Solar at Scale Guidebook V3

SOLAR@SCALE
A Local Government Guidebook

for Improving Large-Scale
Solar Development Outcomes
Third Edition
Solar@Scale: A Local Government Guidebook for Improving Large-Scale Solar Development Outcomes
About Solar@Scale
American Planning Association

Creating Great Communities for All
Solar@Scale is a partnership between ICMA advances professional local APA is an independent, not-for-
the International City/County Man- government management world- profit educational organization that
agement Association (ICMA) and the wide through leadership, manage- provides vital leadership in creating
American Planning Association (APA) ment, innovation, and ethics. ICMA great communities for all. APA and
that aims to help cities, towns, coun- provides member support; publi- its professional institute, the Amer-
ties, and special districts understand cations; data and information; peer ican Institute of Certified Planners
and realize the potential benefits and results-oriented assistance; and (AICP), are dedicated to advancing
of large-scale solar development. training and professional develop- the profession of planning, offering
For additional information about ment to more than 12,000 city, town, better choices for where and how
Solar@Scale visit icma.org/pro- and county experts and other indi- people work and live. Learn more at
grams-and-projects/solarscale. viduals and organizations throughout planning.org.
the world.
Credits: cover: AgriSolar Clearinghouse/Flickr; page 10: JasonDoiy/iStock/Getty Images Plus; page 27:
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Third edition © December 2023 Solar@Scale. All rights reserved. Solar@Scale is funded by the U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy
Technologies Office.
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Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE) under award number DE-EE0009000.
Alexsandra Gomez and David Morley, aicp, from the American Planning Association served as the primary authors.
Gabriel Rusk, PMP, and Scott Annis from ICMA provided key programmatic support throughout the development of
the guidebook. We are grateful to the many individuals who contributed to or supported our work by participating in
interviews, sharing documents, and reviewing portions of the manuscript.
Special thanks go to Darren Coffey; Sarah Mills, phd; Geoffrey Toy, jd; and Darcie White, aicp, for their thoughtful com-
ments on the entire manuscript, and to all who served on the Solar@Scale Advisory Committee:
• Cameran Bailey, NEOO Partners

• Jessica Bacher, Pace University Land Use Law Center
• Daniel Brookshire, Southern Environmental Law Center
• Paula Daneluk, Butte County, California
• Sarah R. Davis, S.R.D. Consulting, LLC
• Megan Day, National Renewable Energy Laboratory
• Christy Eichorn, Sun Daisy Enterprises, LLC
• Bret Glendening, City of Osawatomie, Kansas
• Nancy Hess, Rhode Island Division of Statewide Planning
• Josh Hohn, Tetra Tech
• Martha Juarez, GRID Alternatives
• Steve Kalland, North Carolina Clean Energy Technology Center
• Paula Lancaster, wpd AG
• Chad Laurent, Cadmus Group
• Jack Morgan, National Association of Development Organizations
• Charlie Nichols, Linn County, Iowa
• Nick Kasza, ManTech
• Debra Perry, ICMA
• Brian Ross, Great Plains Institute
• Cody Smith, Iowa Environmental Council
• Lora Strine, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
• Justin Vandenbroeck, ESA Solar
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Disclaimer
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither
the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of its employees, makes any warranty, express or im-
plied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information,
apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Refer-
ence herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or oth-
erwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States
Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or
reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof, the International City/County Management
Association, the American Planning Association, or any of the organizations and individuals that offered comments
during the development of this document. The authors alone are responsible for the contents of this report.
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Introduction and priorities in the United States, the guidebook avoids

a “one-size-fits-all” approach. Rather, users will need to
The purpose of this guidebook is to help local gov- apply the guidebook’s key points to the social, political,
ernment practitioners—including planners, economic environmental, and economic situations in their com-
development professionals, local government managers, munity or the communities they serve.
and elected and appointed officials—make decisions A note on terminology: In the context of this guide-
that improve large-scale solar development outcomes. book, “local government officials” (or “local officials”)
Given the variation between state and regional contexts means local government staff members as well as
Module 6: Hosting Module 7: Assisting Additional

Module 8: Maximizing
Large-Scale Solar Large-Scale Solar
Success Opportunities
Development Projects Development
to Act
Module 3: Community
Module 4: Zoning for
Module 5: Improving Widespread
Planning for Large- Land-Use Decision-
Scale Solar Large-Scale Solar
Making for Large-Scale Opportunities
Development
Development Solar Development to Act
Module 1: Defining Large-Scale Solar Module 2: Understanding the Market Foundational

Development for Large-Scale Solar Development Concepts
Figure A. Overview of guidebook
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elected and appointed officials. Similarly, “planning

officials” means planning department staff, appointed
officials serving on local planning and zoning boards, and
elected officials responsible for adopting plans and reg-
ulations. And the terms “cities, towns, and counties” and
“local jurisdictions” both serve as stand-ins for all gener-
al-purpose local governments.
This guidebook contains eight related, but semi-in-
dependent, modules (see Figure A). Modules 1 and 2
provide a broad overview of foundational concepts re-
lated to large-scale solar development. Modules 3, 4, and
5 examine how local government practitioners can use
plans, zoning regulations, and land-use decision-making
processes to maximize the local benefits and minimize
the tradeoffs associated with community- and utili-
ty-scale solar projects. Finally, Modules 6, 7, and 8 briefly
explore other actions practitioners can take to support
large-scale solar development. Each module concludes
with key takeaways and a list of references and links to
supplemental resources.
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Table of Contents
Module 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development............................................................10
Understanding the Basics of Solar Development..................................................................................................11
Putting Scale in Context..................................................................................................................................................13
Understanding the Benefits of Solar Development..............................................................................................15
Understanding the Tradeoffs of Solar Development............................................................................................17
Key Takeaways....................................................................................................................................................................21
References and Resources..............................................................................................................................................22
Module 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development........................26

Identifying Solar Development Trends......................................................................................................................27
Identifying Influences on Local Demand..................................................................................................................31
Identifying Authorities Having Jurisdiction.............................................................................................................36
Key Takeaways....................................................................................................................................................................39
Module 3. Community Planning for Large-Scale Solar Development.................................49

Deciding to Make or Update a Plan............................................................................................................................51
Fostering Authentic Public Participation..................................................................................................................55
Assessing Current Conditions and Trends................................................................................................................58
Setting Goals and Objectives........................................................................................................................................61
Selecting Strategies..........................................................................................................................................................63
Key Takeaways....................................................................................................................................................................67
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Module 4. Zoning for Large-Scale Solar Development.........................................................71

Defining Key Terms...........................................................................................................................................................73
Specifying Permissible Uses..........................................................................................................................................76
Establishing Development Standards........................................................................................................................78
Establishing Procedural Standards..............................................................................................................................83
Establishing Development Charges...........................................................................................................................84
Offering Development Incentives...............................................................................................................................85
Key Takeaways....................................................................................................................................................................87
Module 5. Improving Land-Use Decision-Making for Large-Scale Solar Development.....91

Improving Applicant Submissions..............................................................................................................................92
Reviewing Proposed Projects........................................................................................................................................94
Negotiating Community Benefits................................................................................................................................96
Conducting Public Hearings..........................................................................................................................................98
Inspecting Approved Projects................................................................................................................................... 101
Key Takeaways................................................................................................................................................................. 103
References and Resources........................................................................................................................................... 104
Module 6. Hosting Large-Scale Solar Development Projects.............................................107

Identifying Project Goals.............................................................................................................................................. 108
Selecting Potential Sites............................................................................................................................................... 111
Selecting Development Partners.............................................................................................................................. 113
Key Takeaways................................................................................................................................................................. 118
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Module 7. Assisting Large-Scale Solar Development..........................................................121

Providing Technical Assistance.................................................................................................................................. 122
Providing Financial Assistance................................................................................................................................... 125
Key Takeaways................................................................................................................................................................. 130
Module 8. Maximizing Success..............................................................................................138

Monitoring and Evaluating Performance.............................................................................................................. 139
Aligning Land-Use and Utility Plans........................................................................................................................ 142
Enhancing Resilience.................................................................................................................................................... 145
Preparing for Innovation.............................................................................................................................................. 147
Key Takeaways................................................................................................................................................................. 150
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MODULE 1
DEFINING LARGE-SCALE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
E very community across the U.S. has access to an affordable and abundant
source of energy in the form of radiant light and heat from the sun. While
small rooftop solar energy systems are common in many cities, towns, and
M2 Large-Scale Solar
Development
counties across the country, comparatively few local jurisdictions have had any
Community
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar direct experience with large-scale solar energy facilities.
Development
Zoning for
As demand for solar power increases, many local Solar Technologies
Development government officials want to help the communities they Solar technologies convert sunlight into a practical form
serve capture the benefits of new large-scale solar proj- of energy, most commonly electricity or heat. Passive
Improving ects. Furthermore, because these projects represent a technologies use site design and nonmechanical building
M5 Land-Use new land use in many jurisdictions, many local officials materials to capture or direct light and heat. In contrast,
Decision-Making
are curious about the tradeoffs associated with large- active solar technologies use electrical or mechanical
Hosting scale solar development. equipment to convert solar irradiance to electricity or
M6 Large-Scale Solar This module aims to demystify the concept of large- heat, or to transport newly converted energy. The three
Development scale solar development by unpacking the foundational
Projects
most common forms of active solar technologies are
characteristics of large-scale solar energy facilities and solar thermal systems, concentrating solar power systems
Assisting their development, highlighting how project context (CSP), and photovoltaic (PV) systems.
M7 Large-Scale Solar affects perceptions of project scale, and summarizing the Solar thermal systems use energy from the sun to
Development
most significant potential benefits and tradeoffs of large- heat a fluid, such as water or antifreeze, and provide hot
scale solar projects for local jurisdictions. water or space heating and cooling needs for residential,
Maximizing
M8 Success
commercial, or industrial facilities (Figure 1-1). While this
Understanding the Basics of Solar Development technology is highly scalable, solar thermal systems can-
For the purposes of this guidebook, solar development not effectively transfer heat over long distances.
refers to the installation of a solar energy system on real CSP systems use mirrors to focus light to heat a con-
property to convert sunlight to heat or electricity. The tained substance, such as molten salts or water, which then
three foundational characteristics of each system are the generates electricity using steam-powered turbines (Fig-
technology it uses, its relationship to the power grid, and ure 1-2). Unlike solar thermal and PV systems, CSP systems
its relationship to a site. typically require at least 100 acres to produce power at an
11 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

economically viable scale. Furthermore, few U.S. regions

Defining
outside the Southwest receive enough direct solar radia-
tion to efficiently produce electricity from CSP technology.
Development
PV systems convert the sun’s energy directly into elec-
Understanding
the Market for
tricity (Figure 1-3). PV technology is useful at virtually any
M2 Large-Scale Solar scale. Applications range from pocket-sized solar-pow-
Development ered devices to massive solar power plants that span
Community thousands of acres. The fundamental building blocks of
Planning for
PV systems are cells, panels or modules, and arrays. PV
Development
arrays are composed of multiple panels or modules, each
of which contains dozens of cells.
Zoning for Almost all new large-scale solar development projects
use PV systems. And a rapidly growing percentage of
Development
these projects combine PV and energy storage systems
Improving to store excess energy for later use and to enhance grid
M5 Land-Use stability (Berkeley Lab 2023; Hays and Hoff 2020; see
Decision-Making Module 8). Figure 1-1. Components of a solar thermal system (Source:
Hosting
U.S. Energy Information Administration)
Large-Scale Solar Relationship to the Grid
M6 Development Some PV systems connect to the local electrical grid,
Projects while others provide power exclusively to on-site or near-
Assisting by uses. Grid-connected systems may be “behind” or “in
M7 Large-Scale Solar front of” the meter:
Development
• Behind-the-meter systems connect on the customer
Maximizing side of the electric meter and provide electricity to
M8 Success on-site or nearby uses and feed excess power to the
grid.
• In-front-of-the-meter systems connect to the local
electricity distribution or transmission network on the
utility (or supply) side of the electric meter.
Figure 1-2. Components of a concentrating solar power (CSP)
system (Source: U.S. Department of Energy)

Transmission networks use high-voltage power lines

Defining
to carry electricity long distances. In contrast, distribu-
Development tion networks use lower-voltage power lines to deliver
electricity over shorter distances to utility customers.
Understanding
the Market for Substations connect and can transform voltage between
M2 Large-Scale Solar transmission lines and between transmission and distri-
Development bution networks. PV systems with a maximum generating
Community capacity of five megawatts (MW) or less typically connect
Planning for
to the distribution network. Systems larger than this often
Development connect to the transmission network and may include a
new, onsite collector substation (IFC Inc. 2019).
Zoning for Most large-scale solar development projects connect
in front of the meter. However, some large systems pro-
Development Figure 1-3. Components of a photovoltaic (PV) system
vide power directly to large loads, such as universities or (Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
Improving factories. These systems may be behind the meter or not
M5 Land-Use connected to the grid at all.
Decision-Making
subordinate to a principal use, or other uses, on the same
Hosting
Relationship to the Site parcel of land.
Large-Scale Solar Property owners or solar developers can mount PV and Most large-scale solar development projects use
M6 Development solar thermal systems on new or existing rooftops (or ground-mounted systems and are the principal use of
Projects shading structures); incorporate PV or thermal cells into the development site. However, large-footprint commer-
Assisting building materials such as roof tiles, wall cladding, and cial and industrial buildings—such as shopping centers,
M7 Large-Scale Solar even glass; or attach PV arrays, solar thermal panels, or factories, warehouses, and even parking lot shade cano-
Development CSP collectors to dedicated mounting structures con- pies—can be good hosts for large rooftop systems.
nected to the ground.
Maximizing Rooftop and building-integrated solar systems are Putting Scale in Context
M8 Success additions to a structure that serves another purpose or, There is no universally accepted threshold for what
in the case of solar carports or other purpose-built solar counts as “large-scale” solar development. Solar industry
shade structures, are new dual-purpose structures. These experts typically draw distinctions based on the rated
systems are typically less noticeable and functionally capacity of a system. For example, the U.S. Energy In-
subordinate to one or more other uses on the same site. formation Administration considers systems with rated
In contrast, a ground-mounted system occupies land capacities of at least one MW—which, according to the
not covered or shaded by other structures. It may also be Solar Energy Industry Association, can power 100–250

Defining
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Figure 1-4. Community-scale and utility-scale solar facilities
Zoning for
homes—to be large, while the National Renewable Furthermore, what is exceptionally large in one context
Development
Energy Laboratory typically uses five MW as the cutoff for may be unremarkable in another. Perceptions of what
Improving large systems. constitutes a “large-scale” solar facility can vary based on
M5 Land-Use For local jurisdictions, the amount of space required the land use and development pattern of the surround-
Decision-Making to host a facility is typically more relevant than the sys- ing area. Given the wide potential size range of these
Hosting tem’s rated capacity. Because rated capacity depends on projects, this guidebook subdivides large-scale solar de-
Large-Scale Solar system efficiency and site conditions, it doesn’t translate velopment into two classes: community-scale solar and
M6 Development neatly to spatial requirements. utility-scale solar (Figure 1-4; Table 1-1).
Projects
Assisting Table 1-1. Community-Scale vs. Utility-Scale Solar

Development Characteristics Community-Scale Solar Utility-Scale Solar
Relationship to the Grid Connects to the distribution network either Typically connects to the transmission
Maximizing behind or in front of the meter network in front of the meter
M8 Success Relationship to the Site Typically ground mounted and the principal Ground mounted and typically the principal
land use, but can be sited on large rooftops land use
Relationship to Existing Land Use Fits into the established lot or block pattern May span multiple existing lots or require
and Development Pattern of the surrounding area new roads for site access
Site Area 1–20 acres >20 acres
Rated Capacity 250 kW–5 MW >5 MW
Rated Capacity 250 kW–5 MW >5 MW

Community-Scale Solar Utility-scale solar projects are typically located near the
Defining
For the purposes of this guidebook, a community-scale transmission network. Greater economies of scale mean
Development solar facility is one that fits into the established lot or block these facilities are more cost efficient to construct (per
pattern of the local jurisdiction and connects to the elec- MW) than community-scale projects, even after factoring
Understanding
the Market for tricity distribution network. This means a developer could in the higher costs developers typically pay to connect to
M2 Large-Scale Solar site the facility in multiple areas of the jurisdiction without the transmission network (Gorman, Mills, and Wiser 2019).
Development having to combine lots or remove streets. Most communi-
Community ty-scale solar energy systems require one to 20 acres and Understanding the Benefits of
M3 Planning for have rated capacities between 250 kW and five MW. Solar Development
Large-Scale Solar Large-scale solar development confers a mix of benefits.
Development Community-scale solar is a broader concept than
community, or shared, solar. Shared solar projects allow Some of these benefits accrue to individuals, while others
Zoning for multiple local participants to purchase ownership shares accrue to specific communities or whole societies. As
or a percentage of the power produced by a solar facil- trustees of the public good, local officials are primarily
Development
ity. Utilities, third-party suppliers of wholesale power to interested in maximizing collective benefits to the com-
Improving utilities, special-purpose businesses, or nonprofits can all munities they serve.
M5 Land-Use develop (or “own”) shared solar energy systems. In con- There are at least four distinct types of benefits that
Decision-Making trast, the concept of community-scale solar is not tied to large-scale solar development can, given the right cir-
a specific ownership or business model and may connect cumstances, confer on local community members or host
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar to the grid in front of the meter. communities: expanded access to clean energy, econom-
M6 Development ic development, direct payments to local jurisdictions or
Projects Utility-Scale Solar community members, and environmental improvements.
Assisting For the purposes of this guidebook, a utility-scale solar Each potential benefit depends, in part, on the siting,
M7 Large-Scale Solar facility typically connects to the electricity transmission design, and business model of a solar project.
Development network. Most utility-scale solar energy systems require
more than 20 acres and have rated capacities of more Clean Energy
Maximizing than five MW. “Solar farm” is a common, but outdated, Large-scale solar facilities produce electricity without
M8 Success term for utility-scale solar facilities. generating air pollution or greenhouse gas emissions—
Local government officials should base the threshold for which damage environmental and public health—mak-
distinguishing between community-scale and utility-scale ing these facilities sources of clean energy. Consequently,
facilities on local conditions. Some states have special replacing fossil fuel power plants with new solar facilities
siting requirements for projects over a certain size (see has both local and global benefits. The local clean energy
Module 2, Table 2-9). This threshold may be useful in deter- benefits are clearest when a facility produces power for
mining an appropriate local definition of utility-scale solar. the local utility or sells power directly to local utility

customers. This is because solar power is the cheapest solar projects employ site managers, whose positions can
Defining
form of energy in many markets and can, therefore, help last throughout the facility’s life. In some states where
Development lower electricity bills. there is enough local activity for large-scale solar devel-
For some jurisdictions, solar power produced and sold opment, there can be permanent jobs for inspectors and
Understanding
the Market for locally also helps fulfill a commitment to transition to clean maintenance workers. Often, remotely monitored facili-
M2 Large-Scale Solar energy (see Module 2). Because a facility sited in one com- ties have agreements with local electricians and mainte-
Development munity may sell power to a utility or customers in another nance crews that can be deployed as needed.
Community community, the business model of the facility ultimately Local officials can maximize local economic develop-
Planning for
determines who claims credit for the clean energy. ment through policies or actions that
Development Local officials can maximize local clean energy benefits
through policies or actions that • make it easier for large-scale solar projects to locate in
Zoning for the community;
M4 Large-Scale Solar • make it easier for projects owned by or selling power • encourage solar developers to hire and train local
Development
to the local utility to locate in the community; workers; and
Improving
• encourage shared solar projects that sell ownership • encourage large-scale solar projects as a redevelop-
M5 Land-Use shares or subscriptions to local utility customers; and ment strategy for previously developed, but currently
Decision-Making • make it easier for the local government, or other large vacant or underutilized, brownfield or grayfield sites.
utility customers, to acquire power from locally sited
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar facilities. Direct Payments
M6 Development Most large-scale development projects provide some
Projects Economic Development type of direct payment to the local jurisdiction or to
Assisting
Large-scale solar development generates local economic community members affected by the project. These
M7 Large-Scale Solar activity and can improve the health of the local economy. payments can include tax revenue, land rents, or other
Development Construction activities often lead to increased spending project-specific income.
at local businesses for food, housing, or entertainment. Large-scale solar development projects often generate
Maximizing The number of workers and time required for construc- a net increase in tax revenue for local jurisdictions. This
M8 Success tion typically increase with project size. Generally, large- is because solar projects typically produce more in tax
scale projects will have between a few dozen and a few revenue than they consume in local services. Howev-
hundred workers on site during the period of active er, actual revenue potential depends on the size of the
construction, which can range from a few months to a project, existing or potential alternative land uses, and the
few years (Lumby 2015; SEIA 2021a; YSG Solar 2020). treatment of large-scale solar energy systems under state
If a local jurisdiction hosts multiple solar projects, this and local tax laws (Brookshire et al. 2020; Blumenstein and
can create a modest number of permanent jobs. Some Schlusser 2019; DeBoer 2023; Haggerty, Haggerty, and

Rasker 2014; Loomis 2020; Magnum, Zorn and Arel 2020). solar projects to improve environmental conditions and
Defining
Many states exempt or abate a portion of the property enhance ecological functions (NREL 2022; Randle-Boggis
Development taxes for solar equipment or sites, or they authorize local et al. 2020; Ross 2020).
governments to do so (see Module 7, Table 7-3). For proj- Large-scale solar facilities that establish new native,
Understanding
the Market for ects where tax revenue is insufficient to offset collective pollinator-friendly, groundcover can improve water qual-
M2 Large-Scale Solar project impacts, local jurisdictions may be able to collect ity by minimizing water use for irrigation and capturing
Development a payment in lieu of taxes (PILOT) or a host community and filtering more runoff onsite (Samuelsen 2021). If de-
Community payment (if permissible under state law). velopers minimize soil compaction during construction,
Planning for
Additionally, solar developers typically lease, rather these facilities can also improve soil quality by giving a
Development than purchase, land for their projects. Consequently, chance for overworked agricultural lands to rest and re-
farmers or other local property owners who host projects build nutrients. Similarly, dual-use facilities that combine
Zoning for can collect lease payments to supplement their income solar energy systems with animal grazing can also help
(USDOE SETO 2021). This includes local governments regenerate the soil (ACGI 2021).
Development
that own sites that would be suitable for large-scale solar Facilities with pollinator-friendly groundcover also
Improving development (see Module 6). provide habitat for native birds and insects. When sited
M5 Land-Use Local officials can maximize direct payments through near pollinator-dependent crops, these facilities can help
Decision-Making policies or actions that increase crop yields (Siegner et al. 2019). And in hotter,
Hosting drier areas, dual-use facilities that use solar arrays to shade
Large-Scale Solar • make it easier for large-scale solar projects to locate in row crops can also improve crop yields (AGCI 2021).
M6 Development the community; Local officials can maximize environmental improve-
Projects • encourage or require PILOT or host-community ments through policies or actions that
Assisting agreements for projects subject to tax exemptions or
M7 Large-Scale Solar abatements; and • encourage or require large-scale solar projects to
Development • encourage solar developers to negotiate benefits incorporate native, pollinator-friendly, groundcov-
agreements with community-based organizations or er; and
Maximizing individual community members. • encourage solar developers to combine solar en-
M8 Success ergy systems with animal grazing or row crops.
Environmental Improvements
In many rural jurisdictions, the most suitable sites for Understanding the Tradeoffs of
large-scale solar development are often lands currently Solar Development
or recently in agricultural use. However, because conven- While the local benefits of large-scale solar development
tional farming practices can often degrade soil and water can be substantial, capturing these benefits often in-
quality, there may be opportunities for carefully designed volves local tradeoffs. However, as with other

development projects, the magnitude and extent of including capped landfills or other brownfields and
Defining
these tradeoffs depends on project location and design. vacant or underutilized parking lots or other gray-
fields;
Development The potential tradeoffs most likely to trigger local op-
position include changes to local agricultural or other • require a decommissioning plan and financial security
Understanding
the Market for productive lands; effects on the natural environment or for all new large-scale solar development; and
M2 Large-Scale Solar historic or cultural resources; or changes to existing views • discourage or prohibit large-scale solar development
Development or community identity. on locally significant agricultural soils.
Community
M3 Planning for Changes to Agricultural or Other Productive Land Effects on the Environment
Large-Scale Solar As alluded to above, solar developers are often attracted Large-scale solar development has the potential to
Development
to productive lands currently or recently in use as farms disturb wildlands or habitat, which can harm wildlife and
Zoning for or pasture due to their contiguous nature, limited poten- impair ecological processes (EPRI 2020; Patton et al. 2013).
M4 Large-Scale Solar tial for shading, and proximity to existing transmission To prepare land for solar installation, developers may
Development
infrastructure. These sites can also be less expensive to need to grade the site and remove ground cover. They
Improving
develop than other options because they are typically may also need to remove trees to reduce shading and
M5 Land-Use large parcels with flat, tilled land or are otherwise nearly increase or protect access to the solar resource. Finally,
Decision-Making ready for solar installations. solar facilities are typically enclosed by fences, which can
While farmland conversion for low-density residen- limit or prevent wildlife migration.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar tial development is far more common, large-scale solar Local officials can minimize or mitigate effects on the
M6 Development development that replaces existing productive land uses environment through policies and actions that
Projects can lead to a long-term, or even permanent, loss of farm-
land (Hunter et al. 2022). However, solar development • encourage or require the maintenance of vegetated
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar can complement or supplement existing productive land buffers along streams or wetlands within or adjacent
Development uses, instead of replacing them. to project sites;
Local officials can minimize or mitigate changes to ex- • encourage or require native ground cover or pollina-
Maximizing isting productive lands through policies and actions that tor-friendly landscaping;
M8 Success • discourage or prohibit removing existing trees;
• encourage large-scale solar development on current- • encourage or require fencing that wildlife can maneu-
ly underutilized or less-productive land; ver through; and
• encourage the colocation of PV systems and agricul- • discourage or prohibit projects on sites with doc-
tural activities; umented high levels of biodiversity and ecological
• encourage large-scale solar development as a rede- connectivity.
velopment strategy for previously developed sites,

Effects on Historic or Cultural Sites Changes to Existing Views

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar When large-scale solar projects disturb or occupy historic Ground-mounted PV systems consist of dark glass arrays
Development or otherwise culturally significant sites, they can damage and metal mounting hardware (Figure 1-5). Since these
or destroy historic and cultural resources. Visible solar systems are relatively low to the ground, the change to
Understanding
the Market for energy systems may detract from valued landscapes, such existing views will primarily, and most significantly, affect
M2 Large-Scale Solar as historic battlefields or lands traditionally stewarded by those on adjacent properties. In some instances, solar
Development Native Americans (American Battlefield Trust 2020a; Patton installations might also impact views of nearby scenic
Community et al. 2013). Construction and maintenance activities for corridors or preserved natural features.
Planning for
solar projects can bring unwanted or uninformed visitors Nearby property owners with concerns about chang-
Development to revered or fragile sites. And after construction, fenced-in ing views often ask whether proximity to a proposed
facilities may preclude traditional use of these lands. large-scale solar project will lower their property values
Zoning for Local officials can minimize or mitigate effects on his- (Donaldson 2018). Studies that explore the effects of
toric or cultural sites through policies and actions that large-scale solar facilities on property values have mixed
Development
findings but suggest that any positive or negative effect
Improving • encourage or require screening to minimize the visual on property values is limited in magnitude and geo-
M5 Land-Use appearance of large-scale solar facilities from signifi- graphic extent (ASFMRA 2021; Elmallah et al. 2023; Guar
Decision-Making cant vantage points; and Lang 2020; Al-Hamoodah et al. 2018).
• encourage or require construction practices that min- Local officials can minimize or mitigate changes to
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar imize land disturbance and noise on or near histori- existing views through policies and actions that
M6 Development cally or culturally significant sites;
Projects • encourage or require developers to hire field mon- • encourage large-scale solar development in areas
Assisting itors to ensure mitigation practices are sustained that have not been designated as visually significant;
M7 Large-Scale Solar throughout construction and maintenance; and • encourage large-scale solar development on previ-
Development • discourage or prohibit projects on sites of historic or ously developed sites; and
cultural significance. • encourage or require landscaped buffers or screens
Maximizing that shield the view of systems from nearby residenc-
M8 Success Because historic and cultural resources may hold differ- es or designated scenic highways.
ent levels of meaning, local officials should consult with
state and local historic preservation offices, tribal author-
ities, community-based organizations, developers, and
other relevant stakeholders, as necessary, to determine
appropriate approaches.

