend allowances, Calculation of blank size
Sm allest allow able bending radius for bent parts of non-ferrous metals cf. DIN 5520 (2002-07)
Thickness s in m m
Material M aterial condition 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6
Sm allest allow able bending radius r 1) in m m
AIMg3-01 spheroidized 0.6 1 2 3 4 6 8 10
AIMg3-H14 cold w ork hardened 1.6 2.5 4 6 10 14 18 –
A IM g3-H111 cold w ork hardened
1 1.5 3 4.5 6 8 10 –
and annealed
A IM g4.5M n-H112 spheroidized
1 1.5 2.5 4 6 8 10 14
straightened
A IM g4.5M n-H111 cold w ork hardened
1.6 2.5 4 6 10 16 20 25
and annealed
AIMgSi1-T6 solution annealed
4 5 8 12 16 23 28 36
and a rtificially aged
CuZn37-R600 hard 2.5 4 5 8 10 12 18 24
1) For bending angle α = 90°, regardless o f ro lling direction

Sm allest allow able bending radius for cold bending steel cf. DIN 6935 (2010-01)
Minimum tensile M in im u m bending radius1) r fo r sheet m etal thickness s in m m
strength Rm
in N/mm2 over–to 1 1.5 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
up to 390 1 1.6 2.5 3 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 28 36 40
390–490 1.2 2 3 4 5 8 10 12 16 20 25 28 32 40 45
490–640 1.6 2.5 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 36 45 50
1) Values apply to bending angle α ≤ 120° and bending transverse to ro lling direction. Value o f the next larger sheet
metal thickness should be selected fo r bending lon g itu din al to ro lling direction and bending angle α > 120°.

Bending radii for pipes cf. DIN 25570 (2004-02)

D outer pipe diam eter in m m

s w all thickness in m m
rmin m inim u m bendinq radius in m m
Steel pipes E235, X5CrNi18-10 Aluminum pipes AIMgSi Copper pipes Cu-DHP-R250
D ×s rmin D ×s r m in D ×s rmin D ×s rmin
6 ×1 22 × 1.5 1 6 × 1.5 80 6 ×1 25
50
8 ×1 20 22 × 2.5 20 × 1.5 100 8 ×1 35
1 0 ×1 25 × 1.5 2 5 ×3 110 10 × 1.5
55 40
12 × 1.5 25 2 5 × 2.5 28 × 2.5 12 × 1.5
125
15 ×2 30 × 1.5 30 × 1.5 16 × 1.5 60
35 80
16 × 2 3 0 ×2 4 0 ×3 180 18 × 1.5 80
1 8 × 2.5 40 40 × 2.5 100 5 0 ×3 250 28 × 1.5
125
20 × 1.5 45 × 2.5 125 6 0 ×2 300 30 × 2.5
45
20 ×2 50 × 2.5 140 7 0 ×3 350 42 × 1.5 200

Calculation of blank size for 90° bent parts cf. DIN 6935 (2010-01)

L developed len g th 1) Developed length2)

a, b, c length o f leg
s thickness
r bending radius
2) Calculated developed length
n n um ber o f bends
should be rounded o ff to a
v bend allowance (table page 333) w h o le m m value.
Example (see illus.):

a = 25 m m ; b = 20 m m ; c = 15 m m ; n = 2; t = 2 m m ;
r = 4 m m ; m aterial S235JR; v = ?; L = ?
v = 4.5 mm
L = a + b + c – n · v = (25 + 20 + 15 – 2 · 4.5) m m = 51 mm

1) If the ratio r/s > 5, the fo rm u la fo r developed length (pag e 20) can be used.
 Bend allowances, Calculation of a blank size, Springback
Bend allowances v for bending angle α = 90° cf. Supplem ent 2 to DIN 6935 (2010-01)

Bending Bend allowance v per bend in m m fo r sheet m etal thickness s in m m

radius r
in m m 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 6 8 10

1 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 – – – – – – – – – – –

1.6 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.9 – – – – – – – – – –
2.5 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 – – – – – – – –
4 – 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.7 4.5 5.2 6.0 6.9 – – – – – –

6 – – 3.5 3.8 4.5 5.2 5.9 6.7 7.5 8.3 9.1 9.9 – – –
10 – – – 5.5 6.1 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.9 9.6 10.4 11.2 12.7 – –
16 – – – 8.1 8.7 9.3 9.9 10.5 11.2 11.9 12.6 13.3 14.8 17.8 21.0
20 – – – 9.8 10.4 11.0 11.6 12.2 12.8 13.4 14.1 14.9 16.3 19.3 22.3

25 – – – 11.9 12.6 13.2 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.6 16.2 16.8 18.2 21.1 24.1
32 – – – 15.0 15.6 16.2 16.8 17.4 18.0 18.6 19.2 19.8 21 .0 23.8 26.7
40 – – – 18.4 19.0 19.6 20.2 20.8 21.4 22.0 22.6 23.2 24.5 26.9 29.7
50 – – – 22.7 23.3 23.9 24.5 25.1 25.7 26.3 26.9 27.5 28.8 31.2 33.6

Calculation of blank size for parts w ith any selected bending angle cf. DIN 6935 (2010-01)

L developed length s sheet thickness D e v e lo ped Ie n g t h 1)

a, b length o f legs r bendingβ radius
v bend allowance aperture angle
k correction factor

Bend allowance for β = 0° to 90°

Bend allowance for β over 90° to 165°

Bend allowance for β over 165° to

180° v ≈ 0 (negligible) Correction factor

1) For r/s > 5, the bend length (page

20) is s u fficie n tly accurate fo r the
calculation.

Springback in bending

α1 angle o f bend before R a d iu s o n to o l

springback (on tool)
α2 angle o f bend after
springback (on w orkpiece)
r1 radius on tool
Angle of bend before springback
r2 bending radius on w orkpiece
kR springback factor
s sheet metal thickness

M aterial of Springback factor kr fo r th e ratio r2/ s

bent part 1 1.6 2.5 4 6.3 10 16 25 40 63 100

DC04 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.83
DC01 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.93 0.90 0.85 0.77 0.66
X12CrNi18-8 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.89 0.84 0.76 0.63 – –
E-Cu-R20 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.85 0.79 0.72 0.6
CuZn33-R29 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.77 0.73
CuNi18Zn20 – – – 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.87 0.82 0.72 –
AI99.00.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93
A lC u M g 1 0.92 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.77 0.67 0.54 – – – –
A IS iM gM n 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.76 0.72
 Deep drawing tool
Deep draw in g process
The s tra ig h t b la n k is c u t to size (c irc u la r blank) a nd placed in th e lo c a to r (14). The d ra w rin g (13) keeps
th e b la n k o n th e b la n k h o ld e r (6 ) w h ile re ta in in g it at th e o u te r edges. T h e d ra w rin g m o v e s d o w n a g a in st
th e s p rin g fo rc e a n d d ra w s th e m a te ria l o v e r th e ro u n d e d d ra w in g e dg e o f th e d ra w p u n c h . A h o llo w
ro u n d p a rt is p ro d u c e d . The g a p b e tw e e n th e p u n ch and th e rin g m u s t be la rg e r th a n th e sh e e t th ickne ss.
A d ra w in g gap th a t is to o n a rro w m ig h t p ro d u c e cracks in th e m a te ria l, w h e re a s a gap th a t is to o w id e m ig h t
p ro d u c e w rin k le s .

A In itia l p o s itio n (b e fo re d ee p d ra w in g ) B Fin al p o s itio n (a fte r d e e p d ra w in g )

Bill of materials
Item Designation Standard/m aterial Item Designation Standard/m aterial
1 Low er die shoe G J L – 250 9 Guiding bushing CuSn8
2 Socket head cap screw ISO 4762 10 Knock-out S235JR
3 Draw punch 90Cr3 11 Knock-out rod C60
4 Shoulder screw ISO 4762 12 C oupling shank E335
5 C om pression spring Spring steel 13 Draw ring 90Cr3
6 Blank holder 90Cr3 14 Locator S235JR
7 Upper die shoe G J L – 250 15 Flat head screw ISO 2009
8 Guide post 16MnCr5
 Deep drawing processes
Illustration Function Properties, application

Mechanical deep draw ing (first draw and redraw)

Deep drawing workflow: M aterials suitable fo r deep
• Place the circular blank in the draw ing m ust a llo w fo r m ajor
locator reshaping processes w ith o u t
being affected by splits.
• The blank holder presses the
circular blank dow n on the Examples:
draw ring and locks it • DCO 1, DCO3
• The draw punch pulls the blank • X15CrNiSi25-20
fro m the blank holder, forces • CuZn38
it into the draw ing gap to form • Cu95.5
a cup • AI99.8
• If the draw ing ratio D/d is too • A IM g 1
large, additional draw ing Application fo r troughs, pots,
stages are required (cf. page cans, vehicle parts
337, first and redrawing)
The m aterial thickness is not
• Positioning o f the pre-form ed affected by deep draw ing.
cup in the redraw ing tool
• The cup produced by redraw ing
has a sm aller diam eter and a
greater height

Deep draw ing w ith elastic cushion

• A rigid draw die has the o ut­ • sim ple and inexpensive tool
line o f the required w orkpiece • lo w punch w ear
shape • no scratches on the workpiece
• The head o f the draw punch surface
consists o f an elastic rubber or • favorable draw ing ratio
elastom er cushion
• fo r the production o f low
• W hen m oving dow n the elastic quantities
cushion o f the draw punch
• fo r decorative parts
forces the blank into the cavity
o f the draw die.