Defining
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Figure 1-5. PV arrays at the Sunnyside Ranch shared solar facility, adjacent to the former Carbondale, Colorado, landfill (Photo
Decision-Making
by Dennis Schroeder, NREL 60071)
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Changes to Existing Identity
M6 Development
Local officials can minimize or mitigate anxiety about
Projects People often form attachment to the place where they changes to existing identity through policies and ac-
live based on their perceptions of various physical, eco- tions that
Assisting nomic, and social conditions of the community. An over-
arching effect of each of the potential tradeoffs above • establish a shared vision for large-scale solar develop-
Development
is that large-scale solar development can challenge the ment across the community;
perceived identify of a community (Carlisle et al. 2014; • encourage or require solar developers to engage the
Maximizing
M8 Success
Carlisle et al. 2016; Crawford, Bessette, and Mills 2022; community before finalizing project designs;
Susskind et al. 2022). • improve understanding of large-scale solar project
Large-scale solar projects can require extensive changes benefits and tradeoffs across the community; and
to the visible landscape and, for some community mem- • encourage or require projects to incorporate features
bers, may signify broader economic and social changes. valued by the community, such as visual buffers, co-
For some residents, these changes may enhance or posi- location with agricultural activities, pollinator-friendly
tively reinforce their sense of place. For others, large-scale groundcover, habitat or wetland restoration, or native
solar development may have the opposite effect. grassland carbon sequestration.

Defining Key Takeaways

Development
• Almost all new large-scale solar development projects use PV systems.
Understanding • PV systems with a maximum generating capacity of five megawatts (MW) or less typically connect to the
the Market for
electricity distribution network, while larger systems often connect to the transmission network.
Development • Most large-scale solar development projects use ground-mounted systems and are the principal use of the
Community
development site.
Planning for • Perceptions of what constitutes a large-scale solar facility can vary based on the land-use and development
M3 Large-Scale Solar patterns of the surrounding area.
Development • Large-scale solar facilities can—depending on project location, design, and business model—expand local
Zoning for access to clean energy, promote local economic development, improve the fiscal health of local jurisdictions,
M4 Large-Scale Solar and enhance the local environment.
Development • Project location and design affect the magnitude and extent of local tradeoffs associated with large-scale
solar development.
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

References and Resources

Defining
Al-Hamoodah, Leila, Kevita Koppa, Eugenie Schieve, D. Cale Reeves, Ben Hoen, Joachim Seel, and Varin Rai. 2018. Exploration of
Development
Property-Value Impacts Near Utility-Scale Solar Installations.” Austin, Tex.: University of Texas at Austin.
Understanding
the Market for American Battlefield Trust. 2020a. Solar Energy Development and Historic Battlefields.
Development ———. 2020. Utility-Scale Solar Facility Development: Assessing Impact on Historic Battlefields and Related Resources.
Community American Planning Association. 2023. Research KnowledgeBase: Solar Energy.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers (ASFMRA). 2021. “Solar’s Impact on Rural Property Values.” ASFMRA
Development Blog, February 15.
Zoning for Aspen Global Change Institute (AGCI). 2021. “How ‘Agrivoltaics’ Can Provide More Benefits Than Agriculture and Solar Photo-
voltaics Separately.” Research Review, October.
Development
Barnes, Justin, Chad Laurent, Jayson Uppal, Chelsea Barnes, and Amy Heinemann. 2013. Property Taxes and Solar PV Systems:
Improving Policies, Practices, and Issues. Raleigh, N.C.: NC Clean Energy Technology Center.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making Blumenstein, Lev, and Amelia Schlusser. 2019. “Renewable Energy & Direct Public Revenue in Oregon.” Portland, Ore.: Lewis &
Clark Law School Green Energy Institute.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Brehm, Kevin, Blank, Thomas Koch, and Leah Mosier. 2018. Progress and Potential for Community-Scale Solar. Boulder, Colo.:
Projects Rocky Mountain Institute.
Assisting
Brookshire, Daniel, Jerry Carey, Daniel Parker, Quinn Beckham, Alex Bentley, and Kaitlin Cook. 2020. “Increased North Carolina
M7 Large-Scale Solar County Tax Revenue from Solar Development - 2020 Update.” Raleigh, N.C.: NC Sustainable Energy Association.
Development
Byrne, Genevieve. 2018. Farmland Solar Policy Design Toolkit. South Royalton, Vt.: Vermont Law School, Farm and Energy Initia-
tive.
Maximizing
M8 Success Carlisle, Juliet E., Stephanie L. Kane, David Solan, and Jeffrey C. Joe. 2014. “Support for Solar Energy: Examining Sense of Place
and Utility-Scale Development in California.” Energy, Research & Social Science 3: 124–130.
Carlisle, Juliet E., David Solan, Stephanie L. Kane, and Jeffrey Joe. 2016. “Utility-Scale Solar and Public Attitudes Toward Siting: A
Critical Examination of Proximity.” Land Use Policy 58: 491–501.
Coffey, Darren. 2019. “Planning for Utility-Scale Solar.” PAS Memo, September/October.

Crawford, Jessica, Douglas Bessette, and Sarah Mills. 2022. “Rallying the Anti-Crowd: Organized Opposition, Democratic Deficit,
Defining
and a Potential Social Gap in Large-Scale Solar Energy.” Energy Research & Social Science 90: 102597.
Development DeBoer, Larry. 2023. “Solar Energy Projects and Property Taxes.” Capital Comments, February 22.
Understanding Donaldson, Joseph J. 2018. “Mitigating Visual Impacts of Utility-Scale Energy Projects.” In Visual Resource Stewardship Conference
the Market for
Proceedings: Landscape and Seascape Management in a Time of Change. Newtown Square, Pa.: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Development Forest Service, Northern Research Station.
Community Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). 2020. “Land Use Considerations for Large-Scale Solar: Community-Based Stormwater
Planning for
Strategies and Vegetation Management for Sustainable Solar PV Development.” SolSmart Issue Brief, December.
Development Elmallah, Salma, Ben Hoen, K. Syndny Fujita, Dana Robson, and Eric Brunner. 2023. “Shedding Light on Large-Scale Solar Im-
Zoning for pacts: An Analysis of Property Values and Proximity to Photovoltaics Across Six U.S. States.” Energy Policy 175: 113425.
Gorman, Will, Andrew Mills, and Ryan Wiser. 2019. Improving Estimates of Transmission Capital Costs for Utility-Scale Wind and
Development
Solar Projects to Inform Renewable Energy Policy. Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
Improving Gross, Samantha. 2020. “Renewables, Land Use, and Local Opposition in the United States.” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institu-
M5 Land-Use
tion.
Decision-Making
Guar, Vasundhara, and Corey Lang. 2020. Property Value Impacts of Commercial-Scale Solar Energy in Massachusetts and Rhode
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Island. Kingston, R.I.: University of Rhode Island.
M6 Development
Projects Haggerty, Julia H., Mark Haggerty, and Ray Rasker. 2014. “Uneven Local Benefits of Renewable Energy in the U.S. West: Property
Tax Policy Effects.” Western Economics Forum 13(1): 8–22.
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Hartmann, Heidi M., Mark A. Grippo, Garvin A. Heath, Jordan Macknick, Karen P. Smith, Robert G. Sullivan, Leroy J. Watson, and
Development Konstance L. Wescott. 2016. Understanding Emerging Impacts and Requirements Related to Utility-Scale Solar Development.
Argonne, Ill.: Argonne National Laboratory.
Maximizing
M8 Success
Hays, Maxwell, and Sara Hoff. 2020. “Large Battery Systems Are Often Paired With Renewable Energy Power Plants.” U.S. Energy
Information Administration, Today in Energy, May 18.
Hernandez, R.R., S.B. Easter, M.L. Murphy-Mariscal, F.T. Maestre, M. Tavassoli, E.B. Allen, C.W. Barrows, J. Belnap, R. Ochoa-Hueso, S.
Ravi, and M.F. Allen. 2014. “Environmental Impacts of Utility-Scale Solar Energy.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 29:
766–79.
Hunter, Mitch, Ann Sorensen, Theresa Nogeire-McRae, Scott Beck, Stacy Shutts, and Ryan Murphy. 2022. Farms Under Threat
2040. Washington, D.C.: American Farmland Trust.

ICF Inc. 2019. “Interconnection: Plugging RE-Powering Sites into the Electric Grid.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protec-
Defining
tion Agency.
Development Interstate Renewable Energy Council. 2022. “Solar Jobs Census.”
Understanding Kosciuch K, D. Riser-Espinoza, M. Gerringer, and W. Erickson. 2020. “A Summary of Bird Mortality at Photovoltaic Utility Scale
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Solar Facilities in the Southwestern U.S.” PLoS one 15(4): p.e0232034.
Development Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab). 2023. Hybrid Power Plants: Status of Operating and Proposed Plants.
Community
Planning for Loomis, David G. 2020. Economic Impact of Wind and Solar Energy in Illinois and the Potential Impacts of Path to 100 Legislation.
M3 Large-Scale Solar Bloomington, Ill.: Strategic Economic Research, Inc.
Development
Lumby, Ben. 2015. Utility-Scale Solar Photovoltaic Power Plants: A Project Developer’s Guide. Washington, D.C.: International
Zoning for Finance Corporation.
Development Macknick, Jordan, Courtney Lee, Gail Mosey, and Jenny Melius. 2013. Solar Development on Contaminated and Disturbed Lands.
Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Improving
M5 Land-Use Magnum, A. Fletcher, David Zorn, and Martina Arel. 2020. The Economic Contribution of Utility Scale Solar Development to Virgin-
Decision-Making ia. Glen Allen, Va.: Magnum Economics.
Hosting Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources. 2015. “Questions & Answers: Ground-Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Systems.”
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Morley, David, ed. 2014. Planning for Solar Energy. PAS Report 575. Chicago: American Planning Association.
Projects
Mulholland, Denise, ed. 2018. Quantifying the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: A Guide for State and
Assisting Local Governments. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Development National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2020. Concentrating Solar Power Projects.
———. 2022. Low-Impact Solar Development Strategies Primer.
Maximizing
M8 Success NC Clean Energy Technology Center. 2021. DSIRE Programs.
Patton, T., L. Almer, H. Hartmann, and K.P. Smith. 2013. An Overview of Potential Environmental, Cultural, and Socioeconomic
Impacts and Mitigation Measures for Utility-Scale Solar Energy Development. Lemont, Ill.: Argonne National Laboratory.
Randle-Boggis, R.J., P.C.L. White, J. Cruz, G. Parker, H. Montag, J.M.O. Scurlock, and A. Armstrong. 2020. “Realising Co-Benefits for
Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services from Solar Parks.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 125: 109775.
Ross, Brian. 2020. “Solar, With Benefits! (or, the Co-Benefits Approach to Solar Development).” Great Plains Institute Blog, July 6.

Samuelsen, Katelynn. 2021. “Wisconsin Solar Farms Can Improve Water Quality.” Renew Wisconsin, August 30.
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Siegner, Katie, Scott Wentzell, Maria Urrutia, Whitney Mann, and Hallie Kennan. 2019. Maximizing Land-Use Benefits from Utili-
Development ty-Scale Solar. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Center for Business and the Environment.
Understanding Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA). 2023a. “Development Timeline for Utility-Scale Solar Power Plant.”
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar ———. 2023. What’s in a Megawatt? Calculating the Number of Homes Powered by Solar Energy.
Development
Community Sullivan, Robert and Jennifer Abplanalp. 2013. Utility-Scale Solar Energy Facility Visual Impact Characterization and Mitigation.
Planning for Lemont, Ill.: Argonne National Laboratory.
Development Susskind, Lawrence, Jungwoo Chun, Alexander Grant, Chelsea Hodgkins, Jessica Cohen, and Sarah Lohmar. 2022. “Sources of
Opposition to Renewable Energy Projects in the United States.” Energy Policy 165: 112922.
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar U.S. Department of Energy, Solar Energy Technologies Office (USDOE SETO). 2021. “Farmer’s Guide to Going Solar.”
Development
YSG Solar. 2020. “How Long Does It Take to Construct a Solar Farm?”
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

MODULE 2
UNDERSTANDING THE MARKET FOR
LARGE-SCALE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
T he U.S. market for large-scale solar development is sensitive to econom-
ic and policy drivers at the international, national, state, and local levels.
Consequently, the demand for large-scale solar development is not equally
Development
distributed across all local jurisdictions.
Community
Planning for
Development
Local government officials can act in ways that either Table 2-1. Estimated Net Summer Capacity (in MW) from
Zoning for
constrain or expand opportunities for large-scale solar Grid-Connected PV Systems in the U.S., 2014–2022 (USEIA
Development development. Officials who understand the key forces 2023b)
driving demand for large-scale solar development are
Year PV systems PV systems Total
Improving better positioned to use their authority to influence the < 1 MW ≥ 1 MW
M5 Land-Use extent and nature of large-scale solar development in
Decision-Making 2014 7,326.6 8,656.6 15,983.2
the communities they serve.
2015 9,778.5 11,905.4 21,683.9
Hosting To help increase this understanding, this module
Large-Scale Solar summarizes the most significant trends driving national 2016 12,765.1 20,192.9 32,958.0
M6 Development 2017 16,147.8 25,209.0 41,356.8
demand for large-scale solar development, the influence
Projects
of distinct actors on demand in a particular jurisdiction, 2018 19,547.1 30,120.5 49,667.6
Assisting and how different levels of government exercise authori- 2019 23,213.6 35,710.2 58,923.8
M7 Large-Scale Solar ty over proposed projects. 2020 27,584.8 46,306.2 73,891.0
Development
2021 39,972.3 59,534.5 92.506.8
Identifying Solar Development Trends 2022 39,486.5 70,628.3 110,114.8
Maximizing Between 2014 and 2022, the estimated total installed
M8 Success capacity of all grid-connected PV systems in the U.S.
increased from 16.0 to 110.1 gigawatts (GW) (Table 2-1).
During this period, the total number of grid-connected
PV facilities with rated capacities of at least one mega-
watt (MW) grew from 1,034 to 5,399 (Figure 2-1).
27 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

This linear growth is likely to continue for the foresee- Declining Costs
Defining
able future. In its latest forecast, the U.S. Energy Infor- From 2010 to 2022, the median lifetime costs of PV sys-
mation Administration projects that by 2050 the total
Development tems with rated capacities of at least five MW decreased
installed capacity of these larger PV systems will be 695 by 85 percent (Figure 2-2). Furthermore, systems with
Understanding
the Market for
GW, if current tax incentives stay in place (USEIA 2023a). rated capacities over 20 MW cost 26 percent less than
M2 Large-Scale Solar Two related trends underpin the recent rapid expan- those with lower rated capacities (Berkeley Lab 2023b).
Development sion of the market for large-scale solar development: Technological improvements, economies of scale, and
Community declining costs for solar energy systems and an increased incentives have all contributed to declining costs (Green
Planning for
focus on climate action. There is also an important 2019; Kavlak, McNerney, and Trancik 2018; Roser 2020).
Development
consequence of this rapidly expanding market: growing Today, these systems produce electricity at prices com-
demand for solar energy means growing demand for petitive with all other forms of energy generation (Berke-
Zoning for space to accommodate large-scale solar development. ley Lab 2022; SEIA 2021a; USEIA 2021a).
Development
Improving 5349
M5 Land-Use
5,500 $225.00 $211.46
30% ITC Median LCOE (2022 $/MWh)

4888
Decision-Making 5,000
$200.00
4,500
Total PV Facilities ≥ 1MW
4218
Hosting $175.00
4,000
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development 3,500
3574
$150.00
$151.63
2997 $129.37
Projects 3,000 $125.00
2493 $102.48
Assisting 2,500
$100.00 $89.96
M7 Large-Scale Solar 2,000
1934
$75.45
Development 1359
$75.00 $60.57 $58.62
1,500
1034 $50.16$44.18
$50.00 $40.53
1,000 $32.04
Maximizing
M8 Success
500 $25.00 $31.60
0
$0.00
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Figure 2-1. Total number of grid-connected PV facilities Figure 2-2. Median levelized cost of energy (LCOE) with 30%
with rated capacities ≥ 1 MW in the U.S., 2014–2022 (USEIA federal investment tax credit (ITC) for grid-connected PV
2023c) systems with rated capacities ≥ 5 MW, 2010–2022 (Berkeley
Lab 2023b)

Declining costs will lead to a substantial increase in Major Corporation Interests).

Defining
large-scale solar development over the next couple of
Growing Demand for Space
Development decades. Even though a modest number of communities
currently host a large-scale solar project, this increasing Large-scale PV facilities are land-intensive. On average,
Understanding these facilities require about 7.5 acres per MW (Bolinger
the Market for demand for solar development will likely affect every
M2 Large-Scale Solar community in some way within the next decade or two and Bolinger 2021; Hartmann et al. 2016; Ong et al. 2013;
Development (see Growing Demand for Space). Walston et al. 2021). Based on this average, the U.S. will
Community likely need to devote between 4.0 and 10.3 million acres
M3 Planning for Clean Energy and Climate Action Goals to solar development by 2050 to accommodate project-
Large-Scale Solar Since 2005, a growing number of states and local gov- ed demand (USDOE 2021a). While this is a large number,
Development
ernments have made commitments to transition from it is less than one percent of the total land area in the
Zoning for fossil-fuel to clean-energy consumption (CESA 2022; United States and is much less than the space needed
M4 Large-Scale Solar NRDC 2022). Most states now have renewable portfolio for other forms of new development in the near future.
Development
standards (RPS) or clean energy standards (CES), which Furthermore, previously developed sites can help
Improving
require utilities to increase energy production from meet some of this demand (Macknick et al. 2013; USEPA
M5 Land-Use renewable or nonpolluting sources (NCCETC 2022). Even 2023c). And if grid interconnection is feasible, large-scale
Decision-Making in states without these standards, many publicly and solar development is compatible with and can co-locate
privately owned utilities have committed to expanding on space occupied by other land-intensive uses, such as
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar clean power production. agriculture, transit corridors, and landfills (Gross 2020).
M6 Development Climate change mitigation (through greenhouse gas While there has been steady growth in demand for
Projects reductions), energy independence, and grid resilience both community- and utility-scale facilities, the average
Assisting are the primary reasons driving these commitments to size of PV facilities waiting to connect to the transmis-
M7 Large-Scale Solar clean energy (Mulholland 2018; Byrne 2020). Clean elec- sion grid is increasing dramatically. At the end of 2022,
Development tricity will play a major role in reducing greenhouse gas proposed PV projects across seven regional intercon-
emissions from transportation, buildings, and manufac- nections and 35 utilities, representing 85 percent of the
Maximizing turing. State and local governments might also commit U.S. electricity load, had an average rated capacity of 176
M8 Success to clean energy to advance secondary goals, such as MW (Berkeley Lab 2023a). This is 175 percent larger than
energy security, economic development and resilience, the average size of operational PV facilities in the same
public health, and environmental justice. interconnections and utilities. Historically, utility-scale
Trends in the private realm, such as an increase in solar development has followed existing transmission
corporate sustainability goals and awareness of carbon corridors, but as facility sizes increase, it is increasingly
footprints, have also played a small role in increasing de- cost effective to build new transmission infrastructure to
mand for clean energy (Trumbull 2019; NRDC 2022; see serve these facilities.

Defining
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Figure 2-3. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm, a 550 MW PV and 220 MW energy storage facility sited over more than six square
Assisting miles in Riverside County, California (Credit: Bureau of Land Management)
Development
Most new utility-scale systems incorporate tracking Although the Southwest has the best solar resource
Maximizing systems (Berkeley Lab 2023b). Holding other factors potential, it would not be cost effective or reliable to
M8 Success equal, facilities that use tracking systems require slightly concentrate solar development there or in any one re-
more land per MW. Similarly, facilities that combine PV gion. Instead, large-scale solar projects are ideally located
systems with battery storage require more space than on the same grid as end users to maximize transmission
PV-only facilities (see Module 8, Energy Storage). More and distribution efficiency. Solar developers will need
than one-third of all PV facilities in interconnection to disperse solar installations (and consequently, the
queues at the end of 2022 included battery storage demand for space) where demand for solar exists across
(Berkeley Lab 2023a; Figure 2-3). the country.