Hydromechanical deep draw ing (hydromec drawing)

• The blank is retained by the • very favorable draw ing ratio
blank holder • low punch w ear
• The draw punch forces the • low tool costs
blank into the flu id , thereby • requires few er draw ing stages
generating a u nifo rm ly distri­
• fo r sophisticated shapes
buted pressure (200 to 700 bar)
(e. g. spheroidal or parabolic
controlled by valves
parts)
• The w ater pressure presses the
blank against the draw punch
• The blank adopts accurately the
shape o f the draw punch
 Deep drawing
Calculation of blank diam eter
Drawn part Blank diameter D Drawn part Blank diameter D

Example:

Cylindrical drawn part w ith flange d2 (see figure, upper left) w ith d1 = 50 m m , h = 30 m m ; D = ?

Draw ing gap and radii on draw ring and draw punch

w draw ing gap Drawing gap in mm

s sheet metal thickness
k material factor
rr radius on d raw ring
rst radius o f draw punch Radius of draw ring in mm
D blank diam eter
d punch diam eter
dr d raw ring diam eter
For each redraw the radius o f the draw
ring should be reduced by 20 to 40%.

Drawing gap Radius of draw punch in mm

Example:

Steel sheet; D = 51 m m ; d = 25 m m ; s = 2 m m ; w = ?; rr = ?; rst = ?

Material factor k k = 0.07 (from table)

Steel 0.07

A lu m in u m 0.02
rst = 4.5 · s = 4.5 · 2 m m = 9 mm
Other non-ferrous metals 0.04
 Deep drawing
Drawing steps and draw ing ratios

D blank diam eter D r a w in g r a tio

d inside diam eter o f finished draw n part
1st draw
d 1punch diam eter fo r 1st draw
d2punch diam eter fo r 2nd draw
d npunch diam eter fo r nth draw
β 1 draw ing ratio fo r 1st draw
β 2 draw ing ratio fo r 2nd draw
β tot total draw ing ratio
s sheet metal thickness
2nd draw
Example:

Cup without flange made of DC04 (St 14) with d =

50 mm; h = 60 mm; D = ?; β1 = ?; β 2 = ?; d1 = ?; d2 = ?

Total
drawing ratio

Two draw s sufficien t since d2 < d

Max. draw ing Max. draw ing Max. draw ing

Material ratios1) Material ratios1) Material ratios1)
N /m m 2 β1 N /m m 2 N /m m 2
β1 β2 β2 β β2
DCO 1 (St12) 1.8 1.2 410 CuZn30-R270 2.1 1.3 270 AI99.5 H111 2.1 1.6 95
DCO3 (St13) 1.9 1.3 370 CuZn37-R300 2.1 1.4 300 A IM g 1 H 111 1.9 1.3 145
DCO4 (St14) 2.0 1.3 350 CuZn37-R410 1.9 1.2 410 AICu4Mg1 T4 2.0 1.5 425
X10CrNi18-8 1.8 1.2 750 CuSn6-R350 1.5 1.2 350 AISi1MgMn T6 2.1 1.4 310
1) Values apply up to d1 : s = 300; they w ere determ ined fo r d1 = 100 m m and s = 1 m m . Values change n egligibly
fo r o ther sheet metal thicknesses and punch diam eters. 2) m a xim u m tensile strength

Tearing force, deep draw ing force, blank holding force

Ft tearing force Tearing force

Fdd deep draw ing force
d1 punch diam eter
s sheet m etal thickness
Rm tensile strength Deep drawing force
β draw ing ratio
βm ax m ax. possible
d raw ing ratio
Fh blank hold in g force
Blank holding force
D blank diam eter
dh support diam eter
Blank holding pressure p in N /m m 2 o f blank holding force
p blank holding pressure
Steel 2.5 Support diameter of blank holding force
rr radius on d raw ring
Cu alloys 2.0–2.4
w draw ing gap
Al alloys 1.2– 1.5

Example:

D = 210 m m ; d1 = 140 m m ; s = 1 m m ; Rm = 380 N /m m 2; β = 1.5; β max = 1.9; Fdd = ?

 Injection molding tool
Tw o-plate multi-cavity mold w ith tunnel gate

Injection m olding process

M o lte n p la stic c o m p o u n d is in je cte d in to th e to o l w ith h ig h pressu re via th e sp rue . The c a vitie s o f th e to o l fill
w ith th e m o lte n m a te ria l. T h e c o m p o u n d c o o ls d o w n u n d e r pressu re in th e te m p e ra tu re -c o n tro lle d to o l. A s
so on as it has s u ffic ie n tly s o lid ifie d to keep its shape, it is d e m o ld e d w ith th e h elp o f e je c to r pins.

Bill of materials
Item Designation Standard/material Item Designation Standard/m aterial
1 Clamping plate (stationary) DIN 16760 9 Ejector base plate DIN 16760
2 M old plate (stationary) DIN 16760 10 Clam ping plate (movable) DIN 16760
3 M old insert X19NiCrM o4 11 Locating ring DIN ISO 10907
4 M old insert X19NiCrM o4 12 Sprue bushing DIN ISO 10072
5 M old plate (movable) DIN 16760 13 Ejector bar S235JR
6 Rail DIN 16760 14 Sprue ejector pin DIN 1530
7 Ejector pin DIN 1530 15 Guide bushing DIN 16761
8 Ejector retaining plate DIN 16760 16 Guide post DIN 16761
 Standard parts for injection molding tools
Standard parts for injection molds (selection)
Illustration Dimension in mm Standard/material Properties/function
Machined plates drilled or undrilled
W1 × l1 × t1 DIN 16760 Plates to support the machine and
w 1 = 96– 896 C45U bear the loads
l1 = 96–1116 40CrMnMoS8-6 • clam ping plates
t1 = 12.5– 200 • m old plates
• platens

Bars, rails
W1 × l1 × t1 DIN 16760 Rails fo r load bearing and spacing
l 1 = 96– 1116 C45U • in different shapes
w1 = 26– 74
t1 = 25– 160

Guide posts
d1 × l1 × l2 DIN 16761 Guidance and centering
d 1= 10– 40 Case-hardened steel Guide posts w ith undercut shaft
l1 = 12.5– 200 (780+40) HV 10 • fo rm A w ith centering shoulder
l2 = 25– 250 • fo rm B w ith o u t centering shoulder

Guide bushings
d1 × l1 DIN 16761 Guidance and centering
d1 = 10– 40 Case-hardened steel Guide posts w ith undercut shaft
l1 = 12.5– 200 (780+40) HV 10 • fo rm A w ith centering shoulder
• fo rm B w ith o u t centering shoulder

Ejector pins
D1 × L DIN 1530 D em olding system
D1 = 2 – 32 Hot-worked steel Ejector pins
L = 100– 1000 950 HV 0.3 • w ith cylindrical head

Ejector sleeves
D1 × L DIN ISO 8405 D em olding system
D1 = 2 –12 Hot-worked steel Ejector pins
L = 75– 300 950 HV 0.3 • w ith cylindrical head

Sprue bushings
d1 × l DIN ISO 10072 Sprue system
d1 = 12– 25 Tool steel Sprue bushing
l = 20– 100 (50±5) HRC • fo rm A, w ith radius fo r machine
nozzle
• fo rm B, straight fo r machine
nozzle

Sprue retainer bushing

D1 × l1 DIN ISO 16915 Sprue system
D1 = 12– 25 Tool steel Sprue retainer bushing
l1 = 20– 100 50 HRC
 Tool design
Hydraulic horizontal injection molding machine

Types of tools
A distinction is made between single-cavity and m ulti-cavity tools, depending on the n um ber o f m olding cavities.
M ulti-cavity tools have several cavities th a t are arranged in a sym m etrical layout (m olding surface) in m ost cases.
The arrangem ent allow s the m olten material to fill all cavities sim ultaneously and hom ogeneously. The flo w paths
have the same length

Two-plate mold Function and application

• Standard m old w ith a very sim ple design w ith tw o to o l halves

• A single parting surface (I )
• A pplication: sim ple m olded parts o f all kinds
• Special types: stripping plate m old, sp lit m old and undercut m old

Three-plate mold Function und application

• Design sim ilar to the standard m old w ith an additional interm ediate plate
w hich allow s a separate dem olding o f the sprue, n orm a lly a pin gate.
Tear-off mold.
• Tw o parting surfaces (I, II)
• Application: m olded parts o f all kinds; m any cavities on a single m anifold
system, much waste