Identifying Influences on Local Demand The 26 USC §48 Investment Tax Credit (ITC) provides
Defining
While national trends are clearly signaling an increased a dollar-for-dollar reduction in the income taxes owed by
large-scale system owners (Blumenstein and Schlusser
Development aggregate demand for large-scale solar development,
the level of potential demand is not equal in all jurisdic- 2019; SEIA 2021b). The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022
Understanding
the Market for tions. In part, this is due to constraints on the amount reinstates a 30 percent tax credit for solar facilities that
M2 Large-Scale Solar of suitable land for large-scale solar development and meet prevailing wage and apprenticeship requirements;
Development the number of property owners willing to host solar extends this credit to standalone energy storage facil-
Community facilities in each community. But this is also due to the ities; and offers stackable bonus credits for projects in
Planning for
policies, actions, and interests of a diverse set of local defined income-qualified communities, projects sited
Development and nonlocal actors. on brownfields or in communities that have a legacy
There are several distinct groups of actors that influence of hosting fossil fuel industries, and projects that meet
Zoning for the level of demand for large-scale solar development domestic manufacturing requirements (WRI 2023). This
in particular jurisdictions or areas of the country. These act also established a new 26 USC §45Y Clean Electric-
Development
groups include federal and state policymakers, local gov- ity Production Credit that offers a maximum 2.75 cent
Improving ernment officials, utilities, regional transmission organiza- per kilowatt-hour tax credit for electricity generated
M5 Land-Use tions, and major corporations and advocacy organizations. by community- and utility-scale solar facilities (USDOE
Decision-Making 2023). Additionally, the Modified Accelerated Cost Recov-
Hosting
Federal Policy ery System (MACRS) depreciation method allows system
Large-Scale Solar Federal policymakers affect local demand for large-scale owners to deduct the costs of solar equipment over a
M6 Development solar development through tax incentives and purchas- five-year recovery period (SEIA 2021c).
Projects ing requirements for utilities (Table 2-2).
Assisting
Development
Table 2-2. Federal Policies That Can Affect Local Demand for Large-Scale Solar Development
Maximizing Potential Effect on
M8 Success Policy Local Demand
Adoption of 26 USC §48 Investment Tax Credit (ITC) ), 26 USC §45Y Can make projects feasible in a wider range of locations
Clean Energy Production Credit, and the Modified Accelerated Cost
Recovery System (MACRS)
Expansion of Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) Can make projects feasible in a wider range of rural locations
Adoption of Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) Can increase demand in utility markets where solar power
generation is cheaper than other forms of electricity

The IRA also expanded the existing Rural Energy for State Policy
Defining
America Program (REAP). Through REAP, farmers and State policymakers affect local demand for large-
small business owners in rural areas can apply for grants
Development scale solar development through RPS, tax incentives,
of up to one million dollars and loan guarantees of up to utility deregulation, virtual net metering or shared
Understanding
the Market for
75 percent of total eligible costs for solar projects. solar policies, and location-based incentive programs
M2 Large-Scale Solar Under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (Table 2-3).
Development (PURPA), utilities must interconnect with and purchase As mentioned above, over half of all states have an
Community power from certified “qualifying” solar projects at the RPS that requires utilities to purchase a certain percent-
Planning for same price they would have to pay to generate or
age of their power from renewable sources (NCCETC
Development
contract for the power in the absence of the qualifying 2021). Some states also have solar carve-outs that specif-
project (FERC 2021; SEIA 2018). In competitive whole- ically create demand for solar projects.
Zoning for sale markets, qualifying projects range in size from one At least 20 states have adopted some form of prop-
M4 Large-Scale Solar to 20 MW, but in other markets qualifying projects can erty tax incentive for large-scale solar development (see
Development
be up to 80 MW. Module 7, Table 7-3, and NCCETC 2021). Some of these
Improving incentive programs are tied to specific types of solar
M5 Land-Use energy systems, while others apply to all systems, regard-
Decision-Making less of size or relationship to the grid.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Table 2-3. State Policies That Can Affect Local Demand for Large-Scale Solar Development
Development
Policy Potential Effect on
Local Demand
Maximizing
M8 Success
Adoption of renewable portfolio standard (RPS) Can increase demand statewide
Adoption of property tax incentives Can increase demand statewide
Deregulation of utilities Can increase demand statewide
Adoption of virtual net metering or shared solar policy Can increase demand for community-scale projects statewide
Adoption of incentive programs with locational considerations Can increase demand in locations that meet program criteria

Since the 1990s, more than two dozen states have solar development projects on landfills and brownfields
Defining
“deregulated” their electricity markets (Cleary and (Massachusetts 2021; NYSERDA 2020).
Development Palmer 2020). In these states, qualifying utility custom-
ers can choose to purchase power directly from sup- Local Policy and Action
Understanding Local government officials can affect local demand for
the Market for pliers that invest in solar projects instead of from their
M2 Large-Scale Solar local utility. large-scale solar development through the policies they
Development At least 20 states have authorized shared solar projects adopt and the strategies they use to implement those
Community (Cleveland 2017; NCCETC 2021). Some of these states policies (Table 2-4). Ideally, these policies and actions are
M3 Planning for have authorized virtual net metering, which allows mul- rooted in a community plan that establishes a shared
Large-Scale Solar vision and high-level goals for solar development (see
Development tiple utility customers to offset their electricity use with a
single shared system. Others have authorized community Module 3). Potential implementation strategies include
Zoning for solar programs. zoning updates (see Module 4), process improvements
Finally, some states have adopted solar development (see Module 5), development partnerships (see Module
Development
incentive programs that include locational consider- 6), and technical or financial assistance programs (see
Improving ations. For example, Massachusetts’ Solar Massachusetts Module 7).
M5 Land-Use Renewable Target Program and New York’s NY-Sun Mega-
Decision-Making watt Block Program both offer incentives for large-scale
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects Table 2-4. Local Policies and Actions That Can Affect Local Demand for Large-Scale Solar Development
Assisting Policy or Action Potential Effect on Local Demand
Development Community plans that provide a clear policy direction for large-scale Can increase demand by signaling to developers that the local
solar development jurisdiction is interested in locally sited projects
Zoning updates that explicitly permit large-scale solar development Can increase demand by removing unintentional barriers to solar
Maximizing
M8 Success
in one or more areas of the jurisdiction development and establishing incentives for projects that align with
community goals
Process improvements that optimize discretionary land-use reviews Can increase demand by shortening the development review
for large-scale solar projects timeline
Development partnerships that bring large-scale solar energy Can increase demand by providing pre-approved locations for
systems to local-government-owned sites projects and, potentially, customers for the power produced
Technical or financial assistance programs for solar developers Can increase demand for projects that meet program criteria in
locations that meet program criteria

Utility Plans and Programs While IOUs must comply with all applicable public
Defining
Utilities affect local demand for large-scale solar develop- utility commission (PUC) regulations in their state, their
Development ment through their system-planning and power-purchas- primary responsibility is generating a profit for their
ing decisions (Table 2-5). These decisions are tied to the shareholders. Large IOUs have more ratepayers than mu-
Understanding
the Market for local utility’s business model and governance structure. nis and coops, so they can make bigger investments in
M2 Large-Scale Solar The three major types of utilities are investor-owned solar projects and the necessary infrastructure upgrades
Development utilities (IOUs), municipal utilities (munis), and rural elec- to accommodate those projects. Compared to IOUs, tech-
Community tric cooperatives (coops). IOUs are electric utility compa- nology upgrades are relatively more expensive for munis
Planning for
nies that issue shareholder-owned stock. IOUs can range and coops, which have fewer numbers of ratepayers to
Development in size from small local companies serving a few thou- pay the costs of these changes.
sand customers to multinational corporations that serve
Zoning for millions of customers. Munis are utilities operated by local
jurisdictions. Coops are member-owned nonprofit utili-
Development
ties. They provide service to rural or semi-rural areas that
Improving IOUs and munis do not adequately serve.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
M6 Large-Scale Solar Table 2-5. Utility Policies and Actions That Can Affect Local Demand for Large-Scale Solar Development
Development
Projects Policy or Action Potential Effect on
Local Demand
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar System plans that prioritize improvements to accommodate a Can increase demand for community-scale projects in the utility’s
Development higher penetration of distributed solar energy service area
System plans that identify a need to replace existing power Can increase demand in areas where solar power is cost
generators or to expand net power generation competitive with other sources of energy
Maximizing
M8 Success Community (i.e., shared) solar programs Can increase demand for community-scale projects in the utility’s
service area

Regional Transmission Organization

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Plans and Policies
Development Nine membership-based regional transmission organiza-
tions (RTOs) administer the buying and selling of elec-
Understanding
the Market for tricity through wholesale electricity markets that provide
M2 Large-Scale Solar about two-thirds of all power in the U.S. and half in
Development Canada (IRC 2021; Figure 2-4). Members include utilities,
Community independent power producers, transmission companies,
Planning for
power marketers, and energy traders.
Development RTOs operate, but do not own, the transmission system
in accordance with the North American Electric Reliability
Zoning for Corporation (NERC), a not-for-profit international regula-
tory authority. NERC is subject to oversight by the Federal
Development Figure 2-4. The nine regional transmission organizations that
Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), a federal agency
that regulates the interstate transmission of electricity, operate across North America (Source: BlckAssn, Wikimedia)
Improving
M5 Land-Use natural gas, and oil.
Decision-Making RTOs also enforce regional reliability criteria on behalf
Hosting of their member transmission owners, ensure nondiscrim-
Large-Scale Solar inatory access to the transmission system, and manage
M6 Development and plan for the reliability of the transmission system
Projects (Table 2-6).
Assisting
Development Table 2-6. Regional Transmission Organization Policies and Actions That Can Affect Local Demand for Large-Scale Solar
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success Policy or Action Potential Effect on Local Demand
System plans that identify transmission network expansion needs Can increase demand in areas targeted for new transmission
infrastructure
System plans that prioritize improvements that would increase grid Can increase demand in the RTO region
stability and reliability
Market policies that make it easier for solar facilities to sell power Can increase demand in the RTO region

Major Corporation Interests those projects would conflict with other priorities.
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Major corporations can affect local demand for large-
Development scale solar development through their power-purchas- Identifying Authorities Having Jurisdiction
ing decisions. Many of the largest and most prominent Local, state, and federal agencies share responsibilities
Understanding for reviewing and approving the siting of new large-scale
the Market for corporations in the U.S., including Amazon, Apple, Meta,
M2 Large-Scale Solar General Motors, Google, and Walmart, have committed to solar facilities. Federal agencies have final siting author-
Development offsetting 100 percent of their electricity use with renew- ity for projects located on federal lands and may review
Community able power (Climate Group 2021). Many other companies other projects to verify compliance with environmental
M3 Planning for have made less ambitious commitments to transition to protection laws. State agencies have final siting authority
Large-Scale Solar for projects located on state lands or, in some states, for
Development renewable energy or otherwise support large-scale solar
development. projects over a certain size. And local jurisdictions retain
Zoning for In some cases, this has driven demand for solar de- siting authority for all other projects.
velopment near energy-intensive facilities, such as data
Development Federal Agencies
centers or corporate offices. For example, Google has
entered into large power-purchase agreements for new Siting a large-scale solar project on federal land requires
Improving
M5 Land-Use data centers in Tennessee and Alabama that helped fi- permission from the agency that manages or administers
Decision-Making nance the development of new large-scale solar facilities that land (Tables 2-7 and 2-8). The level of review given to
in these states (Hall 2019). In other cases, major corpo- different projects varies with the likelihood of significant
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar rations are simply boosting demand for large-scale solar environmental impact, but all federally associated projects
M6 Development development in the most cost-efficient locations. require some level of assessment. Agencies typically grant
Projects permission in the form of a lease or, more commonly, a
Assisting Advocacy Organization Interests right-of-way (ROW), which authorizes the holder to use or
M7 Large-Scale Solar Advocacy organizations can affect local demand for occupy federal land. For utility-scale solar projects, the BLM
Development large-scale solar development through their influence has a Solar Energy Program that supports development on
over each of the groups listed above. Across the country, BLM-administered lands in the Southwest region.
Maximizing there are numerous local, regional, and national advo-
M8 Success cacy groups interested in energy policy, environmental
protection, land or resource conservation, or community
and economic development. Some of these groups are
broadly supportive of solar development. Others may see
it as a threat to their core interests. And even advocacy
organizations that otherwise support solar development
may oppose projects in specific locations if they perceive

Table 2-7. Relevant Federal Laws for Proposed Large-Scale Solar Projects
Defining
Federal Legislation Applicability
Development
National Environmental Policy Act All projects on federal land, accessing federally owned transmission lines, receiving
Understanding federal grants, or requiring federal permits
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Endangered Species Act Projects that may affect threatened or endangered species or their habitat
Development Clean Water Act, Section 402 Projects that disturb over one acre
Community Clean Water Act, Section 404 Projects that deposit dredge or fill material into “Waters of the U.S.” (i.e., navigable waters
Planning for
and associated wetlands)
Development
Zoning for Table 2-8. Relevant Federal Authorities for Proposed Large-Scale Solar Projects
Development Federal Authorities Role
Improving Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Authorizes development on federal land managed by the BLM
M5 Land-Use U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Authorizes development on federal land managed by the USFS
Decision-Making U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Approves projects on tribal land
Hosting U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Administers the Endangered Species Act by reviewing projects, conducting
Large-Scale Solar environmental assessments, and issuing permits
M6 Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Administers Section 402 of the Clean Water Act by developing and interpreting
Projects
policy and guidance, and by issuing construction general permits in Massachusetts, New
Assisting Hampshire, New Mexico, and the District of Columbia
M7 Large-Scale Solar Administers Section 404 of the Clean Water Act by developing and interpreting policy,
Development guidance, and environmental criteria for permit applications
Administers Resource Conservation and Recovery Act; Comprehensive Environmental
Maximizing
M8 Success
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act; and other brownfields-related laws by
developing and interpreting policy and guidance for projects on potentially
contaminated sites
U.S. Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) Administers the day-to-day aspects of the Section 404 program of the Clean Water Act,
including permitting
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Reviews and approves projects at airports that have accepted federal funding to buy
land or improve the airport
Department of Defense (DoD) Administers permitting and leasing on lands used for defense-related purposes

State Agencies ect applicants are receiving any state funding (or, in some
Defining
cases, state permits or licenses). Most states also have the
M1 Large-Scale Solar Most states require public utilities or independent power
Development producers to obtain certificates of public convenience authority to enact their own regulatory programs for wet-
and necessity from public utility commissions for new lands under the Clean Water Act if they are more strin-
Understanding
the Market for power plants (or expansions to existing facilities). In some gent than federal programs. Large-scale solar projects
M2 Large-Scale Solar may require one or more natural resource management
instances, this process preempts local siting authority for
Development
certain types of large-scale solar projects. Furthermore, permits addressing wetlands protection, erosion, land dis-
Community
some states preempt local siting authority by requiring turbance, and stormwater management.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar developers of solar projects that meet a specific size Typically, state agencies establish permit requirements
Development threshold to obtain a siting permit from a special-purpose for all projects subject to the National Pollution Discharge
siting board. Elimination System (NPDES) program under the Clean
Zoning for Water Act. Additionally, outside of areas with municipal
M4 Large-Scale Solar In total, 20 states preempt (or give developers the
Development option to bypass) local siting authority for at least some storm sewer systems, state agencies generally review
types of large-scale solar development (Table 2-9). This stormwater pollution prevention plans for solar projects
Improving preemption typically applies to projects over a certain to ensure they meet the general permit requirements
M5 Land-Use rated capacity or that cover a certain amount of land area. (EPRI 2020).
Decision-Making
However, three states preempt local authority for all proj-
Local Governments
Hosting ects that would fit most local definitions of utility-scale
Large-Scale Solar Outside of states that preempt local siting control, coun-
M6 Development
solar: Vermont, Connecticut, and Maryland.
ties, municipalities, and other general-purpose local gov-
Projects In Kentucky, North Dakota, Virginia, and Wisconsin,
ernments have the authority to approve or deny the sit-
state siting permits do not preempt local siting authority.
Assisting ing of large-scale solar development projects on private
In these states, developers or project owners must satisfy
both state and local requirements. In more than half of
land (and land owned by the local jurisdiction), as well as
Development regulate the design of the facility. Most commonly, these
all states, though, local jurisdictions retain the sole au-
local jurisdictions control siting through zoning or other
thority over project siting. In Illinois, counties retain siting
Maximizing land-use and development regulations (see Module 4).
M8 Success
authority, but county zoning regulations must comply
The specific authority is rooted in state zoning en-
with maximally restrictive standards. And in Ohio, county
abling laws and may be limited by other state laws gov-
officials can veto or reduce the proposed size of a project
erning solar development, specifically, or energy project
otherwise subject to state siting authority.
siting, generally (Table 2-9). Furthermore, both gener-
Additionally, several states have a state-level analogue
al-purpose and special-purpose local governments—
to the National Environmental Policy Act, requiring envi-
such as school, park, and solid-waste management
ronmental review of proposed actions, especially if proj-
districts—typically have an additional limited authority

to approve solar development on land they own through

Defining
contractual arrangements, such as property leases or
procurement agreements (see Module 6).
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for Key Takeaways
Development • Between 2014 and 2022, the total number of grid-connected PV facilities with rated capacities of at least one
Zoning for megawatt (MW) grew from 1,034 to 5,399.
M4 Large-Scale Solar • In many parts of the country, producing power from large-scale solar facilities is cheaper than from all other
Development sources of energy.
• The demand for new large-scale solar facilities, and space to host these facilities, is likely to continue for the
Improving foreseeable future.
M5 Land-Use
• The level of demand for large-scale solar development in any particular jurisdiction depends on a mix of
Decision-Making
practical constraints and the actions of various governmental and nongovernmental groups.
Hosting • Local, state, and federal agencies share responsibilities for reviewing and approving the siting of large-scale
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
solar facilities.
Projects • While many large-scale solar projects are subject to both state and local review processes, local jurisdictions
often retain final siting authority for most large-scale solar facilities on private or local governmental land.
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Defining
Development Alliance for a Sustainable Future. 2020. Mayors Leading the Way on Climate: How Cities Large and Small Are Taking Action. Wash-
ington, D.C.: U.S. Conference of Mayors.
Understanding
the Market for America’s Pledge. 2019. “Accelerating America’s Pledge: Going All-In to Build a Prosperous, Low-Carbon Economy for the
M2 Large-Scale Solar United States.”
Development
Community Barnum, Gary R., Sara E. Bergan, Tamara L. Boeck, Eugene A. Frassetto, Seth D. Hilton, Gregory F. Jenner, Jason A. Johns, et al. 2017.
Planning for Law of Solar: A Guide to Business and Legal Issues, 5th ed. Portland, Ore.: Stoel Rives LLP.
Development Blumenstein, Lev, and Amelia Schlusser. 2019. “Renewable Energy & Direct Public Revenue in Oregon.” Portland, Ore.: Lewis &
Clark Law School Green Energy Institute.
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar Bolinger, Mark and Greta Bolinger. 2022. “Land Requirements for Utility-Scale PV: An Empirical Update on Power and Energy
Development Density.” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 12(2): 589–594.
Improving Bowen, Lauren. 2017. “The Environmental Review of Solar Farms in the Southeast U.S.” Charlottesville, Va.: Southern Environ-
M5 Land-Use mental Law Center.
Decision-Making
Byrne, Genevieve. 2020. Farmland Solar Policy Design Toolkit. South Royalton, Vt.: Vermont Law School, Farm and Energy Initia-
Hosting tive.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (CCES). 2021. State Climate Policy Maps.
Projects
Clean Energy States Alliance (CESA). 2022. 100% Clean Energy Collaborative.
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Cleary, Kathryne, and Karen Palmer. 2020. “US Electricity Markets 101.” Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
Development
Cleveland, Megan. 2017. “State Policies for Shared Renewable Energy.” Washington, D.C.: National Conference of State Legisla-
tures.
Maximizing
M8 Success Climate Group. 2021. “RE100 Members.”
Dobbs, Dan. 2019. “How the Tech Giants Are Fueling a Solar Revolution.” Renewable Energy World, August 6.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). 2020. “Land Use Considerations for Large-Scale Solar: Community-Based Stormwater
Strategies and Vegetation Management for Sustainable Solar PV Development.” SolSmart Issue Brief, December.
Essa, Elena, Kristina Curtiss, and Claire Dodinval. 2021. Solar Siting Authority Across the United States. CLOSUP Working Paper
Series Number 50. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan, Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy.

Farmer, Miles, and Amanda Levin. 2019. “Comparing America’s Grid Operators on Clean Energy Progress: PJM Is Headed for a
Defining
Climate Disaster.” Utility Dive, July 2.
Development Federal Aviation Administration. 2021. Federal Aviation Administration Policy: Review of Solar Energy System Projects on
Understanding Federally-Obligated Airports.
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). 2023. PURPA Qualifying Facilities.
Development Feldman, David, Krysta Dummit, Jarett Zuboy, and Robert Margolis. Summer 2022 Solar Industry Update. Golden, Colo.: National
Community Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Gilliland, Ed, and Avery Palmer. 2020. Large-Scale Solar Development: A Playbook for Southwest Virginia. Washington, D.C.: The
Development Solar Foundation/Solar Workgroup of Southwest Virginia.
Zoning for Goggin, Michael, Rob Gramlich, Steven Shparber, and Alison Silverstein. 2018. Customer Focused and Clean: Power Markets for
the Future. Washington, D.C.: Wind Solar Alliance.
Development
Goss, Stephen, Fred Hoover, Glen Andersen, Megan Cleveland, and Jocelyn Durkay. 2017. Here Comes the Sun: A State Policy
Improving Handbook for Distributed Solar Energy. Denver, Colo.: National Conference of State Legislatures.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making Green, Martin. 2019. “How Did Solar Cells Get So Cheap?” Joule 3(3): 631–633.
Hosting Great Plains Institute. 2020. “Indiana Renewable Energy Guide.” Custer, Wis.: Midwest Renewable Energy Association.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development ———. 2020. “Siting Utility-Scale Solar and Wind in Iowa: A Guide for Local Governments.” Custer, Wis.: Midwest Renewable
Projects Energy Association.
Assisting ———. 2020. “Siting Utility-Scale Solar and Wind in Michigan: A Guide for Local Governments.” Custer, Wis.: Midwest Renew-
M7 Large-Scale Solar able Energy Association.
Development
———. 2020. “Siting Utility-Scale Solar and Wind in Minnesota: A Guide for Local Governments.” Custer, Wis.: Midwest Renew-
Maximizing able Energy Association.
M8 Success ———. 2020. “Siting Utility-Scale Solar and Wind in Wisconsin: A Guide for Local Governments.” Custer, Wis.: Midwest Renew-
able Energy Association.
Gross, Samantha. 2020. “Renewables, Land Use, and Local Opposition in the United States.” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institu-
tion.
Hall, Stephen. 2019. “Largest Ever Solar Farms for Google Data Center to be Built in Alabama and Tennessee.” 9to5Google, Janu-
ary 17.

Hartmann, Heidi M., Mark A. Grippo, Garvin A. Heath, Jordan Macknick, Karen P. Smith, Robert G. Sullivan, Leroy J. Watson, and
Defining
Konstance L. Wescott. 2016. Understanding Emerging Impacts and Requirements Related to Utility-Scale Solar Development.
Argonne, Ill.: Argonne National Laboratory.
Development
Understanding ISO/RTO Council (IRC). 2023. About the IRC.

the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Kavlak, Goksin, James McNerney, and Jessika E. Trancik. 2018. “Evaluating the Causes of Cost Reduction in Photovoltaic Mod-
Development ules.” Energy Policy 123: 700–10.
Community Laurent, Chad, Jayson Uppal, David Morley, and Justin Barnes. 2014. “Chapter 2: Overview of the U.S. Solar Market.” In Planning for
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Solar Energy. PAS Report 575. Chicago: American Planning Association.
Development Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab). 2023a. Queued Up: Characteristics of Power Plants Seeking Transmis-
Zoning for sion Interconnection.
———. 2023b. Utility-Scale Solar.
Development
Lyons, Cristin, Greg Litra, and Quentin Watkins. 2020. Informing the Transmission Discussion: A Look at Renewables Integration
Improving and Resilience Issues for Power Transmission in Selected Regions of the United States. Scott Madden Management Consultants.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making Macknick, Jordan, Courtney Lee, Gail Mosey, and Jenny Melius. 2013. Solar Development on Contaminated and Disturbed Lands.
Hosting Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Massachusetts, Commonwealth of. 2021. “Solar Massachusetts Renewable Target (SMART) Program.”
Projects Mulholland, Denise, ed. 2018. Quantifying the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: A Guide for State and
Assisting Local Governments. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
M7 Large-Scale Solar Navigant Consulting, Inc. 2014. Eastern Interconnection States’ Planning Council Transmission Planning White Paper. Washington,
Development
D.C.: National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissions.
Maximizing National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2012. Utility-Scale Concentrating Solar Power and Photovoltaics Projects: A Tech-
M8 Success nology and Market Overview.
———. 2023. Cambium.
———. 2023. Solar Technology Cost Analysis.
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC). 2022. Race to 100% Clean.
NC Clean Energy Technology Center (NCCETC). 2023a. Business Energy Investment Tax Credit (ITC).

———. 2023b. DSIRE Programs.

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar New York State Energy Research & Development Authority (NYSERDA). 2023. NY-SUN (Solar Initiative) Dashboards and Incen-
Development tives.
Understanding Ong, Sean, Clinton Campbell, Paul Denholm, Robert Margolis, and Garvin Heath. 2013. Land-Use Requirements for Solar Power
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Plants in the United States. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Development Ricketts, Sam, Rita Cliffton, Lola Oduyeru, and Bill Holland. 2020. “States Are Laying a Road Map for Climate Leadership.” Wash-
Community ington, D.C.: Center for American Progress.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Roser, Max. 2020. “Why Did Renewables Become So Cheap So Fast? And What Can We Do to Use This Global Opportunity for
Development Green Growth?” Oxford, U.K.: Global Change Data Lab, Our World in Data.
Zoning for Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA). 2018. PURPA 101.
Development ———. 2023a. Solar Industry Research Data.
Improving ———. 2023. Utility-Scale Solar.