Stack mold Function and application

• The m olded parts are arranged in several layers and lie im m ediately one
behind the other. As the m olded parts have identical projected areas, only
the clam ping force fo r one parting surface is required.
• Tw o or m ore parting surfaces (I , II, etc.)
• Application: fla t m olded parts o f all kinds in large num bers, often as
hot-runner versions

Insulated runner mold Function and application

• The design corresponds to th a t o f a three-plate m old. The interm ediate

plate is fitted w ith an insulated runner that keeps the m olten m aterial in the
liq u id state th ro ug h o ut the entire m olding process
• Tw o parting surfaces (I, II)
• A pplication: com pounds w ith a w id e m elting tem perature range and a fast
cycle sequence

Hot runner mold Function and application

• Tools w ith heated nozzles and/or m anifolds

• One or tw o parting surfaces (I, II)
• A pplication: technically sophisticated m olded parts, also suitable fo r
com pounds th a t are difficult to process
 Shrinkage and Cooling
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the change in volum e caused by cooling,
i. e. the crystallization o f the plastic material. A distinc­
tio n is made between processing shrinkage and post
shrinkage.
Shrinkage causes a difference in size between the tool
cavity and the produced plastic part.
If therm oplastics are processed, the finished part m ust
be measured 16 hours after its production. If th e rm o ­
set plastics are used, the finished part m ust be checked
between 24 and 168 hours after its production. W arm
storage causes a change in structure in crystalline plas­
tics, w hich also produces post shrinkage.

PS processing shrinkage in % Processing shrinkage

AS post shrinkage in %
S total shrinkage in %
l m olded part dim ension in mm
l1 to o l dim ension in mm
lPS m olded part dim ension after Size in tool
processing in mm
lxh m olded part dim ension after
x hours in mm

Examples for shrinkage due to cooling (cf. page 186)

Shrinkage Shrinkage Post shrinkage caused
Plastic material Plastic material
in % in % by warm demolding
Polyamide 1.3 Polypropylene 1.5
Polystyrene 0.45 PVC 0.6

Polyethylene 1.7 Polycarbonate 0.8

Cooling
A fter the injection, the pressure is reduced to 30 to 70%
o f the injection pressure, depending on the plastic
m aterial, and applied u ntil the gate solidifies. This
happens after app ro xim a tely 1/3 o f the co oling tim e.
The rem aining co oling tim e is required to ensure a
sufficient solidification o f the material to keep its shape.
During th is solidification period, the batch volum e fo r
the next injection is prepared. The assessment o f the
required cooling tim e is based on diagram s. Also, an
estim ate calculation is sufficiently accurate.

s m olded part thickness in m m Total cooling time

tc cooling tim e in sec.
tp post pressure tim e in sec.
trc rem aining cooling tim e in sec.
Estimate calculation o f the
ti injection tim e in sec.
cooling tim e:
• Tool tem perature ≤ 60°
Example: (140 °F)

The cooling tim e o f a th e rm o p la ­

stic part w ith a thickness o f 3 mm
and a to o l tem p era ture o f 50°C
(122°F) is to be calculated. • Tool tem perature > 60 °C
tc = s · (1 + 2 · s ) (140 °F)

tc = 3 · (1 + 2 · 3) = 21 sec.
 Batching, Forces
Batching
After injection and application o f the packing pressure,
new m olding com pound m ust be prepared fo r th e next
shot and m ade available in the appropriate am ount.
For the shot batching, the extruder is reset and gran­
ulate filled in. The rotation o f the reciprocating screw
generates a feed flow. The m aterial is w arm ed up,
compacted, sheared and hom ogenized in the heated
barrel around the reciprocating screw. The plasticized
compound is driven to the injection nozzle. The required
shot volume m ust com prise the molded part volume
and the sprue volume and make up fo r the difference in
density between the m olten material and th e solidified
part (e.g. factor 1.25).
During the holding phase, a packing cushion (holding
cushion) is required to com pensate fo r shrinkage and
prevent sink marks on the molded part.