M5 Land-Use ———. 2023b. 5 Year Cost Recovery Period for Solar Energy Property.
Decision-Making
Stevens, Landon. 2017. “The Footprint of Energy: Land Use of U.S. Energy Production.” Logan, Utah: Strata Policy.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar The Nature Conservancy. 2017. Accelerating Large-Scale Wind and Solar Energy in New York. Arlington, Va.: The Nature Conser-
M6 Development vancy.
Projects
Trumbull, Kelly. 2019. “Progress Toward 100% Clean Energy in Cities & States Across the U.S.” Los Angeles: UCLA Luskin Center
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar for Innovation.
Development
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2023. Rural Energy for America Program Renewable Energy Systems & Energy Efficiency Im-
provement Guaranteed Loans & Grants.
Maximizing
M8 Success U.S. Department of Energy (USDOE). 2021. Solar Futures Study.
———. 2023a. Federal Solar Tax Credits for Businesses.
———. 2023. RAPID Toolkit: Solar Regulations and Permitting.
U.S. Energy Information Administration (USEIA). 2023a. Annual Energy Outlook 2023.
———. 2023b. Electric Power Monthly.

———. 2023c. Form EIA-860 Detailed Data With Previous Form Data.
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar ———. 2023. Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory.
Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2023a. Permit Program under CWA Section 404.
Understanding
the Market for ———. 2023b. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).
Development ———. 2023c. RE-Powering America’s Land: How to Identify Sites.
Community U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2023. Energy Development.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Walston, Leroy J., Yudi Li, Heidi M. Hartmann, Jordan Macknick, Aaron Hanson, Chris Nootenboom, Eric Lonsdorf, and Jessica Hell-
Development mann. 2021. “Modeling the Ecosystem Services of Native Vegetation Management
Zoning for Practices at Solar Energy Facilities in the Midwestern United States.” Ecosystem Services 47: 101227.
Development World Resources Institute (WRI). 2023. IRA Bonus Mapper (Beta).
Yazykova, Sofia, Jim McElfish, and Lovinia Reynolds. 2019. Corporate Statements About the Use of Energy: What Does the “100%
Improving
M5 Land-Use Renewable” Goal Really Mean? Washington, D.C.: Environmental Law Institute.
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

Table 2-9. Siting Authority for Large-Scale Solar Projects by State

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar State Authority Having Jurisdiction State Siting Guidance State Siting
Development Review Criteria
Understanding Alabama Local government None None
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Alaska Local government None None
Development Arizona Local government (all PV projects and CSP projects < 100 MW); None §40-360.06
Community Arizona Corporation Commission (CSP Projects ≥ 100 MW)
Planning for
Arkansas Local government None None
California Local government; (< 50MW); Local government or California None PRC §25545 et
Development
State Energy Resources and Conservation Commission seq..
Zoning for (developer’s choice) (all PV projects ≥ 50 MW); California State
M4 Large-Scale Solar Energy Resources and Conservation Commission (CSP Projects
Development ≥ 50 MW)
Colorado Local government None None
Improving
Connecticut Local government (< 1 MW); Connecticut Siting Council (≥ 1 Filing Guides None
M5 Land-Use
MW)
Decision-Making
Delaware Local government None None
Hosting
Florida Local government (< 75 MW); Florida Siting Board (≥ 75 MW) Electrical Power Plant Sites and §403.509(3)
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Associated Facilities Application
Projects Instruction Guide
Georgia Local government None None
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Hawaii Local government None None
Development Idaho Local government None None
Illinois Local government (subject to maximally restrictive standards None §55-5/5-12020
Maximizing for counties)
M8 Success Indiana Local government None None
Iowa Local government (< 25 MW); Iowa Utilities Board (≥ 25 MW) None Administrative
Code §199.24.10
Kansas Local government None None

Defining State Authority Having Jurisdiction State Siting Guidance State Siting
Review Criteria
Development Kentucky Local government + Kentucky State Board on Electric None §278.710
Generation and Transmission Siting (≥ 10 MW)
Understanding
the Market for Louisiana Local government None None
M2 Large-Scale Solar Maine Local government (< 20 acres); Maine Department Technical Guidance for Utility- 38 MRS §484
Development of Environmental Protection (≥ 20 acres) Scale Solar Installation and
Community Development on Agricultural,
Planning for
Forested, and Natural Lands
Development Maryland Local government (< 2 MW); Maryland Public Service Solar Facility Siting Guidance Public Utilities
Commission (≥ 2 MW) Code §7-207(e)
Zoning for Massachusetts Local government (< 100 MW); Massachusetts Energy Facilities None §164-69O
M4 Large-Scale Solar Siting Board (≥ 100 MW)
Development
Michigan Local government < 50 MW); Local government (subject to None 2023 PA 233
maximally restrictive standards) or Michigan Public Service
Improving
M5 Land-Use Commission (developer’s choice) (≥ 50 MW)
Decision-Making Minnesota Local government (<50 MW); Minnesota Public Utilities Commercial Solar Siting §216B.243
Commission (≥ 50 MW) Guidance
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Mississippi Local government None None
M6 Development Missouri Local government None None
Projects Montana Local government None None
Assisting Nebraska Local government None None
M7 Large-Scale Solar Nevada Local government None None
Development
New Hampshire Local government; New Hampshire Site Evaluation Committee None §162-H:16
(≥ 30 MW)
Maximizing
M8 Success
New Jersey Local government None None
New Mexico Local government (< 300 MW); New Mexico Public Regulations None §62-9-3
Commission (≥ 300 MW)

Review Criteria
Development New York Local government (< 20 MW); Local government or New York Siting for Large-Scale 19 NYCCR §900
Understanding Office of Renewable Energy Siting (developer’s choice) (≥ 20 Renewables
the Market for MW < 25 MW); New York Office of Renewable Energy Siting (≥
M2 Large-Scale Solar 25 MW)
Development North Carolina Local government None None
Community North Dakota Local government + North Dakota Public Service Commission None §49-22-09
Planning for
(≥ 50 MW)
Development Ohio Local government (< 50 MW); Ohio Power Siting Board (≥ 50 None §4906.10; §303.58
MW, subject to a county “veto” power) et seq.
Zoning for Oklahoma Local government None None
Oregon Local government (< 160 acres if located on high-value farmland; Energy Facility Siting Administrative
Development
< 1,280 acres if located on cultivated land or land composed of Rules §345-022
Improving National Cooperative Soil Survey soils in capability classes I–IV;
M5 Land-Use < 1,920 acres on any other land); Oregon Energy Facilities Siting
Council (≥ 160 acres if located on high-value farmland; ≥ 1,280
Decision-Making
acres if located on cultivated land or land composed of National
Hosting Cooperative Soil Survey soils in capability classes I–IV; ≥ 1,920
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
acres on any other land)
Pennsylvania Local government Solar Developer Resources None
Projects
Rhode Island Local government (< 40 MW); Rhode Island Energy Facility None §42-98-11
Assisting Siting Board (≥ 40 MW)
South Carolina Local government None None
Development
South Dakota Local government (< 100 MW); South Dakota Public Utilities None §49-41B-22
Commission (≥ 100 MW)
Maximizing
M8 Success Tennessee Local government None None
Texas Local government None None
Utah Local government None None
Vermont Local government (< 15 KW); Vermont Public Utility None 30 VSA §248(b)
Commission (≥ 15 KW)

Review Criteria
Development Virginia Local government + Virginia Department of Environmental Quality Permit by Rule Guidance §56-265.2
Understanding (> 5 MW ≤ 150 MW); Virginia State Corporation Commission (>
the Market for 150 MW)
M2 Large-Scale Solar Washington Local government or Washington Energy Facility Site Evaluation None None
Development Council (developer’s choice)
Community West Virginia Local government None None
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Wisconsin Local government + Wisconsin Public Service Commission None §196.491(3)(d)
Development (≥ 100 MW)
Wyoming Local government (≤ 30 MW or 100 acres, but counties subject None §35-12-113(a);
Zoning for to minimally restrictive standards); Wyoming Industrial Siting §18-5-504
M4 Large-Scale Solar Council (> 30 MW or ≥ 100 acres)
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

MODULE 3
COMMUNITY PLANNING FOR
LARGE-SCALE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
C ities, towns, and counties use community planning processes to chart
their courses for more sustainable and livable futures (Figure 3-1). By es-
tablishing shared visions and goals for large-scale solar development, local
Development
jurisdictions will be better positioned to maximize the benefits and minimize
Community
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar the tradeoffs of community- and utility-scale solar projects.
Development
Zoning for
Development
Planning processes can help community members
Improving
identify and begin to break down unintentional barriers
M5 Land-Use Deciding to
Decision-Making make or update to large-scale solar development. They can also provide
a plan space for hard conversations about how different types
Hosting of large-scale solar projects may affect different segments
Large-Scale Solar Fostering
M6 Development
Implementing
and evaluating
authentic public of the community. Through these processes, local juris-
participation
Projects dictions can start laying the groundwork for an equitable
distribution of impacts and benefits.
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar This module outlines five steps local jurisdictions can
Development take to define and integrate a vision and policy support
Selecting
Assessing for large-scale solar development into local plans. The first
conditions and step is deciding to make or update a plan. The next steps
Maximizing strategies
M8 Success
trends
are fostering authentic public participation, assessing
Setting goals
conditions and trends, and setting goals and objectives.
and objectives The final step is selecting strategies to advance those
goals and objectives. Subsequent modules explore plan
implementation and evaluation.
Figure 3-1. The community planning process, rooted in
authentic public participation
50 | MODULE 3. Community Planning for Large-Scale Solar Development

Deciding to Make or Update a Plan Resolutions and Orders

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Community planning for large-scale solar development The local legislative body can establish formal political
Development begins with a commitment to make a new plan or to support for a new or updated plan through a resolution
update an existing plan. From a practical perspective, or policy statement (Table 3-1). Alternatively, a chief
Understanding
the Market for local plans provide a framework to guide public and elected official can issue an executive order or proc-
M2 Large-Scale Solar private decisions about community growth, preservation, lamation that serves a similar function. This resolution
Development and change. From a legal perspective, plan language and or order should first clearly and concisely express the
Community maps establish policy support for land-use and develop- reasons why solar energy is relevant or appropriate for
Planning for
ment regulations, land-use decisions, and public invest- the community. Then, it can outline the specific poli-
Development ments of time or money. cies, plans, programs, and land-use regulations that the
Local jurisdictions can establish policy support jurisdiction might implement to guide large-scale solar
Zoning for for large-scale solar development in the context of development in line with the community’s goals and
a broader comprehensive, functional, or subarea expectations.
Development
plan-making or plan-updating process. Alternative- For example, the Pace Land Use Law Center’s Model
Improving ly, some jurisdictions may choose to start a new Solar Energy Resolution expresses a commitment to
M5 Land-Use plan-making process to focus specifically on large- craft a strategy for solar development at all scales (Bach-
Decision-Making scale solar development. In either case, local elected er, Nolon, and Zezula 2015). It establishes a task force
Hosting officials can initiate a planning effort by adopting a to study the issue and directs this task force to engage
Large-Scale Solar local resolution or executive order. the community, staff, and other stakeholders to develop
M6 Development plans, programs, and regulations to advance the use of
Projects
solar energy.
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

Table 3-1. Examples of Resolutions and Policy Statements That Support Large-Scale Solar Development
Defining
Jurisdiction Policy Key Features
Development
Butte County, CA Utility-Scale Solar Guide Vision Presents a vision for the role of large-scale solar development in the county
Understanding Statement and Guiding Principles
the Market for Lists 14 guiding principles for implementation
(2017)
Development Multnomah County, Resolution 2017-046 (2017) Sets a goal of meeting 100% of communitywide energy needs through
OR renewable sources by 2050
Community
Planning for Sets a target of supplying 2% of all energy needs with community-based
M3 Large-Scale Solar renewable energy projects by 2035
Development
Prioritizes projects that will provide local benefits to communities of color,
Zoning for women, tribes and native communities, and low-income utility customers
M4 Large-Scale Solar St. Lawrence County, Resolution 132-2020 (2020) Encourages solar development on marginal farmland and the co-location of
Development
NY sheep grazing and apiaries
Improving Encourages community-serving solar projects

M5 Land-Use Requires payment in lieu of taxes for projects that sell electricity to the grid
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
The Comprehensive Plan jurisdiction are appropriate for large-scale solar devel-
Assisting The local comprehensive plan, sometimes referred to as opment (Table 3-2). Ideally, the plan should support this
M7 Large-Scale Solar the general plan or the master plan, is the foundational policy direction by
Development
policy document for local governments. The compre-
hensive plan provides legal support for local land-use • explaining that energy from the sun is a free, abun-
M8 Maximizing and development regulations and decisions. In fact, dant local resource;
Success • identifying potential benefits the community hopes
many states require zoning regulations and land-use
decisions to be in conformance with an adopted com- to receive from large-scale solar development;
prehensive plan. Ideally, the local comprehensive plan • describing large-scale solar development opportuni-
also serves as the primary guide for programmatic and ties and conflicts; and
capital investments. • setting targets for the amount of locally produced
At a minimum, the local comprehensive plan should solar power.
provide clear policy direction about which areas of the

Table 3-2. Examples of Comprehensive Plans That Address Large-Scale Solar Development
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Jurisdiction Plan Key Features
Development
Franklin County, VA Comprehensive Plan Public Utilities policy recommendations include a clear objective to support
Understanding (Updated 2022) solar development at all scales (36.0) and strategies to minimize land-use
the Market for
impacts of large solar facilities
Development Johnson County, KS Rural Comprehensive Plan (Updated Land Use Plan includes special land-use considerations for Utility-Scale
2022) Solar Facilities (9.1)
Community
Planning for Mills County, IA Renewable Energy Chapter for the New element provides extensive background on large-scale solar
M3 Large-Scale Solar Mills County Comprehensive Plan development characteristics and policy recommendations for utility-scale
Development Update (2023) solar
Pinal County, AZ Comprehensive Plan (2019) Planning guidelines specify that solar projects are compatible with the
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar county’s farming heritage (p.85)
Development Land-use map designates “Green Energy Production” areas for large-scale
PV projects (B1)
Improving San Bernardino Countywide Plan (2020) Renewable Energy & Conservation Element (RECE) includes guiding
M5 Land-Use County, CA principles for large-scale solar projects
Decision-Making
RECE designates permissible sites for large-scale solar projects
Hosting
Stearns County, MN Shape Stearns: 2040 Comprehensive Agriculture element includes a Clean Energy Focus Area
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Plan (2020)
Element encourages solar development throughout the county
Projects
Recommends siting solar projects in ways that reduce land-use conflicts and
Assisting continuing to require habitat-friendly ground cover on project sites
Development
Functional Plans er, standalone functional plans do not have the same
Maximizing Functional plans are standalone plans for systems or statutory authority as the comprehensive plan. Conse-
M8 Success special topics that have spatial planning implications but quently, local elected officials should either adopt the
are not limited to a single subarea of community. Com- functional plan by reference as a component of the
mon examples include energy plans and sustainability or comprehensive plan or adopt a comprehensive plan
climate action plans. update that incorporates the functional plan’s fact base
Local jurisdictions can use a new or updated func- and policy recommendations.
tional plan to detail a vision and a clear policy direction
for large-scale solar development (Table 3-3). Howev-

Table 3-3. Examples of Functional Plans That Address Large-Scale Solar Development
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Jurisdiction Plan Key Features
Development
Boise, ID Boise’s Energy Future: A Recommends increasing community-scale shared solar installations as a
Understanding Community-wide Energy Plan (2019) short-term strategy
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Recommends supporting utility-scale solar projects as a long-term strategy
Development Raleigh, NC Community Climate Action Plan Recommends evaluating the potential for solar projects on vacant,
Community (2021) underutilized, or open spaces, such as a closed landfill site and water district
Planning for sites
M3 Large-Scale Solar Santa Barbara Strategic Energy Plan (2019) Analyzes total solar power potential
Development County, CA
Discusses opportunities and obstacles for utility-scale solar projects
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar Recommends sites for utility-scale solar development
Development
Improving
Subarea Plans As with functional plans, local elected officials should
M5 Land-Use Subarea plans focus on issues of particular importance either adopt the subarea plan by reference into their
Decision-Making to a limited contiguous area within a jurisdiction, such as comprehensive plan or update relevant sections to reflect
a neighborhood, corridor, or district. Local jurisdictions the community’s new vision for the neighborhood, corri-
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar can use a new or updated subarea plan to signal support dor, or district.
M6 Development for large-scale solar development on a specific site or on
Projects multiple sites in the plan area (Table 3-4).
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Table 3-4. Examples of Subarea Plans That Address Large-Scale Solar Development
Development
Jurisdiction Plan Key Features
Maximizing Dayton, OH Carillon-Edgemont Neighborhood Recommends reusing the site of a former factory for a large-scale solar
M8 Success Plan (2018) installation
Pinellas County, FL Pinellas Gateway/Mid-County Area Establishes a vision for a 240-acre solar project on a former landfill site
Plan (2020)
Encourages large rooftop solar installations on industrial buildings
Portland, OR Sullivan’s Gulch Neighborhood Plan Climate Action section includes support for a community solar initiative that
(2019) would allow local sponsorship and investment in large-scale projects
Encourages large rooftop solar installations on commercial buildings

Fostering Authentic Public Participation

Defining
Development Moratoria The next step after a local jurisdiction has made a formal
A development moratorium is a local law suspend-
Development commitment to plan for large-scale solar development
ing applications for one or more types of land-use is fostering authentic public participation. As Figure 3-1
Understanding
the Market for
approvals. State statutes governing the use of mora- suggests, it should be, ideally, a continuous process.
M2 Large-Scale Solar toria vary across the U.S., but the general purpose of The planning process will vary based on who leads
Development a moratorium is to provide time for a local jurisdic- and participates in it, but the purpose remains the same:
Community tion to study land-use issues and thoughtfully craft including as many people as possible to represent multi-
Planning for plans and development regulations that address
ple segments of the community and, as a result, ensuring
Development
those issues. an equitable distribution of benefits and tradeoffs. Three
A moratorium is a relatively common response to essential questions can guide local officials when plan-
Zoning for a new form of development, including large-scale ning for large-scale solar development (Ezell 2022):
M4 Large-Scale Solar solar development. However, this approach can
Development
threaten the viability of projects that have secured • Who is helped?
Improving private commitments based on the existing de • Who is harmed?
M5 Land-Use velopment policies in the jurisdiction. To be legally • Who is missing?
Decision-Making defensible, local officials must apply a moratorium as
narrowly as possible to address an immediate threat To foster authentic public participation, local officials
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar to public health, safety, or welfare and set a specific must engage key stakeholder groups and design the
M6 Development expiration date (St. Amand and Merriam 2003). planning process in a way that upholds principles of
Projects Proactive community planning is often the best inclusivity.
Assisting strategy for avoiding a moratorium. If a comprehen-
M7 Large-Scale Solar sive plan or zoning code is currently silent on large- Stakeholder Engagement
Development scale solar development, including projects that Each local jurisdiction has a distinct set of key stakehold-
integrate energy storage, local officials should roll ers for large-scale solar development based on its phys-
Maximizing this into the next plan or regulatory update. ical, social, and economic context and characteristics.
M8 Success Potential stakeholders include individuals and organiza-
tions with specialized knowledge about the technical or
practical requirements of solar development, groups that
may benefit directly from solar development, and groups
that may have concerns or desires about how solar devel-
opment might affect their quality of life (Table 3-5).

Table 3-5. Potential Stakeholder Groups to Engage in Planning for Large-Scale Solar Development
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Stakeholder Group Potential Interests in Large-Scale Solar Development
Development
Local elected officials Responsible for approving plans, regulations, and public investments that affect the location, timing,
Understanding and amount of solar development
the Market for
Local government staff and Responsible for administering plans, regulations, and public investments that affect the location,
Development appointed officials timing, and amount of solar development
Community Residents and business owners May be interested in how solar development could affect electricity costs, property values or rents,
Planning for the local economy, community appearance, or various other issues
M3 Large-Scale Solar Farmers and other large landowners May be interested in hosting a large-scale solar project on their land for income diversification or
Development a retirement strategy or how solar development could affect the local agricultural economy, cash
rents, future ability to farm, or various other issues
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar Community-based service and May be interested in how solar development could affect the quality of life in specific
Development development organizations neighborhoods or service areas
Social equity and environmental May be interested in ensuring that solar development benefits low- and moderate-income
Improving justice organizations households, renters, or marginalized ethnic or racial groups
M5 Land-Use
Economic development May be interested in how solar development could affect the local economy
Decision-Making
organizations
Hosting Environmental protection and land May be interested in how solar development could affect greenhouse gas emissions, land cover and
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
conservation organizations habitat, air and water quality, or ecosystem services
Projects Electric utilities Responsible for managing the interconnection of large-scale solar projects; may be interested in
owning or purchasing power from large-scale solar facilities
Assisting Regional transmission authorities Responsible for coordinating, controlling, and monitoring the transmission network across a defined
M7 Large-Scale Solar regional grid
Development
Solar industry Interested in participating in large-scale solar development and providing information about
industry standards and practices
Maximizing
M8 Success
Representatives of neighboring May have prior experiences with large-scale solar development or be interested in how solar
jurisdictions development in a neighboring jurisdiction could affect electricity costs, the local economy, or
various other issues in their jurisdictions
The most straightforward way to identify potential more complicated aspect is figuring out those who may
stakeholders is to begin by asking “who is helped?” The be negatively affected. When asking “who is harmed?”,
users or beneficiaries of any proposed large-scale solar planners should consider various types of harm—finan-
development project should be easily identifiable. The cial, physical, cultural, psychological, or harm by being

left out of the process—and mitigate negative impacts policies. Dispelling misinformation may be a key part of
Defining
by engaging with those who already have concerns and the continuous process of engaging all segments of the
Development those who may be unaware of potential harm. community.
And by asking “who is missing?” planners can review The Kirwan Institute has outlined six key principles for
Understanding
the Market for the inclusivity of their efforts. Planners should engage equitable and inclusive civic engagement (Holley 2016):
M2 Large-Scale Solar those with an interest in the subject matter, inside and • Embrace the gifts of diversity.
Development outside the jurisdiction, who have a stake in the area • Realize the role of race, power, and injustice.
Community being affected. This includes those with different abilities • Practice radical hospitality.
Planning for • Build trust and commitment.
and health needs, who, in aggregate, are diverse in a
Development variety of ways, and groups that are traditionally under- • Honor dissent and embrace protest.
represented or otherwise disproportionately left out of • Adapt to community change.
Zoning for planning conversations (Ezell 2022).
M4 Large-Scale Solar Process leaders should provide multiple ways for
Development
Process Design community stakeholders to participate in all stages of the
An authentic public participation process actively in- planning effort. They can do so by selecting appropriate
Improving tools and methods based on the purpose of each plan-
M5 Land-Use volves all segments of the community in analyzing issues,
ning activity (Table 3-6).
Decision-Making generating visions, developing plans, and monitoring
outcomes (Godschalk and Rouse 2015). It stands in con- Process leaders should also make efforts to reduce
Hosting barriers to participation for traditionally marginalized or
Large-Scale Solar trast to processes designed to satisfy the minimum legal
M6 Development requirements for soliciting public input—which typically underrepresented segments of the community. These
Projects leads to engagement efforts that exclude or marginalize barriers may stem from family or work responsibilities,
some population groups. language or literacy, transportation or accessibility, a lack
Assisting of trust, or various other factors (García, Garfinkel-Castro,
M7 Large-Scale Solar Inclusivity in planning means that all community
and Pfeiffer 2019).
Development members feel welcome to participate and are confident
that their participation can positively affect outcomes. There are several potential strategies leaders may be
The three essential questions should promote inclusivity able to use to broaden participation (NYSERDA 2021):
Maximizing
M8 Success in initial stakeholder engagement, but inclusivity is also
• Partner with community-based organizations to help
recruit participants and plan activities.
important during planning activities.
• Provide refreshments or childcare.
Perspectives on the benefits and tradeoffs of large-
• Select locations accessible by transit or help with
scale solar development are bound to differ across
alternative transportation arrangements
stakeholder groups. Inclusive public participation does
• Communicate to participants in their own language
not end at ensuring all groups get their voice heard. The
or offer translation services, including closed caption-
end results should be equitable and evidence-based
ing or sign-language interpretation.
Table 3-6. Potential Purposes of Different Public Participation Tools and Methods
Defining
Tool or Method Potential Purpose
Development
In-person or online workshops Focused discussions about solar development issues, potential policy goals and objectives, and
Understanding implementation strategies
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar In-person or online focus groups Identifying solar development issues that merit further discussion
Development or listening sessions
Community Online or printed surveys Identifying or prioritizing solar development issues that merit further discussion
Planning for
Interviews Learning more about how specific solar development issues may affect different segments of the
community
Development
Neighborhood meetings Focused discussions about the solar development issues of greatest interest to residents of specific
Zoning for neighborhoods
Booths at community events Building awareness about the planning effort and participation opportunities
Development
Committees or task forces Providing process oversight or developing policy recommendations
Improving Project websites Sharing information about the planning effort and participation opportunities or soliciting feedback
M5 Land-Use on solar development issues or draft plan components through web forms, interactive maps, or other
Decision-Making online engagement tools
Hosting Social media Sharing information about the planning effort and participation opportunities or soliciting feedback on
Large-Scale Solar solar development issues or draft plan components
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting Assessing Current Conditions and Trends Electricity Consumption and Production
M7 Large-Scale Solar Collecting and analyzing baseline and trend data relevant Documenting the pattern of electricity consumption and
Development to local large-scale solar development helps ensure that production in a jurisdiction can help planning process
local elected officials and planning process participants participants understand what role, if any, solar energy
Maximizing have the best available information to guide planning ef- systems currently play in meeting local energy needs.
M8 Success forts. Ideally, data collection and analysis should continue Participants should have access to information about
throughout the plan-making process as new issues sur- how much power the community needs now, the sourc-
face. However, data about local electricity consumption es of that power, and how much power the community
and production, the existing policy framework for solar will need in the future. This includes information about
development, and local solar development potential can the number, size, location, and customer base of any
help structure early conversations about large-scale solar existing and planned large-scale solar facilities in the
development issues. community. This knowledge better equips participants to