Vi injection vo lu m e in cm 3 mi injection mass in g Injection volume

Vmp molded part vo lu m e in cm 3 mb batch mass in g
Vsp sprue vo lu m e in cm 3 Q density in g/cm 3
Vb batch vo lu m e in cm 3 Qi injection flo w rate in cm 3/s
Vc packing cushion in cm 3 Qb batch flo w rate in cm 3/m m Batch volume
Fd feed distance in mm ti injection tim e in sec.
n num ber o f cavities

Examples of setting values and the maximum flow path

Feed distance
Code Tem perature in °C Injection pressure Flow path
letters Mass Tool in bar length1) in m m
PE 160– 300 20– 70 500 200– 600
PP
170– 300 20– 100 1200 250– 700 Injection time

PVC 170– 210 20– 60 3002), 15003) 2503), 5002)

PS 180– 250 30– 60 1000 400v 500
PA 210– 290 80– 120 700– 1200 200– 500 Injection mass

ABS 200– 240 40– 85 800– 1800 300

1) m axim u m flo w path length at a w all thickness o f 2 m m 2) soft PVC 3) hard PVC

Forces
The injection pressure drives the com pound into the tool. The pressure force
is applied in the cavity and sprue perpendicular to the respective projected
area (parting surface) and produces the buoyant force Fb. A clam ping force
Fc that is higher than the buoyant force m ust apply to prevent leakage o f
the com pound. This force is applied mechanically, hydraulically or electro-
mechanically.

n n um ber o f cavities Projected area

Ap projected area in cm 3
A pc projected area o f a cavity in cm 2
A ps projected area o f the sprue in cm 2
pt inner to o l pressure in bar
Fb buoyant force in kN
Fc clam ping force in kN Buoyant force
φ safety factor

Example:

Polypropylene (PP), injection pressure

Pi = 1200 bar, 1 bar = 10 N/cm2 Clamping force
Projected area A p = 12.3 cm 2, φ = 1.3
Fb = pt A p = 1200 · 10 N/cm 2 · 12.3 cm 2
Fb = 147600 N = 147.6 kN
Fc ≥ Fb φ = 147.6 kN · 1.3 ≥ 191.9 kN
 Fusion welding, Welding processes (Overview)
Fusion w elding is the perm anent joining o f material by means o f locally lim ited fusion w ith the application of
• heat and/or
• metal fillers, such as electrodes, w elding wire, fo r the fillin g o f w eld joints
• auxiliary materials, such as shielding gas in order to im prove the w elding conditions and the weld properties.

Welding processes (selection)

Illustration Description Process, application
Gas welding (page 347)
Heat source Manual w eld in g ; fusion
Gas flam e o f oxygen and acetylene w elding o f unalloyed and
low -alloy steel tubes, repair
Preferred flam e adjustm ent: neutral flam e w ith an equal
portion o f oxygen and acetylene w elding on cast iron

Metal fillers
Bare w eld in g rods (page 347)

Manual arc welding (page 348)

Heat source Manual w elding; fusion
AC or DC arc between the consum able electrode and the w elding o f alloyed and
base metal unalloyed steels, fixed-
position w elding
Tem peratures in the fusion area: up to 4000°C (7232°F)
Metal fillers
Coated bar electrodes (page 348)

Gas-shielded welding
Gas-shielded metal welding (MIG-, MAG-welding) (page 346)
Heat source M anual or automated
DC or AC arc between the consum able electrode and the w elding, w ith w elding
workpiece robots fo r instance; high
w elding quality, high
Metal fillers
deposition efficiency
W ire electrodes (page 346), tu b u la r cored electrodes
MIG-welding:
Auxiliary material
A lu m in u m and alum inum
Shielding gases are selected in accordance w ith the base
alloys, copper and copper
metals to be w elded and determ ine the w elding method:
alloys, nickel and nickel
Use o f inert gases, such as argon or helium → metal alloys
inert gas (MIG) welding, no chemical reaction o f the gas
MAG-welding:
w ith the base metals
U nalloyed and alloyed
Use o f active shielding gases such as gases w ith a CO2
steels, also stainless Cr-Ni
or O2 portion → metal active gas (MAG) welding, gases
steels
have an oxidizing effect on the base metals

Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG-welding)

Heat source W elding process fo r high-
DC or AC arc between a non-consum able tungsten q uality joints, particularly
electrode and the base metal in com bination w ith thin
sheet metals; suitable for
Metal fillers
alm ost all m aterials, such
W elding rods are applied m anually under norm al
as alloyed and unalloyed
conditions
steels, also stainless Cr-Ni
Auxiliary material steels, non-ferrous metals,
Inert shielding gases, such as argon or helium → no titanium , tantalum and
chemical reaction o f the gas w ith the base metals zirconium

Plasma arc welding (PAW)

Heat source → see TIG-welding, bundled arc (plasma) W elding process fo r high-
w ith high pow er quality jo in ts w ith a thick­
ness between 0.01 and
Metal fillers → see TIG-welding
10 m m , build-up w elding,
Auxiliary material e. g. on valve seats; metals
Tw o kinds o f gas are needed fo r plasma welding: as w ith TIG-welding
– plasma gas: m ainly argon
– shielding gas: argon w ith m aterial-dependent co m po ­
nents such as hydrogen, helium etc.
 Welding processes, Positions, General tolerances
W elding, cutting, soldering and related processes cf. DIN EN ISO 4063 (2000-04)