make informed decisions about the role large-scale solar This typically starts with an assessment of the quality
Defining
development may play in meeting or offsetting local of the local solar resource, which is the amount of solar
Development power demands. insolation, or the amount of sunlight per square meter
Planners and local government managers will likely per day, available across the community. While latitude
Understanding
the Market for need to obtain much of this information from the local and average cloud cover are the base conditions for this
M2 Large-Scale Solar utility. resource, topography and shading from trees or buildings
Development affect the solar potential for specific sites. Apart from the
Community Existing Policy Framework quality of the solar resource, the location and capacity of
M3 Planning for Documenting the existing policy framework for large- the local power distribution and transmission network
Large-Scale Solar scale solar development in a jurisdiction can help plan-
Development and the amount of available land near this network also
ning process participants understand the community’s constrain the total potential for large-scale solar develop-
Zoning for current solar development conditions and the approach ment (see Modules 2, 6, and 8).
M4 Large-Scale Solar local planning officials would use to handle land-use Planners and local government managers can use
Development
applications for solar development. Argonne National Laboratory’s Energy Zones Mapping
Improving
This existing policy framework consists of any previous- Tool or the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s State
M5 Land-Use ly adopted federal, state, local, and utility plans or policies and Local Planning for Energy (SLOPE) Platform to help
Decision-Making that affect where and how developers can site communi- assess the local solar resource and solar development
ty- or utility-scale solar projects in a jurisdiction (see Mod- potential (Figure 3-2). Beyond this, many state energy
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar ule 2). At a minimum, participants should have access to offices, regional planning agencies, and colleges and
M6 Development information about state siting processes for large-scale universities have expertise in geographic information
Projects solar projects and any solar-specific policy language in systems, generally, or solar mapping, specifically, that
Assisting local plans and regulations. planning process leaders can draw on, if necessary, to
M7 Large-Scale Solar Planners and local government managers can sup- help refine assessments based on local conditions.
Development plement their knowledge of the existing framework by
reaching out to their counterparts in state energy offices,
Maximizing local utilities, and regional planning agencies (as well as
M8 Success other previously identified key stakeholders).
Development Potential
Documenting the potential for large-scale solar develop-
ment in a jurisdiction can help planning process partic-
ipants understand practical limitations on the number,
size, and types of projects that the community could
accommodate.
Defining
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Figure 3-2. Modeled annual technical generation potential by county for utility-scale PV systems from the State and Local
Projects
Planning for Energy (SLOPE) Platform (Source: NREL)
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success Issue Identification and Prioritization The following questions may help process leaders and
Before planning process participants can agree on shared facilitators begin to draw out the most significant issues
goals and objectives for large-scale solar development, for stakeholders in their community (Bacher, Nolon, and
they must share an understanding of the relative impor- Zezula 2015):
tance of different solar development issues. Often, these
issues relate to the benefits and tradeoffs highlighted in
Module 1.

• How might large-scale solar development benefit demand (see Module 2). Planning process participants can
Defining
you, your organization, or the community? advance clean energy goals by formulating an objective to
Development • What are your biggest concerns about large-scale offset a specific percentage of their jurisdiction’s electricity
solar development? demand through local large-scale solar development.
Understanding
the Market for • What are some strategies for overcoming these
M2 Large-Scale Solar concerns? Low-Impact Siting and Design
Development • What other land uses may wish to locate on sites that Many local jurisdictions want to prioritize new develop-
Community could host large-scale solar facilities? ment on infill and previously developed sites over de-
M3 Planning for • How do the potential land-use impacts of those other velopment on previously undeveloped (i.e., greenfield)
Large-Scale Solar and culturally or historically significant sites. When de-
Development uses compare to large-scale solar development?
velopment does occur on lower-priority sites, they want
Zoning for Setting Goals and Objectives to ensure it preserves or enhances ecological functions,
M4 Large-Scale Solar After participants identify and prioritize large-scale solar such as promoting healthy watersheds and providing
Development
development issues and explore relevant conditions and wildlife habitat. Furthermore, many rural jurisdictions and
Improving
trends, process leaders should shift the focus to setting jurisdictions on the urban fringe want to minimize the
M5 Land-Use goals and objectives. In this context, a goal is a general impacts of new development on working farms or locally
Decision-Making statement about a desirable future condition, while an significant agricultural lands.
objective is a measurable outcome in furtherance of a Collectively, these priorities fit under the wider
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar certain goal. Together, goals and objectives define what concept of low-impact siting and design. Planning
M6 Development the local jurisdiction aims to achieve with respect to process participants can advance low-impact sit-
Projects large-scale solar development. ing and design goals by formulating objectives that
Assisting Potential themes for these goals and objectives in- encourage large-scale energy development that is
M7 Large-Scale Solar clude—but are not limited to—transitioning to clean compatible with land preservation and environmental
Development energy, low-impact siting and design, equitable devel- performance targets.
opment, and community resilience (NYSERDA 2021). The
Maximizing specific goals and objectives in the plan should reflect Equitable Development
M8 Success the shared values and priorities of the community. A growing number of local jurisdictions are making a
commitment to ensure that all segments of the commu-
Clean Energy Transition nity have a voice in and benefit from decisions related
For some local jurisdictions, community- or utility-scale to growth and change. This commitment acknowledges
solar development is one component of a broader com- a legacy of inequitable development outcomes, which
mitment to mitigate climate change by producing or occur when neighborhoods or population groups are
purchasing enough clean power to offset total electricity under-resourced due to past policy and investment

decisions and under-represented during planning and Community Resilience

Defining
development processes. These neighborhoods or popu- Many local jurisdictions have identified a need to enhance
Development lation groups often bear a disproportionately large share local resilience to climate change and extreme weather
of the harmful effects of new development projects events as a priority planning issue. Planning process partici-
Understanding
the Market for instead of capturing the benefits of those projects. pants can advance community resilience goals by formu-
M2 Large-Scale Solar Planning process participants can advance equitable lating objectives encouraging large-scale solar develop-
Development development goals by formulating objectives that en- ment projects that incorporate energy storage or function
Community courage large-scale development projects that benefit all as components of microgrids (see Module 8; Figure 3-3).
Planning for
segments of the community.
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success
Figure 3-3. A solar-powered microgrid owned by the Snohomish County Public Utility District (PUD) in Washington (Credit:
Snohomish County PUD)

Selecting Strategies Table 3-7. Potential Zoning Updates to Advance Broader

Defining
The final step in creating a new or updated plan to Goals
Development manage large-scale solar development is connecting
each objective to an implementation strategy. Potential Broader Goal Potential Zoning Updates
Understanding
the Market for strategies may include—but are not limited to—a mix Clean Energy Designate large-scale solar facilities as
M2 Large-Scale Solar of zoning updates, process improvements, development Transition permissible uses, subject to reasonable
Development partnerships, and technical or financial assistance pro- standards and development charges
Community grams (NYSERDA 2021). Low-Impact Adopt standards that incentivize or require
Planning for
Siting and Design large-scale solar facilities to establish native,
Development
Zoning Updates pollinator-friendly groundcover or combine
Local officials can use zoning to designate permissible solar power production with agricultural
activities
Zoning for locations and site design features for community- and
M4 Large-Scale Solar utility-scale solar development in furtherance of broader Adopt standards that incentivize solar facilities
Development on previously developed sites
shared goals (Table 3-7). Zoning updates may focus on
defining key terms, specifying permissible uses, or es- Equitable Designate community-scale solar facilities
Improving Development as permissible or potentially permissible
M5 Land-Use tablishing development and procedural standards and
uses, subject to reasonable standards and
Decision-Making development charges (see Module 4). development charges
Hosting Adopt standards that incentivize shared solar
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
projects
Projects Community Designate solar facilities that include
Resilience energy storage as permissible or potentially
Assisting permissible uses, subject to reasonable
M7 Large-Scale Solar standards and development charges
Development
Adopt standards that incentivize microgrid
projects
Maximizing
M8 Success

Process Improvements Table 3-8. Potential Process Improvements to Advance Broad-

Defining
Local officials can use discretionary land-use deci- er Goals
Development sion-making processes to increase the benefits and
reduce the tradeoffs of specific community- or utility-scale Broader Goal Potential Process Improvements
Understanding
the Market for solar projects in furtherance of broader shared goals (Ta- Clean Energy Ensure each step in the development review
M2 Large-Scale Solar ble 3-8). Process improvements may focus on the quality Transition process for large-scale solar facilities adds value
Development of applicant submissions, development review proce- Low-Impact Pursue development agreements and impose
Community dures, community benefit negotiations, staff reports and Siting and Design conditions of approval that minimize site-
Planning for specific land-use impacts of large-scale solar
written decisions, or project inspections (see Module 5).
facilities
Development Process improvements that decrease the average time
it takes for developers to secure approval for large-scale Equitable Evaluate the likely impacts of each solar
Zoning for Development development proposal on different segments
solar projects can help accelerate a clean energy transi-
tion. Local officials can advance low-impact siting and
of the community
Development Negotiate for specific community benefits
design goals by pursuing development agreements and
to offset negative impacts that cannot be
Improving imposing conditions of approval that ensure that devel- otherwise mitigated
M5 Land-Use opers minimize and mitigate any site-specific land-use
Community Seek additional input from public safety and
Decision-Making impacts of large-scale solar projects. They can pursue eq- Resilience emergency management staff and utility
Hosting uitable development goals by carefully considering how stakeholders when development proposals
Large-Scale Solar specific solar development proposals are likely to benefit include energy storage or microgrid features
M6 Development or negatively impact different segments of the commu-
Projects
nity and, when necessary and permissible, negotiating
Assisting for specific community benefits. And they can promote
M7 Large-Scale Solar community resilience by improving coordination with
Development
public safety staff and utility stakeholders when projects
incorporate energy storage or microgrid features.
Maximizing
M8 Success

Development Partnerships Table 3-9. Potential Development Partnership Approaches to

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Local jurisdictions may have opportunities to help meet Advance Broader Goals
Development large-scale solar development objectives by hosting
community- or utility-scale projects on local government Broader Goal Potential Development Partnership
Understanding Approaches
the Market for land (Table 3-9). Strategies that include hosting projects
M2 Large-Scale Solar may address project goals and selecting potential sites Clean Energy Issue a request for proposals for large-scale
Development and development partners (see Module 6). Transition solar development on underutilized local
Community government land
Planning for
Establish clear system size or performance
Development goals in requests for proposals
Low-Impact Establish clear environmental protection or
Zoning for Siting and Design enhancement objectives in requests for
M4 Large-Scale Solar proposals and mandatory beneficial project
Development design features in partner agreements
Equitable Establish clear project participation goals in
Improving
Development requests for proposals for large-scale solar
M5 Land-Use
development on underutilized local
Decision-Making
government land
Hosting Community Establish clear energy storage or microgrid-
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Resilience related objectives in requests for proposals for
large-scale solar development on underutilized
Projects
local government land
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

Technical or Financial Assistance Table 3-10. Potential Technical or Financial Assistance Ap-
Defining
In some cases, local officials may choose to create tech- proaches to Advance Broader Goals
Development nical or financial assistance programs to help meet
large-scale solar development objectives (Table 3-10). Broader Goal Potential Financial or Technical
Understanding Assistance Approaches
the Market for Strategies that include technical or financial assistance
M2 Large-Scale Solar programs may address eligibility, assistance options, or Clean Energy Create educational materials that highlight
Development Transition solar development opportunities and explain
funding sources, among other topics (see Module 7).
permitting processes
Community
Planning for Low-Impact Create a siting tool that helps developers
M3 Large-Scale Solar Siting and Design identify preferred locations for large-scale solar
Development facilities
Zoning for Offer a tax incentive for projects sited on

M4 Large-Scale Solar previously developed land
Development Equitable Serve as an anchor subscriber for a shared solar
Development project seeking to broaden access to solar
Improving energy for low-income households
M5 Land-Use
Offer a tax incentive for shared solar
Decision-Making
projects serving low-income households
Hosting Community Offer a tax incentive for solar facilities that
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Resilience include microgrid features
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Development
• Community planning for large-scale solar development begins with a commitment to make a new plan or to
Understanding update an existing plan.
the Market for
• Proactive community planning is often the best strategy for avoiding a moratorium on large-scale solar
Development development.
Community • At a minimum, the local comprehensive plan should provide clear policy direction about which areas of the
Planning for jurisdiction are appropriate for large-scale solar development.
M3 Large-Scale Solar • Local officials can foster authentic public participation by engaging key stakeholders as soon as possible and
Development designing the planning process in a way that upholds principles of inclusivity.
Zoning for • Collecting and analyzing baseline and trend data relevant to local large-scale solar development helps ensure
M4 Large-Scale Solar that local elected officials and planning process participants have the best available information to guide
Development planning efforts.
• Plan goals and objectives may address transitioning to clean energy, low-impact siting and design, equitable
Improving
development, community resilience, or other themes of local interest.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making • Potential plan implementation strategies include zoning updates, process improvements, development
partnerships, and technical or financial assistance programs.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Defining
Development American Planning Association. 2023. Research KnowledgeBase: Online Public Engagement.
Understanding ———. 2023. Research KnowledgeBase: Solar Energy.
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Arigoni, Danielle, William Armbruster, Melissa Stanton, Mike Watson, Rebecca Delphia, Victoria Lemley, and Patricia Oh.
Development 2018. Roadmap to Livability: Community Listening Session Toolkit. Washington, D.C.: AARP.
Community Bacher, Jessica, John Nolon, and Tiffany Zezula. 2015. Land Use Planning for Solar Energy: Resource Guide. White Plains, N.Y.: Pace
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar University Land Use Law Center.
Development
Baker, Shalanda, Subin DeVar, and Shiva Prakash. 2019. The Energy Justice Workbook. Boston: Initiative for Energy Justice.
Zoning for
Beyea, Wayne, Harmony Fierke-Gmazel, M. Charles Gould, Sarah Mills, Bradley Neumann, and Mary Reilly. 2021. Planning & Zoning
Development for Solar Energy Systems: A Guide for Michigan Local Governments. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Extension.
Bryson, John M., Kathryn S. Quick, Carissa Schively Slotterback, and Barbara C. Crosby. 2012. “Designing Public Participation Pro-
Improving
cesses.” Public Administration Review 73(1): 23–34.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making Calvert, Kirby. 2019. Mapping Opportunities for Land-Based Renewable Energy Generation in Ontario: A Guidebook for Local Plan-
Hosting ners and Analysts. Guelph, Ontario: Community Energy Knowledge and Action Partnership.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Coffey, Darren. 2019. “Planning for Utility-Scale Solar Energy Facilities.” PAS Memo, September/October.
Projects Curti, Julie, Farrah Andersen, and Kathryn Wright. 2018. A Guidebook on Equitable Clean Energy Program Design for Local Govern-
Assisting ments and Partners. Waltham, Mass.: Cadmus Group.
Davis, Dave, Josh Meyer, Aatisha Singh, Molly Wright, and Paul Zykofsky. 2013. Participation Tools for Better Community Planning.
Development
Sacramento, Calif.: Local Government Commission.
Maximizing Emerald Cities Collaborative. 2023. Anchor-Community Engagement Workbook.

M8 Success
Ezell, Kyle. 2022. “Three Essential Questions for Better Planning.” PAS Memo 110. Chicago: American Planning Association
García, Ivis, Andrea Garfinkel-Castro, and Deirdre Pfeiffer. 2019. Planning With Diverse Communities. PAS Report 593. Chicago:
American Planning Association.
Gilliland, Ed, and Avery Palmer. 2020. Large-Scale Solar Development: A Playbook for Southwest Virginia. Washington, D.C.: The
Solar Foundation.

González, Rosa. 2019. “The Spectrum of Community Engagement to Ownership.” Oakland, Calif.: Movement Strategy Center.
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Great Plains Institute. 2020. “Grow Solar Toolkits.” Custer, Wis.: Midwest Renewable Energy Association.
Development
Godschalk, David, and David Rouse. 2015. Sustaining Places: Best Practices for Comprehensive Plans. PAS Report 578. Chicago:
Understanding American Planning Association.
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Gonzalez, Rosa. 2017. Community-Driven Climate Resilience Planning: A Framework. Oakland, Calif.: National Association of Cli-
Development mate Resilience Planners.
Community
Planning for Holley, Kip. 2016. The Principles for Equitable and Inclusive Civic Engagement. Columbus, Ohio: Kirwan Institute.
Development Institute for Local Government. 2015. Inclusive Public Engagement.
Zoning for Logan Simpson. 2022. “Becoming Utility-Scale Solar Ready: Principles and Best Practices for Colorado’s Local Governments.”
M4 Large-Scale Solar Denver: Colorado Solar and Storage Association.
Development
Lubeck, Rosanne, and Stephanie Fuentes. 2023. Connected & Directed: A Guide for Managing Conflict in the Participatory Process.
Improving Philadelphia: Connecting the Dots.
M5 Land-Use Metropolitan Council. 2015. “Solar Resource Development Requirement.” In Local Planning Handbook.
Decision-Making
Michigan Economic Development Corporation (MEDC). 2019. “Six-Step Guide to Public Participation: An Outline for How a
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Community May Organize Its Public Participation Strategy.”
M6 Development Miskowiak, Douglas. 2004. “Crafting an Effective Plan for Public Participation.” Stevens Point, Wis.: Center for Land Use Education.
Projects
Morley, David, ed. 2014. Planning for Solar Energy. PAS Report 575. Chicago: American Planning Association.
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2023. “SLOPE: State and Local Planning for Energy.”
Development
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA). 2021. Clean Energy and Your Comprehensive Plan.
Maximizing Pascaris, Alexis S., Chelsea Schelly, Laurie Burnham, and Joshua M. Pearce. 2021. “Integrating Solar Energy With Agriculture:
M8 Success Industry Perspectives on the Market, Community, and Socio-Political Dimensions of Agrivoltaics.” Energy Research & Social
Science 75: 102023.
Ramanan, Abbe, Shauna Beland, Yasmin Yacoby, and Nicole Harnandez Hammer. 2021. Community Outreach and Solar Equity: A
Guide for States on Collaborating With Community-Based Organizations. Washington, D.C.: Clean Energy States Alliance.
Rhode Island Office of Energy Resources and the Division of Statewide Planning. 2019. Comprehensive Plans & Solar Energy
Systems.

Ross, Liz, and Megan Day. 2022. “Community Energy Planning: Best Practices and Lessons Learned in NREL’s Work With Com-
Defining
munities.” Golden, Colo: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Development Scenic Hudson. 2020. “Solar Mapping Tool Replication Guide.”
Understanding Sen, Basav, Griffin Bird, and Celia Bottger. 2018. Energy Efficiency with Justice: How State Energy Efficiency Policy Can Mitigate
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Climate Change, Create Jobs, and Address Racial and Economic Inequality. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Policy Studies.
Development SolSmart. 2017. Solar Energy Toolkit: Stakeholder Engagement.
Community
Planning for ———. 2019. “Tools to Help Local Governments With Solar Planning & Deployment.” News, July 9.
Development Spalding, Kristen Snow. 2020. “Practices for Just, Equitable and Sustainable Development of Clean Energy.” Boston: Ceres.
Zoning for St. Amand, Matthew, and Dwight Merriam. 2003. “Defensible Moratoria: The Law Before and After the Tahoe-Sierra Decision.”
M4 Large-Scale Solar Natural Resources Journal 43(3): 703–752.
Development
University of Michigan Graham Sustainability Institute. 2021. “Demo of EZMT Online Mapping Tool.”
Improving Yuen, Tina, and Jessica Nguyen. 2020. The Planner’s Playbook: A Community-Centered Approach to Improving Health & Equity.
M5 Land-Use Oakland, Calif.: ChangeLab Solutions.
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

MODULE 4
ZONING FOR LARGE-SCALE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Z oning and other land-use and development regulations are perhaps the
most powerful tools that local jurisdictions have at their disposal to help
implement community plans. Local land-use and development codes that
Development
Community
explicitly acknowledge large-scale solar development as a distinct, permissi-
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar ble, land use can help local officials maximize the benefits and minimize the
Development
Zoning for
tradeoffs of community- and utility-scale solar projects.
Development
Improving Local officials can use explicit regulations to ensure

M5 Land-Use solar projects are consistent with the community’s vision
Decision-Making
and goals for large-scale solar development, as expressed
Hosting in the local comprehensive plan (or other official plans)
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
(see Module 3). Furthermore, explicit regulations for solar
Projects development provide a degree of certainty to commu-
Specifying Establishing Establishing Establishing
nity members and solar developers about local require- Defining Key
Terms
Permissible Development Procedural Development
Assisting ments for different types of solar development. Uses Standards Standards Charges
The following sections highlight the importance of de-
Development
fining key terms, specifying permissible uses, and estab-
lishing appropriate standards and development charges
Maximizing
M8 Success
for large-scale solar development (Figure 4-1). While this
discussion references zoning as the primary regulatory Figure 4-1. Opportunities to address large-scale solar devel-
tool, most jurisdictions without zoning should still be able opment through zoning
to address these issues through a standalone ordinance
governing solar energy systems.
72 | MODULE 4. Zoning for Large-Scale Solar Development

Defining Defining Key Terms There are at least three common approaches to defin-
M1 Large-Scale Solar Local zoning codes define key terms to clarify the meaning solar energy systems as distinct land uses based on
Development ing of regulatory provisions and to improve the consis- the following factors:
Understanding tency of development review processes. Without clear,
the Market for solar-specific definitions, planning officials typically make • The relationship of the system to other structures
M2 Large-Scale Solar ad-hoc determinations about how specific provisions • The relationship between the system and any other
Development land uses on the same parcel
relate to a large-scale solar development proposal, which
Community may result in unpredictable outcomes. • The size of the system
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Officials may decide that large-scale solar develop-
Development ment is analogous to an existing defined or referenced Many local zoning codes define both roof-mounted
use and apply existing use permissions and standards (or rooftop) and ground-mounted (or freestanding) solar
Zoning for energy systems (Table 4-1). Some of these also define
M4 Large-Scale Solar for that existing use to new applications for large-scale
Development solar development. But some standards, such as lot building-integrated systems as a third category. Rooftop
coverage, might be difficult to interpret for a solar proj- and building-integrated systems fit within the building
Improving ect. Alternatively, officials may decide that solar devel- footprint of structures designed for, or dedicated to, other
M5 Land-Use opment is unlike any land use defined or referenced in purposes. In contrast, freestanding systems require land
Decision-Making not occupied by other structures.
existing regulations. In this instance, they may deter-
Hosting mine that solar development is prohibited altogether In zoning, a principal use is the primary or predomi-
Large-Scale Solar nant use of a lot, and accessory uses and structures must
M6 Development
or that it is subject to an unpredictable discretionary
be customarily associated with and subordinate to a
Projects review process.
Officials can avoid both of these scenarios by regulat- principal use. While virtually all zoning codes differen-
Assisting ing large-scale solar development as a distinct land use, tiate between accessory and principal uses, few define
which starts with clear definitions of different sizes and the accessory and principal versions of a use as distinct
Development land-use categories. Solar energy systems are noteworthy
types of solar energy systems. Furthermore, defining re-
lated terms can make it easier to promote specific devel- exceptions in some local zoning codes.
M8 Maximizing
opment outcomes and avoid legal disputes. When local codes use definitions to distinguish
Success between accessory and principal-use (or primary-use)
Systems of Different Types and Sizes solar energy systems, they often include references to
The foundational component of all large photovoltaic the intended recipient of the power produced by the
installations is the solar energy system. A solar energy sys- system. Furthermore, many codes seem to use distinc-
tem consists of solar collectors and all associated mount- tions between accessory and principal systems as a
ing hardware and equipment. proxy for system size. In practice, it’s prohibitively

Table 4-1. Examples of Use Definitions for Solar Energy Systems

Defining
Use Definition
Development
Solar energy system, roof- A solar energy system mounted on a rack that is fastened to or ballasted on a structure roof. Roof-mounted
Understanding mounted systems are accessory to the principal use. (Grow Solar Model Ordinances 2020)
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Solar energy system, A solar energy system that is an integral part of a principal or accessory building, rather than a separate
Development building-integrated mechanical device, replacing or substituting for an architectural or structural component of the building.
(Grow Solar Model Ordinances 2020)
Community
Planning for Solar energy system, ground- A solar energy system mounted on a rack or pole that rests or is attached to the ground. Ground-mounted
M3 Large-Scale Solar mounted systems can be either accessory or principal uses. (Grow Solar Model Ordinances 2020)
Development Solar energy system, A ground-mounted solar energy system with a footprint of less than [1–5] acres. (Georgia Model Solar
Zoning for small-scale Ordinance 2018)
M4 Large-Scale Solar Solar energy system, A ground-mounted solar energy system with a footprint of between [1– 5] and [15–50] acres. (Georgia
Development community-scale Model Solar Ordinance 2018)
Solar energy system, A ground-mounted solar energy system with a footprint of more than [15–50] acres. (Georgia Model Solar
Improving utility-scale Ordinance 2018)
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
difficult for local jurisdictions to monitor or enforce However, because some states preempt local permitting
Projects restrictions on where power from grid-connected sys- authority for systems over a certain rated capacity (see
tems travels, and system size has no inherent relation- Module 2, Table 2-9), there can be benefits to referenc-
Assisting ship to other uses on the same lot. ing both in size-based definitions. When officials base the
Consequently, planning officials should define thresholds for different sizes on average lot or block sizes
Development
ground-mounted systems of different sizes as distinct in different parts of the community, it can help them
land uses, rather than relying on distinctions between establish use permissions that better protect the existing
Maximizing
M8 Success
accessory and principal systems. Some local codes that development pattern.
define systems by size reference the rated capacity of the
system to determine whether a particular system is small Other Solar-Related Terms
or large (or in between). Others use the site or surface Definitions for other solar-related terms can reduce
area required to host the system. ambiguity in development standards for large-scale solar
Generally, definitions tied to site or surface area are projects. Additionally, local jurisdictions can use supple-
preferable to those tied to rated capacity since area mentary definitions to lay the foundation for regulations
has a direct relationship to potential land-use impacts. that advance specific policy goals (Table 4-2).

Table 4-2. Examples of Definitions for Other Solar-Related Terms

Defining
Term Definition
Development
Battery energy storage system An electrochemical device that charges (or collects energy) from the electrical grid or an
Understanding electricity generating facility, such as a Large-Scale Ground-Mounted Solar Photovoltaic
the Market for
Installation, and then discharges that energy at a later time to provide electricity or other grid
services when needed. (Cape Cod Commission Model Large-Scale Solar Bylaw)
Development
Community Tilt The angle of the solar panels and/or solar collector relative to horizontal. Tilt is often between 5
Planning for and 40 degrees. Solar energy systems can be manually or automatically adjusted throughout the
M3 Large-Scale Solar year. Alternatively, fixed-tilt systems remain at a static tilt year-round. (Model Site Plan
Development Regulations and Conditional Use Permits to Support Solar Energy Systems in Maine
Municipalities 2020)
Zoning for
Footprint The footprint of a ground-mounted solar energy system (SES) is calculated by drawing a
perimeter around the outermost SES panels and any equipment necessary for the functioning
Development
of the SES, such as transformers and inverters. The footprint does not include any visual buffer or
perimeter fencing. Transmission lines (or portions thereof ) required to connect the SES to a utility
Improving
or consumer outside the SES perimeter shall not be included in calculating the footprint. (Georgia
M5 Land-Use
Model Solar Ordinance 2018)
Decision-Making
Solar land coverage The land area that encompasses all components of the solar [energy] system including but not
Hosting limited to mounting equipment, panels and ancillary components of the system. This definition
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
does not include access roads or fencing and is not to be interpreted as a measurement of
impervious surface as it may be defined in this ordinance. (NHSEA Model Solar Zoning
Projects Ordinance 2018)
Assisting Solar energy system, agrivoltaic A solar energy system co-located on the same parcel of land as agricultural production, including
M7 Large-Scale Solar crop production, grazing, apiaries, or other agricultural products or services. (Grow Solar Model
Development Ordinances 2020)
Solar energy system, pollinator-friendly A community- or [utility]-scale solar energy system that meets the requirements of the 2020
Maximizing Indiana Solar Site Pollinator Habitat Planning Scorecard developed by Purdue University or
M8 Success another pollinator-friendly checklist developed by a third party as a solar-pollinator standard
designed for Midwestern ecosystems, soils, and habitat. (Model Solar Ordinance for Indiana
Local Governments 2020)
Brightfield A brownfield site that is redeveloped through the incorporation of one or more solar energy
technologies. (42 USC 3154d(a))

Many local zoning codes include definitions for differ-

Defining
ent components of solar energy systems, such as solar
collector, array, inverter, solar mounting devices, and solar
Development
storage battery. Some also define related equipment and
Understanding
the Market for
facilities that are separate from the system itself, such as
M2 Large-Scale Solar interconnection, transmission equipment, and substation.
Development These terms can help users better understand what
Community constitutes a solar energy system and how a large system
Planning for
relates to a wider network of utility infrastructure.
Development
Some local zoning codes define terms that can help
users understand the effects of specific development
Zoning for standards. These terms include tilt and footprint or solar
land coverage. Solar energy systems with tracking devices
Development
have different heights at different times of the day and Figure 4-2. A farmer tilling soil at Jack’s Solar Garden, a five-
Improving year because their solar collectors tilt up and down as acre community-scale agrivoltaic installation in Longmont,
M5 Land-Use they track the sun across the sky. By defining tilt in this Colorado (Photo by Werner Slocum, NREL 64426)
Decision-Making context, planning officials can specify that systems at
Hosting maximum tilt must satisfy height limits. Similarly, because
Large-Scale Solar large systems typically include spaced rows of separate- previously developed and potentially contaminated sites
M6 Development ly mounted arrays, often with vegetated groundcover may choose to define brightfield.
Projects underneath, jurisdictions should not apply traditional
Assisting definitions of lot coverage to these systems. If lot cov- Specifying Permissible Uses
M7 Large-Scale Solar erage is important to the community, officials should Zoning codes commonly include one or more agricultur-
Development define footprint or solar land coverage to clarify how lot al, residential, commercial (or mixed residential and com-
coverage or impervious surface area restrictions apply to mercial), industrial, and open space zoning districts. Each
Maximizing these systems. district has a distinct intent and is governed by a distinct
M8 Success Finally, some local zoning codes define preferred solar set of zoning standards.
development scenarios as distinct system types or land Local zoning codes specify permissible uses by zoning
uses. For example, jurisdictions that want to promote the district. Generally, each defined land use is either per-
colocation of solar development and agricultural activi- mitted “by right,” potentially permissible, or prohibited
ties or pollinator habitat may choose to define agrivoltaic altogether in each zoning district. Many contemporary
(Figure 4-2) or pollinator-friendly solar energy system. And codes also distinguish between permissible accessory
jurisdictions that want to promote solar development on and principal uses.

These lists or tables of permitted uses by district de- land uses on a case-by-case basis, and their final decision
Defining
termine where different types and sizes of solar energy
M1 Large-Scale Solar typically follows a public hearing. Zoning codes refer to
Development systems are, or may be, allowed across the jurisdiction. these discretionary uses as “conditional,” “special,” or “spe-
Furthermore, some jurisdictions have added special-pur- cial exception” uses.
Understanding
the Market for pose districts to their zoning codes to accommodate When defined based on characteristics of the local
M2 Large-Scale Solar large-scale renewable energy development. development pattern, community-scale solar energy
Development
systems are compatible, or potentially compatible, with
Community Use Permissions by District most common zoning districts (Table 4-3). They are qui-
M3 Planning for The term “by-right” (or “as-of-right”) use means a use of
Large-Scale Solar eter and cleaner and generate less traffic than most agri-
property that is fully compatible with the intent of the
Development cultural, residential, commercial, and industrial land uses.
zoning district. If the use satisfies all applicable district-
Local jurisdictions should only prohibit these systems in
Zoning for and use-specific zoning standards, the local jurisdiction
M4 Large-Scale Solar small-lot districts or districts where any land disturbance
must permit it. Some jurisdictions issue ministerial (or
Development would undermine resource conservation goals, such as a
staff-level) zoning or use permits for these uses. Others
heavily forested area.
simply confirm compliance with applicable zoning stan-
Improving Similarly, utility-scale solar energy systems are often
M5 Land-Use dards before issuing a building permit, business license,
compatible, or potentially compatible, with zoning dis-
Decision-Making or certificate of occupancy (for habitable structures).
tricts that permit other large-footprint uses. This includes
In contrast, potentially permissible uses are subject to
Hosting agricultural and industrial districts, as well as some high-
Large-Scale Solar discretionary review and approval by local officials. Local
M6 Development officials must determine whether these uses are compati-
er-intensity commercial districts.
Projects ble with the intent of the zoning district and surrounding
Assisting
Development
Table 4-3. Example of Use Permissions for Large-Scale Solar Energy Systems (Adapted from Day 2020)
Maximizing
M8 Success Type of Solar Residential Commercial Industrial, Special Conservation
Energy System Districts Districts Agricultural, Utilities, and Historic Districts
and Rural Districts
Community-scale Permitted with a Permitted by right Permitted by right Permitted with a
discretionary use permit discretionary use permit
Utility-scale Prohibited Permitted with a Permitted with a Prohibited
discretionary use permit discretionary use permit

Special-Purpose Districts Establishing Development Standards

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Local jurisdictions often adopt special-purpose zoning Zoning codes also include development standards that
Development districts to address the unique characteristics of a specific define permissible locations and dimensions for struc-
area or to promote unified large-scale development. Lo- tures or activities on a lot. Many contemporary codes also
Understanding
the Market for cal officials may map these districts to specific properties include development standards that relate to site condi-
M2 Large-Scale Solar at the time of adoption, or they may hold off on mapping tions or environmental performance. Each development
Development until they approve an owner’s request for a rezoning to standard may apply universally across all zoning districts
Community the special-purpose district. Special districts that are not and uses, to all uses within a certain district, or to a specif-
Planning for
mapped at the time of adoption are often referred to as ic use (or small group of similar uses).
Development “floating” zones. Because large-scale solar development is often quite
Additionally, special districts may be base or overlay different from neighboring land uses, universal and dis-
Zoning for zoning designations. Once mapped to a specific property, trict-specific development standards may not be effective
base zoning districts serve as either the primary or only for promoting preferred development outcomes. Conse-
Development
zoning designation for that property. Overlay zoning dis- quently, many local jurisdictions have added use-specific
Improving tricts add to or modify the base zoning district standards development standards to their zoning codes to establish
M5 Land-Use within a defined area, which need not match base district additional requirements or incentives for community- or
Decision-Making boundaries. utility-scale solar energy systems.
Hosting A mapped special district for large-scale solar develop-
Large-Scale Solar ment can help local jurisdictions reserve priority areas for Dimensional Standards
M6 Development community- or utility-scale solar projects and associated Many local zoning codes include special setbacks, height
Projects limits, and lot coverage standards for ground-mounted so-
transmission infrastructure. Alternatively, local officials can
Assisting use floating zones to ensure the highest level of scrutiny lar energy systems. Setbacks specify the minimum required
M7 Large-Scale Solar for large-scale solar development proposals. In either distance between a system and the lot lines that define
Development the boundaries of the property hosting the system. Height
case, the district standards can then focus on the distinct
characteristics of these projects. limits specify the maximum permissible height of a system.
Maximizing The potential downside of a mapped special district is And lot coverage standards specify the total area or per-
M8 Success centage of the property that a system can occupy.
that the ideal location for large-scale solar development,
from a utility’s or solar developer’s perspective, may Planning officials can design dimensional standards
change over time. Factors beyond the local jurisdiction’s to address a variety of local goals, including reducing
direct control, such as the available capacity on distribu- the visual effects of ground-mounted systems on near-
tion or transmission lines and the costs associated with by properties and promoting health and safety. Height
interconnection, can impede efforts to steer solar proj- standards, for instance, affect how near, tall, or extensive a
ects to target locations. system appears from nearby properties.

Many local jurisdictions use lot coverage standards to specify a different height limit for ground-mounted
Defining
serve the additional purpose of achieving water quality
M1 Large-Scale Solar solar energy systems.
Development goals, such as limiting stormwater runoff. Coverage ratios
assume that impervious surfaces are analogous to roof- Site Conditions
Understanding
the Market for tops, parking areas, or driveways. Many local zoning codes require all ground-mounted
M2 Large-Scale Solar For lot coverage, local jurisdictions may be better solar energy systems to satisfy specific site-condition
Development served by explaining how district-specific lot coverage standards. These standards may describe conditions that
Community standards apply to ground-mounted solar energy sys- solar developers must establish or preserve, or condi-
Planning for
tems, rather than imposing a distinct lot coverage limit tions that may be incompatible with solar development.
Development on these systems. While solar arrays do alter the flow of They include standards related to soil quality, ground
stormwater, they do not prevent infiltration. Solar panels cover, historic or cultural resources, and buffering or
Zoning for are impervious but should not count as coverage if the screening, as well as standards that address site security,
project establishes self-sustaining deep-rooted vege- access, and parking.
Development
tation under and between the arrays. For example, the In some cases, these standards support broader com-
Improving zoning code may exempt the surface area of system munity goals. For example, standards that limit distur-
M5 Land-Use arrays from impervious coverage requirements, provided bance of prime agricultural soils or historic sites can help
Decision-Making the ground under and between arrays has permeable preserve farmland or historic resources in the case of solar
Hosting cover and soils are not compacted (GPI 2021; see Site development. Agricultural protection should not, how-
Large-Scale Solar Conditions). ever, be applied only to solar facilities and not to other
M6 Development Generally, there is no reason to require larger setbacks development forms that also convert farmland.
Projects for solar energy systems than for other permissible uses In other cases, these standards promote multiple
Assisting in a zoning district. And in industrial districts that have site-specific benefits. For example, standards that require
M7 Large-Scale Solar large setbacks to minimize the potential effects of noise developers to plant sites with perennial native vegeta-
Development or odors on surrounding properties, it may make sense tion can provide habitat for bees and other pollinators
to reduce the required setback for solar energy systems. or meet other habitat objectives supported in the local
M8 Maximizing It may also make sense to reduce the required setback if comprehensive plan. Perennial native vegetation or
Success the host property provides a landscaped buffer between pollinator-friendly ground cover also provide significant
the system and adjacent roads or surrounding properties improvement in long-term water quality outcomes (NREL
(see Site Conditions). 2023). Similarly, standards that require developers to plant
Ground-mounted solar energy systems typically do shrubs or trees between solar energy systems and adja-
not need to be more than 20 feet above the ground at cent roads or surrounding properties can lessen the vi-
maximum tilt. Because many zoning districts already sual impact of solar development and may also promote
permit structures this tall, it may be unnecessary to stormwater infiltration or other ecological benefits.

In still other cases, these standards focus on promoting systems will have very few visitors, and developers will
Defining
safe operations. For example, standards that require secu- provide space that can accommodate occasional visits
rity fencing and warning signs can prevent unauthorized for maintenance or inspections, even if not explicitly
Development
site access and reduce the likelihood of injuries, while required to do so.
Understanding
the Market for
standards that require compliance with building and As referenced above, standards governing landscaping
M2 Large-Scale Solar electrical codes can provide a basic level of protection for buffering or screening should work in concert with
Development from faulty wiring or hazardous construction (e.g., Article setbacks, particularly for solar projects where the primary
Community 691 of the National Fire Protection Association’s model (post-construction) impact to nearby properties is visual.
Planning for National Electric Code addresses utility-scale systems).
The greater the setback the less of a need for buffering
Development
Generally, there is no reason to require permanent and screening (and vice versa). Furthermore, buffering
off-street parking spaces for community- or utility-scale and screening for solar energy systems is most appropri-
Zoning for solar energy systems. In fact, limiting internal access ate when the development site is visible from existing
roads or parking may promote more ecological function residences. These standards are typically unnecessary if
Development
and limit soil compaction. Once operational, solar energy the site adjoins agricultural, industrial, or commercial uses.
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Table 4-4. Select Model Codes with Reasonable Site Conditions Standards
Projects
Model Code Publisher Target Audience
Assisting Georgia Model Solar Emory University Turner Environmental Law Clinic; Georgia Tech Counties and municipalities
M7 Large-Scale Solar Ordinance Strategic Energy Institute; University of Georgia Agriculture Technical in Georgia
Development Assistance Program
Minnesota Solar Model Midwest Renewable Energy Association Counties and municipalities
Maximizing Ordinance
M8 Success
in Minnesota
Model Solar Energy Local Law New York State Energy Research and Development Authority Municipalities in New York
Model Solar Ordinance for Indiana University Environmental Resilience Institute Counties and municipalities
Indiana Local Governments in Indiana
Sample Zoning for Solar Michigan State University Extension; University of Michigan Graham Counties and municipalities
Energy Systems Sustainability Institute in Michigan
Solar Energy Systems Rhode Island Division of Statewide Planning Municipalities in Rhode Island
Ordinance Template

Finally, promoting pollinator-friendly ground cover can windows (Guldberg 2012; Barrett and Devita 2011).
Defining
provide ecological benefits to the site and surrounding Similarly, for jurisdictions with tree preservation,
Development community, and increased development costs are fre- habitat protection, and erosion control and stormwa-
quently offset by lower long-term maintenance costs. ter management standards, there is often no need for
Understanding
the Market for Pollinator-friendly projects have been successfully devel- use-specific standards for solar energy systems. Local
M2 Large-Scale Solar oped in most states (USDOE 2023). jurisdictions should hold these systems to the same
Development The References and Resources section below includes standards as other types of large-scale development. For
Community several model codes with specific suggestions for reason- example, many jurisdictions prohibit widespread tree
Planning for
able standards (Table 4-4). removal and require post-construction stormwater runoff
Development volume and quality to mimic or improve upon pre-devel-
Environmental Performance opment conditions.
Zoning for Some local zoning codes require all community- or utili- In applying existing development or environmental
M4 Large-Scale Solar ty-scale ground-mounted solar energy systems to meet standards to solar development, however, officials should
Development
environmental performance requirements in addition to take care to recognize how solar development differs as a
Improving
satisfying dimensional and site-condition standards. Local land use from other forms of development. For stormwa-
M5 Land-Use jurisdictions adopt these environmental performance ter mitigation, large-scale solar facilities are distinct from
Decision-Making standards to prevent nuisances that affect neighboring other development in that solar panels, while impervious,
properties, such as noise or light pollution, or to advance do not limit the ground under the solar array from being
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar wider environmental goals, such as tree, habitat, or wa- used for stormwater infiltration. If solar projects adopt
M6 Development ter-quality protection. water quality best practices for compaction, soil depth,
Projects These standards may establish objective performance groundcover, and disconnection, the site can infiltrate
Assisting measures, such as a maximum number of lumens for most design storms with minimal additional infrastruc-
M7 Large-Scale Solar outdoor lighting, index of refraction for anti-reflective ture (NREL 2022a).
Development coatings, or decibels for sounds associated with system For maintaining watershed function, officials can refer
operations. Alternatively, they may simply state a sub- to the solar runoff calculator and best practice guidance
Maximizing jective performance goal, such as not causing nuisance developed in NREL’s Photovoltaic Stormwater Research
M8 Success glare or noise. and Testing (PV-SMaRT) project. Officials and solar
For jurisdictions with noise or outdoor lighting stan- developers can use the calculator to input site-specific
dards, there is often no need for use-specific standards for characteristics and select design storms to estimate run-
solar energy systems. When set back at least 50 feet from off amounts.
property lines, community- and utility-scale photovoltaic The References and Resources section below includes
systems are typically quieter than ambient noise levels in several model codes that emphasize environmental per-
residential neighborhoods and reflect less light than most formance (Table 4-5).

Table 4-5. Select Model Codes with an Emphasis on Environmental Performance

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Model Code Publisher Target Audience
Development
Kentucky Model Solar Zoning Ordinance Kentucky Resources Council Counties and municipalities in Kentucky
Understanding Model Large-Scale Solar Bylaw Cape Cod Commission Municipalities in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Model Site Plan Regulations and Maine Audubon Municipalities in Maine
Development Conditional Use Permits to Support Solar
Community Energy Systems in Maine Municipalities
Planning for Renewable Solar Energy Systems Model Iowa Environmental Council; Counties and municipalities in Iowa
M3 Large-Scale Solar Ordinance The Nature Conservancy
Development
Zoning for
Development Decommissioning
Many local zoning codes include decommissioning
Improving
M5 Land-Use standards that describe actions owners must take once
Decision-Making a ground-mounted solar energy system stops producing
electricity. Local jurisdictions adopt these standards to
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
minimize the likelihood that they will be stuck with the
M6 Development costs of decommissioning abandoned systems.
Projects These standards often define the maximum period
Assisting
that a system can sit idle before owners must begin the
M7 Large-Scale Solar decommissioning process, as well as the deadline for
Development removing all structures and equipment from the site (Fig-
ure 4-3). Many codes require applicants to submit a de-
Maximizing commissioning plan that designates responsible parties
M8 Success and describes when and how these parties will remove
and recycle or reuse system components and restore the
project site. Many codes also require applicants to post a
bond at the time of project approval to cover decommis-
sioning costs. However, up-front bonding requirements Figure 4-3. Workers decommissioning a solar facility in
that exceed the value of the equipment can make large- Catawba County, North Carolina (Credit: RCI Construction)
scale solar development financially infeasible. Group)

Given that solar energy systems, like many electri- or community members before submitting their appli-
Defining
cal appliances, typically contain materials that can be cations. Generally, these standards only apply to zoning
recycled and others that should not be landfilled, it
Development amendments and discretionary use permits, or to certain
makes sense to address decommissioning in use-specif- complex or potentially controversial land uses.
Understanding
the Market for
ic standards for solar energy systems. For projects that Local jurisdictions require preapplication meetings
M2 Large-Scale Solar are subject to a discretionary review and approval, local with staff to improve the quality of applications and to
Development jurisdictions should consider requiring a decommission- increase the likelihood of a smooth decision-making
Community ing plan (Kolbeck-Urlacher 2022; NYSERDA 2020). For process. Similarly, preapplication meetings with com-
Planning for
by-right projects, it is a good idea to specify the trigger munity members can help potential applicants identify
Development
and timeline for decommissioning and require owners to and respond to community concerns before finalizing
reuse or recycle system components whenever practical project details.
Zoning for and restore the site to an appropriate condition for its Generally, local jurisdictions should only require pre-
designated use. application meetings with staff or community members
Development
when community- or utility-scale solar energy systems
Improving
Establishing Procedural Standards require a discretionary review and approval. However, if
M5 Land-Use Virtually all zoning codes include procedural standards there is available staff capacity, local jurisdictions should
Decision-Making that define the application requirements and deci- permit potential applicants to request preapplication
sion-making process for each distinct type of zoning meetings for any solar energy system.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar decision. These standards commonly cover requests Procedural standards for mandatory preapplication
M6 Development for zoning amendments, discretionary use permits (i.e., meetings with staff should specify the purpose of the
Projects conditional, special, or special exception uses), site plan meeting and the amount of time potential applicants
Assisting review, and variances from zoning standards. have to submit their applications following the meeting.
M7 Large-Scale Solar Some local jurisdictions that treat community- or It can also be helpful to specify optional materials, such
Development utility-scale solar energy systems as distinct uses in their as sketch plans, that potential applicants can bring to
zoning codes require these uses to satisfy use-specific make meetings more productive. Standards for manda-
Maximizing procedural standards in addition to universal procedural tory preapplication meetings with community members
M8 Success standards related to site plan review or discretionary use should specify noticing requirements and guidelines for
permits. These standards may cover preapplication meet- conducting meetings.
ings, application materials, and incentives.
Application Materials
Preapplication Meetings Zoning codes that classify community- or utility-scale
Some zoning codes require or encourage potential solar energy systems as distinct uses typically list the
land-use applicants to meet with local government staff materials applicants must submit with their

application for a zoning approval or discretionary use providing or expanding public facilities or infrastructure,
Defining
permit. Perhaps the most common requirement is a such as roads, schools, parks, and fire stations.
Local jurisdictions that treat community- or utility-scale
Development site plan depicting the locations of all existing struc-
tures, the proposed solar energy system, property solar energy systems as distinct uses in their zoning
Understanding
the Market for lines, roads and utility rights-of-way, setbacks, and codes seldom apply use-specific permitting or impact
M2 Large-Scale Solar visual buffers or screens. fees. However, there may be good reasons to do so.
Development Other commonly required materials include topo-
Community graphic maps, floodplain and other environmentally Permitting Fees
M3 Planning for sensitive area maps, soil type maps, stormwater man- Local jurisdictions use permitting fees to pay for their
Large-Scale Solar investments of time and materials throughout the de-
Development agement and sediment control plans, decommissioning
plans, utility agreements, and verification of insurance velopment review process. Currently, relatively few local
Zoning for coverage. Some jurisdictions also require applicants to jurisdictions have established standard permitting fees for
submit studies or documentation that address wheth- community- and utility-scale solar energy systems (Table
Development
er the proposed system is likely to have a significant 4-6). Some of these jurisdictions tie fees to a percentage of
Improving negative effect on wildlife species and habitat (both the estimated value of the project. Others set fees based
M5 Land-Use on-site and on adjoining properties), historic resources, on the land area or the rated capacity of the system.
Decision-Making marginalized communities, air traffic safety, or nearby Generally, local jurisdictions should seek to recover the
property values. full costs they incur to review community- and utili-
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Application requirements should be driven by use per- ty-scale solar applications (see Offering Development
M6 Development missions, development standards, and review criteria. For Incentives for a possible exception to this principle).
Projects systems permitted by right, a site plan that ties directly to This includes meeting space rental fees in cases where
Assisting the objective standards in the code should be sufficient interest in public hearings exceeds the capacity of the
M7 Large-Scale Solar to help staff evaluate the application. For systems that re- local jurisdiction’s regular meeting facilities. Standardized
Development quire a discretionary use permit or a zoning amendment, permitting fees can help solar developers better plan for
local jurisdictions should only require materials that have project costs. However, inexperienced jurisdictions may
Maximizing a direct and clear relationship to applicable development have difficulty setting appropriate fee rates.
M8 Success There can be a steep learning curve in reviewing large-
standards and review criteria.
scale solar development projects. Consequently, local
Establishing Development Charges jurisdictions should carefully consider whether they need
Virtually all local jurisdictions charge administrative fees to establish standard permitting fees for solar projects.
to cover expenses associated with development review For some jurisdictions, it may ultimately be more cost ef-
and permitting. Many also require different types of fective to outsource parts of the review process and pass
development to pay impact fees to offset the costs of these costs on to developers.