N 1) M ethod, process N1) M ethod, process N 1) M ethod, process

24 flash butt w elding
1 Arc w e ld in g
upset w e ld in g
7 O ther w e ld in g m ethods
25
101 metal arc w elding 73 electrogas w eld in g
3 Gas w e ld in g
111 shielded m etal arc w elding 74 induction w eld in g
m etal arc w elding oxyacetylene w elding 75 lig h t beam w elding
11 311
w ith o u t shielding gas 753 infrared w eld in g
12 subm erged arc w eld in g gas w eld in g w ith oxygen/ 78 stud w elding
312
13 gas shielded metal arc w eld in g propane flam e 788 frictio n stud w eld in g
131 metal inert gas w eld in g (MIG)
4 Pressure w e ld in g 8 C utting
135 metal active gas welding (MAG)
flu x cored arc w elding 41 ultrasonic w eld in g 81 oxygen cutting
136 42 fric tio n w eld in g
w ith active gas shield 82 arc cutting
flu x cored arc w elding 45 diffusion w elding 83 plasma cutting
137
w ith inert gas shield 47 pressure gas w elding 84 laser beam cutting
14 tungsten gas shield. arc welding
5 Beam w e ld in g 9 Brazing, soldering
141 tungsten intert gas welding (TIG)
15 plasma arc w elding 51 electron beam w elding 91 brazing
151 plasma TIG w elding 52 laser beam w elding 912 torch brazing
electron beam 914 metal bath brazing
2 Resistance w e ld in g 512
w elding, nonvacuum 924 vacuum brazing
21 resistance spot welding solid-state laser beam 94 soldering
521
22 seam w elding in atm osphere 944 metal bath soldering
225 foil butt seam w elding 946 induction soldering
522 gas laser beam w elding
23 p rojection w elding 952 iron soldering

=> Process ISO 4063–111: Specified w eld in g process => manual arc w eld in g (111)

1) N Reference num ber fo r designating m ethods and processes in draw ings, operating procedures and data p ro ­
cessing

Welding positions cf. DIN EN ISO 6947 (1997-05)

Code Name M ain position, description

w eld axis vertical, horizontal work, final pass

PA fla t w eld in g position at to p
PB horizontal position horizontal w ork, final pass at to p
w eld axis horizontal, horizontal w ork
PC transverse position
direction
horizontal horizontal w o rk direction, overhead,
PD
overhead position final pass at bottom
horizontal w o rk direction, w eld axis vertical,
PE overhead position final pass at bottom
PF vertical up position upw ard w o rk direction
PG vertic. dow n position dow n w a rd w o rk direction

General tolerances for w eldm ents cf. DIN EN ISO 13920 (1996-11)

Degree Allow able deviations

o f accuracy fo r length dim ensions fo r angle dim ensions
Δ l in m m Δ α in ° and'
n om inal size range l 1) nom inal size range l1)
to over over over over over over
30 30 120 400 1000 2000 400
to to to to to to to over
120 400 1000 2000 4000 400 1000 1000
A ±1 ±1 ±1 ±2 ± 3 ± 4 ±20' ±15' ±10'
B ±1 ±2 ±2 ±3 ± 4 ± 6 ±45' ±30' ±20'
C ±1 ±3 ±4 ±6 ± 8 ±11 ±1° ±45' ±30'
1) l shorter leg D ±1 ±4 ±7 ±9 ±12 ±16 ±1°30' ±1°15' ±1°
 Weld preparation, Compressed gas cylinders
W eld for gas, gas-shielded and arc welding cf. DIN EN ISO 9692-1 (2004-05)

Thickness Weld preparation Recom m en­

Shape o f the Name,
t D 1) gap b w eb c angle ded w elding Remarks
jo in t w eld sym bol
mm mm mm α m ethod2)

0–4 s ≈ t – – 3, 111, 141

Little fille r
material,
0–8 d ≈ t/2 – – 111, 141
no weld
preparation
0–8 d ≈ t/2 – – 13

3 –10 s ≤4 ≤2 40°– 60° 3 –

W ith backing
3 – 40 d ≤3 ≤2 ≈ 60° 111, 141
run
W ith backing
3 – 40 d ≤3 ≤2 40°– 60° 13
run
111, 13,
5 – 40 s 1– 4 2– 4 ≈ 60° –
141
W ith root and
> 10 d 1– 3 2–4 ≈ 60° 111, 141
backing run
W ith root and
> 10 d 1– 3 2– 4 40°– 60° 13
backing run

111, 13,
3 –10 s 2– 4 1– 2 35°– 60° –
141

W ith backing
3 – 30 d 1– 4 ≤2 35°– 60° 111, 141
run

3, 111,
>2 s ≤2 – 70°– 100° T-joint
13, 141

1) D Design o f the w eld: s single-V w eld ; d double-V w eld

2) For w eld in g m ethods, see page 344

Compressed gas cylinders cf. DIN EN 1089-3 (2004-06)

Color co din g 1) Volum e Filling Filling
Type o f gas as per DIN EN 1089-3 p revi­ Connection V pressure p F quantity
body shoulder ous threads l bar
40 150 6 m3
Oxygen blue w hite blue R3/4
50 200 10 m 3
chestnut- chestnut- 40 19 8 kg
Acetylene ye llo w Quick connect
brown brown 50 19 10 kg
10 200 2 m3
H ydrogen red red red W21.80×1/14
50 200 10 m 3
dark- 10 200 2 m3
A rgon gray gray W21.80×1/14
green 50 200 10 m 3
10 200 2 m3
Helium gray brow n gray W21.80×1/14
50 200 10 m 3
Argon-carbon fluorescent 20 200 4 m3
gray gray W 2 1.80×1/14
dioxide mixture green 50 200 10 m 3
10 58 7.5 kg
Carbon dioxide gray gray gray W21.80×1/14
50 58 20 kg
dark- 40 150 6 m3
N itrogen gray black W24.32× 1/14
green 50 200 10 m 3

1) Changeover to the new color coding should be completed by July 1, 2006. During the transition
period the hazardous substance label (page 352) is the only legally valid designation.
 Gas-shielded welding
The quality o f gas-shielded w elds and the w eld in g conditions are influenced by the selection o f the w ire electrode,
the shielding gas and the arc adjustment.

Gas-shielded welding w ith

consumable w ire electrode

Arc types, arc adjustment1)

A rc type A pplication, e. g. Arc type Application, e. g.
Fixed-position and root w elding, low High deposition efficiency, larger sheet
S hort arc w elding power, th in sheet metal Spray arc metal thicknesses, higher w eld in g
w elding, MIG- and M AG-welding speed, MIG- and M AG -w elding
M edium w elding power, m edium sheet For all pow er ranges o f MIG- and
Transfer arc Pulsed arc
metal thicknesses, M AG-welding M AG-welding
1) The adjustm ent o f the arc depends on • th e sheet metal thickness • the w e ld in g position
• th e shielding gas type • the w e ld in g perform ance

M AG -w elding of unalloyed and low -alloy steels

Designation of wire electrodes and weld metal for cf. DIN EN ISO 14341 (2008-08)
MAG-welding of unalloyed steels and fine-grain structural steel replaces DIN EN 440
The strength and toughness o f the w eld metal are influenced by the electrode material and shielding gas. The
designation o f the w eld metal therefore gives inform ation about the strength, toughness, shielding gas and electrode
material. Classification in tw o groups:
• W eld metal w ith a guaranteed yield strength Re and a notch impact energy of 47 J (ISO 14341-A)
• Weld metal w ith a guaranteed tensile strength Rm and a notch impact energy of 27 J (ISO 14341-B)
Designation example (weld metal w ith guaranteed y ield strength and notch im pact energy o f 47 J):

1)The code letters M, A and C refer to the shielding gases that ensure com pliance w ith the tem perature lim its
specified fo r the notch im pact energy o f 47 J.
Wire electrodes for unalloyed steels and fine-grain structural steels (selection) cf. DIN EN ISO 14341 (2008-08)
M in im u m yield
W eld metal/ t 1) Shielding Suitable fo r
strength Arc Properties, application
w ire electrode in °C gas2) steels
Re in N /m m 2
G 42 3 C G3Si1 – 30 C1 S hort arc
420 Short arc, S235– S355 Low-spatter material transfer
G 4 2 4 M G3Si1 – 40 M21
spray arc w ith short and spray arcs,
G 46 3 C G4Si1 – 30 C1 S hort arc versatile range o f application in
460 S235– S460 m anufacturing and repair
Short arc,
G 4 6 4 M G4Si1 – 40 M21
spray arc
1) Temperature lim it fo r the notch im pact resistance o f 47 J
2) Shielding gases th a t ensure com pliance w ith the required m echanical properties, types on page 347.