Table 4-6. Examples of Solar-Specific Permitting Fees

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Jurisdiction Permitting Fees
Development
Isabella County, MI $5,000 for first 160 acres of project area plus $50 per additional fractional 40 acres plus escrow fee to
Understanding cover all review costs and expenses [Application Fees for Solar Farms]
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar San Bernardino County, CA Actual cost, with an initial deposit of $3,910 (§16.0204(k)(6))
Development Ulster, NY Planning Board Application Fees: $1,000 per MW of capacity
Community Building Permit Application Fees: $9,000 per MW of capacity [2023 Fee Schedule: Commercial Solar
Planning for
Facilities and Battery Storage Facilities]
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving Impact Fees Often, community- and utility-scale solar energy sys-
M5 Land-Use Many local jurisdictions use impact fees (also known as tems have minimal effects on public facilities and infra-
Decision-Making system development charges) to mitigate the effects of structure. Once operational, they generate little traffic
Hosting new development on public infrastructure and facilities. and no students for schools and are responsible for few
Large-Scale Solar These fees must have a rational connection to the actu- public safety calls. Consequently, local jurisdictions that
M6 Development al anticipated effects of a development project on the use impact fees to offset the costs of growth should con-
Projects
specific improvements funded by the impact fees. That is, sider either treating solar projects like agricultural uses or
Assisting local jurisdictions can only levy fees that are proportional setting a solar-specific impact fee.
M7 Large-Scale Solar to project impacts, and every development project that
Development
pays impact fees must receive proportional benefits from Offering Development Incentives
the fee-funded improvements. Some local zoning codes incentivize certain types of de-
Maximizing Currently, few local jurisdictions have established velopment by relaxing development standards, stream-
M8 Success lining application requirements or review processes,
specific impact fees for community- and utility-scale solar
energy systems. One example is San Bernardino County, expediting final decisions, or discounting or waiving per-
California, which charges a public safety impact fee tied mitting or impact fees. For large-scale solar development,
to the land area of the project (§84.29.040(d)). Local ju- such incentives could include reduced setbacks, addition-
risdictions without solar-specific fees may use a standard al height allowances, or relaxed buffering or screening
rate based on a broader use category (e.g., industrial or requirements (Table 4-7).
agricultural).

Table 4-7. Examples of Zoning Incentives for Large-Scale Solar Development

Defining
Jurisdiction Eligible Projects Potential Incentives
Development
Douglas County, KS “Agrivoltaics” and solar energy systems Exemption from height limit (§12-306-49.05.c)
Understanding designed to “accommodate slopes
the Market for
without grading”
Development Pima County, AZ “Utility-scale” solar energy systems Relaxed development standards, expedited cultural and
in Renewable Energy Incentive environmental reviews, and waived permitting and impact
Community
Planning for Districts that meet environmental fees (§14.03.020)
M3 Large-Scale Solar performance standards (§14.02)
Development Sweden, NY “Solar farms” that provide one or more Relaxed development standards (§175-19)
specific community benefits (§174-8;
Zoning for §175-20)
Development
Improving Few local zoning codes include incentives for commu-

M5 Land-Use nity- or utility-scale solar energy systems.
Decision-Making
Local officials should only offer development incen-
Hosting tives if the community benefits are likely to outweigh any
M6 Large-Scale Solar potential negative effects.
Development For example, it may make sense to relax development
Projects
standards or waive or discount permitting fees for solar
Assisting projects that involve the cleanup and reuse of brown-
M7 Large-Scale Solar field sites or shared solar projects that target traditionally
Development
underserved utility customers (Figure 4-4). These projects
confer specific local benefits and may not happen with-
Maximizing
M8 Success
out some local assistance (see Module 7).
Figure 4-4. A 39 MW shared solar project on Imperial Irriga-

tion District (IIR) land in Imperial County, California, which
provides discounted power to income-qualified IIR residential
customers.


Development
• Definitions for ground-mounted solar energy systems should distinguish between systems of different sizes
Understanding based on the site or surface area they occupy.
the Market for
• Community-scale solar energy systems are compatible, or potentially compatible, with most common zoning
Development districts.
Community
• Utility-scale solar energy systems are often compatible, or potentially compatible, with zoning districts that
Planning for permit other large-footprint uses.
M3 Large-Scale Solar • Many local zoning codes include use-specific development standards to ensure that community- or utili-
Development ty-scale solar energy systems support broader community goals.
Zoning for • Some local zoning codes include use-specific procedural standards for community- or utility-scale solar ener-
M4 Large-Scale Solar gy systems to facilitate efficient development review processes.
Development • Some local zoning codes have established use-specific permitting or impact fees for community- or utili-
ty-scale solar energy systems to ensure that system developers pay their fair share of development-related
Improving
charges.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Defining
Development American Battlefield Trust. 2020. “Utility-Scale Solar Facility Development: Recommended Policy Language for Virginia Locali-
ties.”
Understanding
the Market for American Farmland Trust. 2019. “Smart Solar Siting Principles and Examples of Local Land Use Laws That Support Renewable
M2 Large-Scale Solar Energy While Protecting Farmland.”
Development
Community American Planning Association. 2023. Research KnowledgeBase: Solar Energy.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Barrett, Stephen B., and Philip M. Devita. 2011. Investigating Safety Impacts of Energy Technologies on Airports and Aviation.
Development ACRP Synthesis 28. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
Zoning for Beyea, Wayne, Harmony Fierke-Gmazel, M. Charles Gould, Sarah Mills, Bradley Neumann, and Mary Reilly. 2021. Planning & Zon-
M4 Large-Scale Solar ing for Solar Energy Systems: A Guide for Michigan Local Governments. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Extension.
Development
California County Planning Directors Association. 2012. “Model Solar Energy Permit Streamlining Ordinance.”
Improving ———. 2012. “Renewable Energy Combining Zone.”
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making Cape Cod Commission. 2021. “Model Large-Scale Solar Bylaw.”
Hosting Clean Energy NH. 2018. “NHSEA Model Solar Zoning Ordinance.”
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Coffey, Darren. 2019. “Planning for Utility-Scale Solar Energy Facilities.” PAS Memo, September/October.
Projects
Curtis, Taylor L., Heather Buchanan, Ligia Smith, and Garvin Heath. 2021. A Circular Economy for Solar Photovoltaic System Materi-
Assisting als: Drivers, Barriers, Enablers, and U.S. Policy Considerations. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Development Curtis, Taylor L., Ligia E.P. Smith, Heather Buchanan, and Garvin Heath. 2021. Survey of Federal and State-Level Solar Decommis-
sioning Policies in the United States. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Maximizing
M8 Success
Curtis, Taylor, Garvin Heath, Andy Walker, Jal Desai, Edward Settle, and Cesar Barbosa. 2021. “Best Practices at the End of the Pho-
tovoltaic System Performance Period.” Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Day, Megan. 2020. “Are You Solar Ready?” Planning, May.
Daniels, Thomas L. and Hannah Wagner. 2022. “Regulating Utility-Scale Solar Projects on Agricultural Land.” Philadelphia: Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania Kleinman Center for Energy Policy.
Emory University Turner Environmental Law Clinic, Georgia Tech Strategic Energy Institute, and University of Georgia Agriculture

Technical Assistance Program. 2018. “Georgia Model Solar Ordinance.”

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar ———. 2018. Georgia Model Solar Zoning Ordinance Guide.
Development
Friedrichsen, Audrey. 2020. Solar Zoning in the Hudson Valley. Poughkeepsie, N.Y.: Scenic Hudson.
Understanding
the Market for Gilliland, Ed, and Avery Palmer. 2020. Large-Scale Solar Development: A Playbook for Southwest Virginia. Washington, D.C.: The
M2 Large-Scale Solar Solar Foundation.
Development
Community Great Plains Institute. 2020. “Illinois Solar Model Ordinance.”
Planning for
———. 2020. “Iowa Solar Model Ordinance.”
Development ———. 2020. “Minnesota Solar Model Ordinance.”
Zoning for ———. 2020. “Wisconsin Solar Model Ordinance.”
Development ———. 2020. “Model Solar Ordinance for Indiana Local Governments.” Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Environmental
Resilience Institute.
Improving
M5 Land-Use ———. 2021. “Photovoltaic Stormwater Management Research and Testing (PV-SMaRT) Barriers and Best Practices.”
Decision-Making
Guldberg, Peter H. 2012. Study of Acoustic and EMF Levels from Solar Photovoltaic Projects. Boston: Massachusetts Clean Energy
Hosting Center.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Guyer, Steve and Patrick Snell. 2021. “Renewable Solar Energy Systems Model Ordinance.” Des Moines, Iowa: Iowa Environmen-
Projects tal Council.
Assisting Kentucky Resources Council Center for Environmental Policy. 2020. “Kentucky Model Solar Zoning Ordinance.”
Development Kolbeck-Urlacher, Heidi. 2022. “Decommissioning Solar Energy Systems Resource Guide.” Lyons, Neb.: Center for Rural Affairs.
Logan Simpson. 2022. “Becoming Utility-Scale Solar Ready: Principles and Best Practices for Colorado’s Local Governments.”
Maximizing Denver: Colorado Solar and Storage Association.
M8 Success
Maine Audubon. 2020. “Model Site Plan Regulations and Conditional Use Permits to Support Solar Energy Systems in Maine
Municipalities.”
Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources and Massachusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs. 2014. “Model As-
of-Right Zoning Bylaw: Allowing Use of Large-Scale Ground-Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Installations.”
————. 2014. “Model Zoning for the Regulation of Solar Energy Systems.”

Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy, State of. 2022. “Michigan Renewable Energy Zoning Database
Defining
and Maps.”
Development Morley, David, ed. 2014. Planning for Solar Energy. PAS Report 575. Chicago: American Planning Association.
Understanding Morris, Marya, ed. 2009. “Model Unified Development Permit Review Process Ordinance.” Chapter 4.5 in Smart Codes: Model
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Land-Development Regulations. PAS Report 556. Chicago: American Planning Association.
Development Mouw, Lindsay. 2023. “Nebraska Solar Siting Guide: A Roadmap for Counties.” Lyons, Neb.: Center for Rural Affairs.
Community
Planning for National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2022. “U.S. Solar Siting Regulation and Zoning Ordinances.”
Development ———. 2023. Photovoltaic Stormwater Management Research and Testing.
Zoning for NC Clean Energy Technology Center. 2016. “Template for Solar Energy Development Ordinance for North Carolina.”
M4 Large-Scale Solar New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. 2020. New York State Battery Energy Storage System Guidebook.
Development
———. 2020. New York State Solar Guidebook.
Improving
M5 Land-Use Ogle, Tamara M. and Kara Salazar. 2022. Indiana Renewable Energy Community Planning Survey and Ordinance Inventory Sum-
Decision-Making mary. West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Extension.
Hosting Pedersen, Bill and Brooks Lamb. 2022. Agrivoltaics: Producing Solar Energy While Protecting Farmland. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Center for Business and the Environment.
Projects Pennsylvania State Association of Township Supervisors. 2022. “Model Ordinance for Large-Scale Solar Electric Energy Facilities
in PA.”
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Pioneer Valley Planning Commission. 2020. Solar Best Practices Guide: A Guide to Assist Municipalities with Solar Land Use Regu-
Development
lations.
Rhode Island Division of Statewide Planning. 2019. “Renewable Energy Guidelines: Solar Energy Systems Model Ordinance
Maximizing
M8 Success Templates Zoning & Taxation.”
Southern Georgia Regional Commission. 2019. “Model Solar Energy Systems Ordinance.
Smith, Cody. 2020. Iowa Solar Siting Resource Guide: A Roadmap for Counties. Nevada, Iowa: Center for Rural Affairs.
U.S. Department of Energy (USDOE). 2023. InSPIRE Agrivoltaics Map.

MODULE 5
IMPROVING LAND-USE DECISION-MAKING
FOR LARGE-SCALE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
L ocal zoning regulations create a framework for evaluating proposed large-
scale solar development projects (see Module 4). However, these reg-
ulations typically say relatively little about how local government officials
Development
conduct development review and approval processes. Consequently, admin-
Community
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar istrative procedures affect the efficiency and efficacy of local land-use deci-
Development
Zoning for
sion-making processes.
Development
Improving Many, if not most, large-scale solar development Incomplete applications and applications that fail to
M5 Land-Use projects will need one or more discretionary land-use meet objective development standards can waste the
Decision-Making
approvals from the local jurisdiction. Through these deci- local jurisdiction’s time and prove costly to correct for
Hosting sion-making processes, local officials can shape commu- applicants. Furthermore, rushed applications that fail to
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
nity- and utility-scale solar projects in ways that increase solicit and respond to community input often face an
Projects benefits and reduce tradeoffs. uphill battle to approval.
This module highlights steps officials can take to Two of the most important proactive tools local ju-
Assisting improve applicant submissions and review processes, risdictions can use to improve application packages for
secure community benefits through agreements and large-scale solar projects are educational materials and
Development
written decisions, conduct effective public hearings, and preapplication meetings.
ensure compliance through inspections.
Maximizing
M8 Success
Educational Materials
Improving Applicant Submissions Solar developers that work in multiple jurisdictions quick-
The development review process for a large-scale solar ly learn that zoning regulations for large-scale projects
project does not officially begin until a landowner or de- can vary considerably from place to place. While they
veloper submits a complete application. By this point, the may be adept at finding and interpreting zoning regula-
developer has already invested significant time and money tions, even experienced developers can benefit from sup-
to identify a suitable site, negotiate terms with participat- plemental materials that will help them prepare applica-
ing landowners, and create a site plan for the project. tion packages and plan for public hearings. Beyond this,
92 | MODULE 5. Improving Land-Use Decision-Making

educational materials can help new developers—who identifying potential regulatory issues before large-scale
Defining
may be unfamiliar with zoning and development review solar developers submit project applications. Similarly,
Development processes—start scoping out a project. developer-led preapplication meetings with community
At a minimum, local government officials should members are an effective way to solicit feedback on proj-
Understanding
the Market for consider creating fact sheets, brochures, guides, or web ect features before finalizing a site plan.
M2 Large-Scale Solar pages that address large-scale solar development as When meeting with potential applicants, planning
Development a distinct project type (Table 5-1). These materials can and building department staff members can answer
Community explain the zoning regulations that apply to large-scale questions about zoning and building standards or the
Planning for
solar development projects and the basic steps of the decision-making process. In cases where a proposed
Development development review and decision-making process. Some project doesn’t fit the community’s vision, they can sug-
officials may also have opportunities to connect these gest changes that would help the project align with that
Zoning for materials to project siting tools or information about vision (see Module 3).
available state or local incentives (see Module 7). Local staff members serve a very different role in devel-
Development
oper-led meetings with community members. Before the
Improving
Preapplication Meetings meeting, they can help developers connect with neigh-
M5 Land-Use Preapplication meetings between potential applicants borhood associations or other community-based organi-
Decision-Making and local jurisdiction staff provide an efficient means for zations, and they can provide guidance on strategies to
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects Table 5-1. Examples of Educational Materials for Solar Developers
Assisting Jurisdiction Resource Type
Development Butte County, CA Butte Utility-Scale Solar Guide Guide explaining the permitting process for utility-scale solar
projects and mapping tool to help developers identify optimal sites for
solar development
Maximizing
M8 Success Linn County, Iowa Utility-Scale Solar Informational web page about application and review process
Pima County, Arizona Commercial Solar Farm Fees and Brief guide outlining permitting fees and necessary permits
Permitting Guidelines
Prince George County, Solar Energy Facility Informational web page with details on approved and proposed facilities,
VA Information & Projects policy updates, and links to application materials
Weld County, CO Use by Special Review for Solar Brief guide providing application instructions
Energy Facility Supplement

maximize attendance and participation, including open the community vision for large-scale solar development.
Defining
house-style meetings (see Module 3). During the meet- Furthermore, review processes provide an opportunity for
Development ing, staff members should listen to community concerns planning officials to identify potential project improve-
and only speak up to clarify the jurisdiction’s regulatory ments.
Understanding
the Market for approach or refute misinformation.
M2 Large-Scale Solar Plan Consistency
Development Reviewing Proposed Projects All large-scale solar development projects should be con-
Community Large-scale solar development projects often represent sistent with the local comprehensive plan. For any proj-
M3 Planning for new land uses, involve new structures, and typically ect that requires a discretionary use permit or rezoning,
Large-Scale Solar require land disturbance for construction. Consequently, planning officials have a responsibility to analyze whether
Development
multiple local staff members (or contract consultants) of- and to what extent it advances the community’s vision
Zoning for ten review applications for these projects. Through these for the project area and the role of solar development in
M4 Large-Scale Solar reviews, staff evaluate whether an application complies the community (see Module 3).
Development
with all applicable codes and standards and supports Fundamentally, this is a three-part analysis. First, plan-
Improving
ning officials should consider whether the plan identifies
M5 Land-Use the project site as a suitable potential location for solar
Decision-Making development. Next, they should consider whether the
project’s proposed site design and operational character-
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar istics further specific solar development goals and objec-
M6 Development tives included in the plan. Finally, they should consider
Projects whether the project, as proposed, would increase or
Assisting decrease alignment between any potentially competing
M7 Large-Scale Solar priorities expressed in the plan.
Development If the local comprehensive plan includes explicit policy
recommendations for large-scale solar development, this
Maximizing consistency determination may be simple. However, if
M8 Success the plan does not address solar development or does not
include any guidance for balancing potentially contradic-
tory objectives, local officials may struggle to determine
whether a project is consistent with the plan or to ex-
Figure 5-1. A 25 MW solar facility on the former Combe Fill plain their finding to the applicant and other community
North Landfill Superfund site in Mount Olive Township, New stakeholders.
Jersey (Credit: CEP Renewables) Some local jurisdictions may have other official

subarea or functional plans that include solar develop- Potential Improvements

Defining
ment policy recommendations. While these plans typical- When reviewing proposed large-scale solar development
Development ly lack the legal standing of the comprehensive plan, they projects, planning officials may have ideas about chang-
may help clarify broad objectives or provide more specific es to the site design or operational characteristics that
Understanding
the Market for guidance for siting or project design. would make the project a better fit for the community.
M2 Large-Scale Solar Often, developers will be receptive to making reasonable
Development Zoning Consistency changes that advance community objectives and will
Community All large-scale solar development projects must be con- broaden public support for their project. The key word is
M3 Planning for sistent with applicable local zoning regulations. For any reasonable; local officials can’t expect applicants to make
Large-Scale Solar project that requires a discretionary use permit or rezon-
Development changes that would make a project financially infeasible.
ing, planning officials must analyze whether it satisfies Furthermore, officials legally can’t deny a proposed proj-
Zoning for both objective standards and subjective approval criteria ect because the applicant refuses to make changes to an
M4 Large-Scale Solar and upholds the intent of the regulations (see Module 4). aspect that already meets objective zoning standards.
Development
If the proposed project is in a zoning district where Planning officials typically share initial ideas for im-
Improving
large-scale solar development is already explicitly identi- provements with developers before the application is put
M5 Land-Use fied as a potentially permissible use, this analysis should on the schedule for a public hearing. Depending on how
Decision-Making focus on site design and operational characteristics. The well the project as proposed conforms to local plans and
goal for planning officials is to determine whether the zoning regulations, these ideas may include suggestions
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar project, as proposed, meets clearly defined standards for modifying the development application or recom-
M6 Development and would have no greater adverse impacts on nearby mended conditions of approval.
Projects uses than other permissible uses in the district. Generally, Conditions (or stipulations) of approval are the formal
Assisting a determination of consistency with applicable zoning terms of approval for a discretionary land-use decision.
M7 Large-Scale Solar regulations means the collective benefits of the project They may include modifications to a project’s physical de-
Development outweigh any negative impacts. sign or operations, provision of offsite improvements or
If the proposed project requires a rezoning, local land dedications, or notice of a necessary approval from
Maximizing officials should consider whether changing conditions another permitting authority. All conditions of approval
M8 Success make the current zoning designation unsuitable or less that involve offsite improvements or land dedications
effective for advancing the broader aims of the zoning must be rationally related and roughly proportional to
code. In cases where applicants are requesting rezoning the anticipated land-use effects of the project.
to a special-purpose district for solar development, the When drafting conditions of approval for large-scale
regulations will typically include more detailed eligibility solar development projects, planning officials should
or approval criteria, which can make a consistency deter- limit stipulations to project features or issues addressed
mination more straightforward. through use-specific development or procedural

standards (see Module 4). Planners can include recom- agreeing to provide public benefits.
Defining
mended conditions of approval in their staff reports, and This can be attractive to developers because it gives
Development local officials can accept or modify these conditions in them assurance that they will be able to proceed with
their formal written decision. their development plan, even if future regulations would
Understanding
the Market for If local officials find themselves repeatedly applying theprohibit it. And local jurisdictions can ask for project fea-
M2 Large-Scale Solar same conditions of approval for multiple projects, they tures or public improvements that are not required by the
Development should consider translating those conditions into zoning applicable zoning regulations. For example, a develop-
Community standards. This can remove an element of uncertainty for ment agreement may require a developer to plant trees
Planning for
developers and streamline the review process. offsite or purchase additional land to remain forested to
Development offset tree removal on the project site.
Negotiating Community Benefits At a minimum, all development agreements must be
Zoning for Community members often oppose large-scale develop- consistent with the local comprehensive plan (see Module
M4 Large-Scale Solar ment projects when they don’t understand or value the 3) and applicable zoning regulations. Several states have
Development
benefits and the tradeoffs disproportionately affect the explicitly authorized development agreements and es-
Improving
project site and its immediate surrounding area. In cases tablished local requirements through state statutes. Some
M5 Land-Use where land-use impacts are difficult to eliminate or ade- of these enabling laws specify a project size threshold or
Decision-Making quately mitigate through zoning standards or conditions other limits on the use of development agreements. Local
of approval, some local jurisdictions or community-based officials in other states should consult with a qualified
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar organizations negotiate with large-scale project develop- attorney before negotiating with developers for project
M6 Development ers to secure additional community benefits. features or improvements that are not directly connected
Projects Successful negotiations typically result in formal agree- to the proportional community impacts of the project.
Assisting ments. These include development agreements between A development agreement for a large-scale solar project
M7 Large-Scale Solar developers and the local jurisdiction and community may be beneficial in instances where the local jurisdic-
Development benefits agreements between developers and one or tion has identified specific desirable features but has not
more community-based organizations. amended its zoning regulations to require these features
M8 Maximizing for all similar projects (see Module 4). These features may
Success Development Agreements include the colocation of agricultural activities (i.e., agrivol-
A development agreement is a contract between a devel- taics) or pollinator habitat (i.e., pollinator-friendly solar) and
oper and a local jurisdiction that establishes each party’s solar power production (Table 5-2).
rights and obligations with respect to a proposed devel-
opment project. Typically, the local jurisdiction agrees to
freeze land-use and development regulations in force at
the time of the agreement in exchange for the developer

Table 5-2. Examples of Development Agreements for Large-Scale Solar Projects

Defining
Jurisdiction Development Agreement Local Benefits
Development
Riverside County, CA Development Agreement No. 86: A Development Annual public benefit payments, sales and use taxes,
Understanding Agreement Between County of Riverside and and impact fees
the Market for
Renewable Resources Group, Gila Farm Land LLC,
and A&F Growers LLC (2017)
Development
Saratoga, WI Solar Generating Facility Development Agreement Annual utility aid payments, vegetated buffer, visitor
Community
Planning for Between the Town of Saratoga and Wood County area and tours, pollinator-friendly ground cover, and
M3 Large-Scale Solar Solar Project, LLC (2021) local employment and training
Development Weber County, UT Development Agreement Between Weber County, Fire protection measures, pollinator-friendly ground
Utah and Little Mountain Solar, LLC (2020) cover, and wildlife-friendly equipment and site design
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making Community Benefits Agreements
A community benefits agreement (CBA) is a contract
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar between a developer and one or more community-based
M6 Development organizations or groups of community members affected
Projects by a specific development project. They detail benefits
Assisting the developer will provide to the community in exchange
M7 Large-Scale Solar for community support for the development project
Development (Table 5-3). Common examples of benefits include local
hiring goals, living wage requirements, and job training
Maximizing programs.
M8 Success Because CBAs are agreements between develop-
ers and community groups, they may include benefits
beyond what a local government could legally require.
Local officials should refrain from negotiating the agree-
Figure 5-2. Pollinator-friendly ground cover at the Aurora So-
ment, because if they participate directly, courts may
lar Project in Chisago, Minnesota (Photo by Dennis Schroeder,
invalidate specific provisions of a CBA as unconstitutional
NREL 53020)
exactions (Been 2010; Wolf-Powers 2010). Local officials

Table 5-3 . Distinctions Between Development Agreements and Community Benefits Agreements
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Characteristics Development Agreement Community Benefits Agreement
Development
Signatories Local officials; project applicant Project applicant; one or more community-based
Understanding organizations
the Market for
Purpose Allows local officials to secure community benefits
that are clearly related and roughly proportionate
Allows community-based organizations to secure
community benefits in exchange for supporting an
Development to development impacts and provides assurances applicant’s project
Community to the applicant that new regulations won’t inhibit
Planning for
their development plan
Relationship to Zoning Supplements existing zoning standards May complement existing or proposed zoning
Development
Regulations regulations
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use can encourage CBAs, however, by sharing information
tive Energy Production and Community Investment
Decision-Making about development proposals, providing forums for de-
(Public Act No. 21-43). This law requires developers of
velopers and community stakeholders to exchange ideas,
Hosting renewable energy projects with rated capacities of five
Large-Scale Solar and incorporating community benefits provisions into
M6 Development development agreements. Officials can also use evidence
megawatts or more to pursue community benefits agree-
Projects ments that include workforce development programs.
of community support as a criterion for discretionary ap-
Michigan’s siting law for projects with rated capacities
Assisting provals or economic development subsidies (see Module
of at least 50 MW requires developers to pursue a host
M7 Large-Scale Solar 7).
community agreement with affected local jurisdictions
Development Negotiations for a large-scale solar project community
and authorizes community benefits agreements with
benefit agreement should start well before the developer
community-based organizations if local officials refuse to
Maximizing submits a land-use application or begins discussing a de-
M8 Success sign a host community agreement (2023 PA 233).
velopment agreement with the local jurisdiction. Proac-
tive community planning processes can provide a forum Conducting Public Hearings
to identify potential community benefits and groups Discretionary land-use approval processes typically culmi-
that may be willing to negotiate on behalf of community nate in a public hearing and final decision by local offi-
members for those benefits (see Module 3). cials. Public hearings provide community members with
In July 2021, Connecticut’s governor signed into law one last opportunity to voice support for or opposition to
An Act Concerning a Just Transition to Climate-Protec- a proposed large-scale solar development project before

officials take a final vote. Any extensive development ing on a large-scale solar development project, planning
Defining
project can, understandably, elicit passionate responses staff should brief the meeting chair on anticipated areas
of controversy and ensure that all items related to the
Development from neighboring property owners, but solar projects
are increasingly facing organized opposition (Crawford, project are near the top of the agenda so that partici-
Understanding
the Market for Bessette, and Mills 2022; Eisenson 2023; Susskind et al. pants won’t grow frustrated waiting for their opportunity
M2 Large-Scale Solar 2022). While there is no substitute for building a shared to comment. If there is organized opposition to or sup-
Development vision for the role of large-scale solar development in the port for a particular project, local officials may extend a
Community community (see Module 3), local officials can take actions special invitation to have a representative of each group
Planning for
before, during, and after public hearings to mitigate or make a semi-formal presentation of their arguments for
Development manage conflicts. or against the project at the beginning of the comment
period of the public hearing, in lieu of having multiple
Zoning for Before the Hearing commenters repeating the same points.
M4 Large-Scale Solar Laying the foundation for a productive public hearing Site visits can also be an important pre-hearing tool
Development
starts with establishing standard procedures for providing for checking the accuracy of information provided in the
Improving
adequate notice for pending decisions, gathering public application package, evaluating the likelihood of poten-
M5 Land-Use comments, and conducting meetings (Katsuyama 2020; tial land-use conflicts, and investigating conditions on
Decision-Making Senville 2010). In addition to legally required mailings, lo- the site or in the area that merit further analysis (Meck
cal staff can provide notice of pending decisions through 2005). In some cases, visiting the site will help staff identi-
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar official websites, social media channels, and outreach to fy opportunities for the project to support specific policy
M6 Development community-based organizations. Holding hybrid meet- goals, such as brownfield redevelopment (Figure 5-1),
Projects ings and using online commenting platforms can help the establishment or expansion of pollinator habitat (Fig-
Assisting diversify participation and give local officials a better ure 5-2), or colocation with agricultural activities (Figure
M7 Large-Scale Solar understanding of public sentiment. 5-3).
Development Share information about and solicit feedback on a In some jurisdictions, planning board members or
proposed large-scale solar development project as soon elected officials participate in site visits. While site visits
Maximizing as possible after receiving application materials. While the can help these officials better understand project details,
M8 Success applicant has, ideally, already participated in pre-applica- they must be careful to share everything they learned
tion meetings with local staff and community members, during the visit before the public hearing for the project
early feedback on the final application can help local begins (Dale 2000; Theriaque 2014). To further reduce the
officials gauge whether it may be beneficial to schedule appearance of bias in the decision-making process, any
informal educational sessions to take some of the pres- site visit attended by local officials should be properly ad-
sure off the public comment period of the hearing. vertised in accordance with any applicable state or local
When preparing for a meeting that will include a hear- requirement and open to the public.

Figure 5-3. An agrivoltaic so-

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar lar facility in Brookfield, Mas-
Development sachusetts (Credit: AgriSolar
Clearinghouse, Flickr)
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
During the Hearing If a commentator expresses anger with or frustration
During the public hearing for any large-scale solar devel- toward local officials, the best tactic is to stay calm and
Assisting opment project, local officials can mitigate or manage stick to the hearing procedures. Should one or more
M7 Large-Scale Solar conflict by adhering to a few basic practices for effective attendees become disruptive to the point of derailing the
Development
meetings. First, the meeting chair should clearly state meeting, local officials may need to call for a short recess
both how local officials will use public input to inform and clear the meeting room. If this reset isn’t enough to
Maximizing
M8 Success
the final decision and the ground rules for participant keep the meeting on track, they can pause the hearing,
comments. Before opening the hearing up to comments, with a commitment to resume at a specific subsequent
planning staff should provide a summary of the proposed meeting.
project, with visual aids, to provide context and clarify key When it is time to introduce motions and vote, local
project details, including compliance with applicable plan officials can accept, reject, or modify staff recommenda-
recommendations and zoning standards. Then, as each tions, including draft conditions of approval. However, if
commenter speaks, local officials should listen attentively, unanticipated issues surface during the public hearing,
without engaging in any back-and-forth exchanges. any stipulations that address these issues should be

narrowly tailored and must be in conformance with the decision in meeting minutes, staff should summarize the
Defining
relevant state zoning enabling law. It is often better to hearing outcome on a dedicated project page or a gen-
delay action on an application than to approve it based eral development update page on the local jurisdiction’s
Development
on hastily drafted conditions. website and through official social media channels and
Understanding
the Market for
any relevant email lists. They can also use these commu-
M2 Large-Scale Solar After the Hearing nication channels to highlight next steps and, if applica-
Development To comply with procedural due process requirements, ble, project milestones.
Community local officials must document the reasoning for and terms
M3 Planning for of their decision in writing. This written decision often Inspecting Approved Projects
Large-Scale Solar repeats findings of fact or conditions of approval from the Local jurisdictions typically require multiple field inspec-
Development
staff report. tions before an approved large-scale solar facility can
Zoning for Findings of fact are objective claims about the rela- begin operations (Figure 5-4). These inspections verify
M4 Large-Scale Solar tionship of a project application to the adopted policies compliance with zoning standards as well as applicable
Development
and regulations of the local jurisdiction (Dale 2015; Meck building, electrical, and fire codes. They are generally sep-
Improving
and Morris 2004). Basing decisions on findings of fact, arate from field inspections required by utilities or other
M5 Land-Use rather than emotional appeals from applicants or other authorities.
Decision-Making interested parties, ensures that each application receives
fair consideration and can protect local jurisdictions from
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar costly legal challenges.
M6 Development When drafting findings of fact for large-scale solar proj-
Projects ects, local officials should explain in plain language how
Assisting the project relates to each relevant zoning standard as
M7 Large-Scale Solar well as any relevant language or maps in the local com-
Development prehensive plan. They should also clearly state whether
project supporters or opponents offered factual support
Maximizing for specific claims of benefits or harm. A claim without
M8 Success evidence is not a defensible reason for a decision. Finally,
conditions of approval must be stated objectively, with-
out room for interpretation.
If participants raised questions that couldn’t be an-
swered during the hearing, planning officials should Figure 5-4. Inspectors at the Long Island Solar Farm at
follow through on any commitments to provide addition- the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York
al information. Beyond simply including the details of a (Source: Brookhaven National Laboratory, Flickr)

When inspections run smoothly, local staff and officials External Coordination
Defining
have assurance that the project complies with all applica- Large-scale solar developers are typically responsible for
ble codes and standards. Poorly coordinated inspections
Development securing all necessary state and utility inspections for their
can delay operations, however, costing the local jurisdic- projects. In some cases, these separate inspection process-
Understanding
the Market for
tion and the developer both time and money. es may present an opportunity to ease local inspection
M2 Large-Scale Solar requirements. Local staff can help improve the efficiency
Development Internal Coordination of the inspections process by contacting local utility and
Community At a minimum, local jurisdictions typically require at least state agencies that conduct field inspections for large-
M3 Planning for two inspections for community- and utility-scale solar fa- scale solar projects to learn more about their processes.
Large-Scale Solar cilities. The first inspection occurs during construction to
Development Where external inspections duplicate local efforts, the
allow inspectors to view features that will be concealed local jurisdiction can narrow the scope of its inspections.
Zoning for once the installation is complete. The second inspection Some utilities and state agencies may even be willing to
M4 Large-Scale Solar occurs once construction is complete to verify com- share their inspection reports with affected local jurisdic-
Development
pliance with all applicable codes and standards. Many tions. If this isn’t possible, local officials could still require
Improving
jurisdictions require additional inspections for stormwater developers or operators to provide a copy of these
M5 Land-Use management, erosion and sediment control, landscap- reports in lieu of separate local inspections.
Decision-Making ing, transportation access, decommissioning, and other
issues.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Local jurisdictions that do not have staff with the
M6 Development necessary expertise or enough available time to handle
Projects all necessary inspections should contract for inspection
Assisting services or require applicants to secure and cover the
M7 Large-Scale Solar costs of third-party inspectors. Because developers need
Development a clear timeline for inspections, either option is better for
the applicant than long wait times for staff visits. Local
Maximizing jurisdictions should negotiate the timing and fees associ-
M8 Success ated with all inspections during the development review
process and record all inspections-related obligations in
conditions of approval or a separate development agree-
ment.


Development
• Two of the most important proactive tools local government officials can use to improve application packag-
Understanding es for large-scale solar projects are educational materials and preapplication meetings.
the Market for
• When development review processes run smoothly, local government staff can efficiently evaluate whether
Development an application supports the community vision for large-scale solar development.
Community
• Local government officials may be able to secure specific local benefits by formalizing development agree-
Planning for ments with solar developers or encouraging solar developers to negotiate community benefits agreements
M3 Large-Scale Solar with community-based organizations.
Development • Public hearings for large-scale solar projects can be contentious, but local officials can take actions before,
Zoning for during, and after these meetings to mitigate or manage conflicts.
M4 Large-Scale Solar • When drafting findings of fact for large-scale solar projects, planning officials should explain in plain lan-
Development guage how the project relates to each relevant zoning standard as well as any relevant language or maps in
the local comprehensive plan.
Improving
• When drafting conditions of approval for large-scale solar development projects, planning officials should
M5 Land-Use
limit stipulations to project features or issues addressed through use-specific development or procedural
Decision-Making
standards.
Hosting • Local jurisdictions that do not have sufficient staff capacity to handle inspections should contract for inspec-
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development tions or include third-party inspection requirements in conditions of project approval.
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Defining
American Planning Association. 2023. Research KnowledgeBase Collection: Improving Development Review.
Development
Understanding Arimes, George. 2012. “Transparent Development Services.” Zoning Practice, October.
the Market for
Arsenova, Maria, and Holle Linnea Wlokas. 2019. Local Benefit Sharing in Large-Scale Wind and Solar Projects. Washington, D.C.:
Development International Finance Corporation.
Community Been, Vicki. 2010. “Community Benefits Agreements: A New Local Government Tool or Another Variation on the Exactions
Planning for
Theme?” University of Chicago Law Review 77(1): 5–35.
Development Blue, Michael. 2014. “Development Review as Economic Development.” Zoning Practice, February.
Zoning for Butte (California), County of. 2017. “Butte Utility-Scale Solar Guide.”
Development Dale, C. Gregory. 2000. “Site Visits: Necessary But Tricky.” Planning Commissioners Journal, Summer.
Improving ———. 2015. “Findings of Fact for Planning Commissions.” The Commissioner, April.
M5 Land-Use Callies, David L., and Julie A. Teppendorf. 2001. “Unconstitutional Land Development Conditions and the Development Agree-
Decision-Making
ment Solution: Bargaining for Public Facilities After Nollan and Dolan.” Case Western Reserve Law Review 51: 663–96.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Canon, Ramsin G. 2014. “Participatory Democracy and the Entrepreneurial Government: Addressing Process Efficiencies in
M6 Development the Creation of Land Use Development Agreements.” Chicago-Kent Law Review 89(2): 781–821.
Projects
Coffey, Darren. 2019. “Planning for Utility-Scale Solar Energy Facilities.” PAS Memo, September/October.
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Crawford, Jessica, Douglas Bessette, and Sarah Mills. 2022. “Rallying the Anti-Crowd: Organized Opposition, Democratic Deficit,
Development and a Potential Social Gap in Large-Scale Solar Energy.” Energy Research & Social Science 90: 102597.
Easley, Gail. 2006. “Conditional Uses.” Zoning Practice, May.
Maximizing
M8 Success Eisenson, Matthew. 2023. Opposition to Renewable Energy Facilities in the United States: May 2023 Edition. New York: Columbia
University Sabin Center for Climate Change Law.
Eisenson, Matthew, and Romany Webb. 2023. “Expert Insight on Best Practices for Community Benefits Agreements.” New York:
Columbia University Sabin Center for Climate Change Law.
Fox, Elana, Emily Futcher, Augusta Gudeman, and Monika Johnson. 2018. Beyond Renewable: Incorporating Social Sustain-
ability & Community Benefits into Renewable Energy Projects. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Graham Sustainability
Institute.

Frank, Steven P. 2009. “Yes in My Backyard: Developers, Government and Communities Working Together Through Develop-
Defining
ment Agreements and Community Benefit Agreements.” Indiana Law Review 42: 227–55.
Development Fraser, Catherine. 2023. “Community and Labor Benefits in Climate Infrastructure: Lessons for Equitable, Community-Cen-
Understanding tered Direct Air Capture Hub Development.” Washington, D.C.: Data for Progress.
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Green, Shelby D. 2004. “Development Agreements: Bargained-for Zoning That Is Neither Illegal Contract nor Conditional Zon-
Development ing.” Capital University Law Review, 33: 383–497.
Community Gross, Julian, Greg LeRoy, and Madeline Janis-Aparicio. 2005. Community Benefits Agreements: Making Development Projects
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Accountable. Washington, D.C.: Good Jobs First.
Development Higgins, Bill, JoAnne Speers, and Charles Summerell. 2006. An Ounce of Prevention: Best Practices for Making Informed Land
Zoning for Use Decisions. Sacramento, Calif.: Institute for Local Government.
Johnson, Bonnie. 2017. “The Better Staff Report.” Planning, March.
Development
Jones, Gregory W. 2017. “Running Efficient, Effective (and Shorter) Meetings.” The Commissioner, December.
Improving
M5 Land-Use Katsuyama, Byron. 2020. “Strategies for Managing Difficult Public Meetings and Hearings.” MRSC Insight Blog, December 3.
Decision-Making
Koviac, Gary A., and Mary L. McMaster. 1992. “Drafting Land Use Findings.” Planning Commissioners Journal, May/June.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Larsen, David J. 2002. Development Agreement Manual: Collaboration in Pursuit of Community Interests. Sacramento, Calif.:
M6 Development Institute for Local Self Government.
Projects
Meck, Stuart. 2005. “Site Visits: Purpose, Planning, and Practice.” Zoning Practice, February.
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Meck, Stuart, and Marya Morris. 2004. “Formatting and Writing the Staff Report.” Zoning Practice, November.
Development
Merriam, Dwight H., and Robert J. Sitkowski. 1998. “Procedural Due Process in Practice.” Planning Commissioners Journal, Sum-
mer.
Maximizing
M8 Success New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA). 2022. “Smart Solar Siting Scorecard.”
Nolon, Sean, Ona Ferguson, and Pat Field. 2013. Land in Conflict: Managing and Resolving Land Use Disputes. Cambridge, Mass.:
Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
PowerSwitch Action. 2023. Policy Toolkit: Community Benefits Agreements.
Partnership for Working Families. 2015. “Policy & Tools: Community Benefits Toolkit.”
Read, Anna. 2015. “Community Benefits Agreements.” PAS QuickNotes 59.

Salkin, Patricia E., and Amy Lavine. 2008. “Understanding Community Benefits Agreements: Equitable Development, Social
Defining
Justice and Other Considerations for Developers, Municipalities and Community Organizations.” UCLA Journal of Environmen-
tal Law and Policy 26: 291–331.
Development
Understanding San Diego (California), County of. 2022. Community Benefits Agreements.
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Senville, Wayne. 2010. “Dealing With Contentious Public Hearings.” Planning Commissioners Journal, Winter.
Development Susskind, Lawrence, Jungwoo Chun, Alexander Grant, Chelsea Hodgkins, Jessica Cohen, and Sarah Lohmar. 2022. “Sources of
Community Opposition to Renewable Energy Projects in the United States.” Energy Policy 165: 112922.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Swift, Susan. 2011. “Getting the Most Out of Staff Reports.” PAS QuickNotes 30.
Development
Theriaque, David. 2014. “Site Visits Done…Legally.” The Commissioner, June.
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar U.S. Department of Energy. 2017. “Guide to Advancing Opportunities for Community Benefits Through Energy Project Devel-
Development opment.”
Improving Van Hemert, James. 2005. “The Development Review Process.” Zoning Practice, January.
M5 Land-Use Wiseman, Hannah. 2020. “Balancing Renewable Energy Goals with Community Interests.” Philadelphia: University of Pennsylva-
Decision-Making
nia Kleinman Center for Energy Policy.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Wolf-Powers, Laura. 2010. “Community Benefits Agreements and Local Government.” Journal of the American Planning Associa-
M6 Development tion 76(2): 141–159.
Projects
Wright, Norman. 2017. “Development Review Process Improvement.” Zoning Practice, May.
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

MODULE 6
HOSTING LARGE-SCALE SOLAR
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
B oth general- and special-purpose local jurisdictions can directly
participate in large-scale solar development by hosting projects on
local-government-owned land.
Development
Community
Planning for Potential benefits for the local jurisdiction include To ensure community buy-in, project goals should be
M3 Large-Scale Solar revenue from lease payments by the developer or owner transparent, public facing, and linked to broader commu-
Development and a predictably priced source of clean electricity for local nity goals—such as transitioning to clean energy, low-im-
Zoning for governmental operations. Local government officials may pact siting and design, equitable development, and
M4 Large-Scale Solar also be interested in using these projects to model a com- community resilience—that were set during the com-
Development mitment to broader renewable energy and climate action munity planning process. Local government officials can
goals. Local jurisdictions that lead by example can inspire communicate goals to community members and local
Improving other landowners and actors in the community to support government staff through press releases, the jurisdiction’s
M5 Land-Use
solar development. Leasing local-government-owned website, and through plans and policy documents (see
Decision-Making
property for large-scale solar facilities can also help local Module 3).
Hosting jurisdictions make progress on secondary goals, such as Local officials can set clear and specific project goals
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
economic development or environmental restoration. based on system size or performance, a desire for local
Projects This module summarizes the key steps for hosting participation in the project, or an interest in maximizing
large-scale solar development projects on local-govern- co-benefits.
Assisting
ment-owned land: identifying project goals, selecting
System Size and Performance
Development potential sites, and selecting development partners.
Local officials can base project goals on the size or perfor-
Identifying Project Goals mance of the solar energy system.
Maximizing
M8 Success
Local government officials should establish clear project Size-based goals establish a target size for the system,
goals to maximize the usefulness of large-scale installa- typically in terms of rated capacity in megawatts (MW) or
tions on public land. This requires them to identify the power generation in megawatt-hours (MWh). This type
primary reasons for hosting large-scale solar develop- of goal might be appropriate for local jurisdictions that
ment. Project goals are a foundation that local officials want to use their available land as efficiently as possible,
can return to when prioritizing sites and choosing devel- or those that want to prioritize the use of some types of
opment partners or proposed projects. land over others and achieve community goals related to
low-impact siting and design.
108 | MODULE 6. Hosting Large-Scale Solar Development Projects

If a local jurisdiction has only one or two sites it would tricity bills for power produced from the hosted system.
Defining
like to use for solar development, it may aim to maximize Alternatively, local officials may be interested in setting an
power production on that land by establishing an am-
Development employment goal that would require a solar developer
bitious but realistic installed capacity or annual power to hire (and potentially train) local workers to fill a cer-
Understanding
the Market for
generation goal. Local jurisdictions might also want to tain percentage of total jobs for the project. In this case,
M2 Large-Scale Solar use size-based goals if they are aiming to create a specific the local workforce must be willing and able to perform
Development number of construction jobs or to otherwise spur eco- these temporary construction jobs.
Community nomic development, which can contribute to community Project goals related to participation should build on
Planning for
goals related to equitable development. the principles of inclusivity. Local officials can establish
Development
Performance-based goals establish a target for the goals to increase the participation of specific groups,
effects of a new solar project on community conditions. such as those they have identified as being at risk of be-
Zoning for Common performance-based goals are a percent in- ing left out of, or potentially harmed by, the solar devel-
crease in local installed capacity or power generation; an opment process (see Module 3).
Development
increase in the percentage of renewable or clean electric-
ity consumption by the local government or the commu- Co-Benefits
Improving
When hosting projects on public land, local governments
M5 Land-Use nity; or a percent reduction in GHG emissions.
Decision-Making Local jurisdictions can tie performance-based goals can center community members as the beneficiaries of
directly to community goals related to local resilience to large-scale solar projects. Local officials can return to the
Hosting three essential questions for planning—Who is helped?
Large-Scale Solar climate change and extreme weather events. They may
M6 Development also use performance-based goals to achieve broader Who is harmed? Who is missing?—when developing
Projects community goals related to clean energy transition. For co-benefits goals (see Module 3).
example, if a community’s goal is to decrease reliance The co-benefits approach to solar development em-
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar on power from nonlocal and nonrenewable sources or phasizes the importance of direct advantages for the host
Development to demonstrate a commitment to climate change miti- community. Large-scale solar can do more than produce
gation or sustainability goals, then performance-based clean energy and mitigate climate change; local jurisdic-
Maximizing goals for a solar energy system can be appropriate. tions can use siting and project design to deliberately
M8 Success increase local and collective benefits.
Participation Some of the co-benefits that may accompany large-
Local officials can also set goals that encourage local scale solar development include revitalizing underutilized
stakeholders and residents to directly participate in large- public lands; increasing public awareness of clean energy
scale solar projects located on local government land. and climate action; managing natural resources, such as
For example, a local jurisdiction may want to host a water and soil; and increasing the viability of local food
shared solar project that gives community members an production.
opportunity to subscribe and receive credit on their elec-
Defining
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Figure 6-1. A 2.3 MW solar energy system sited on top of a closed municipal landfill in Easthampton, Massachusetts (Source:
M6 Development Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, Flickr)
Projects
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Brownfields, such as closed landfills and wastewa- processes. Reinvestment in these properties may also in-
Development
ter treatment sites, are just some of the local-govern- crease local revenue, create jobs, and ease development
ment-owned sites that can support a large-scale solar pressure on farmland or other productive lands—which
Maximizing
M8 Success
system (Figure 6-1). Due to possible contamination and can contribute to broader community goals of equitable
the potential need for costly remediation, these sites development and low-impact siting and design.
might be unsuitable for commercial or residential rede- The details of each site are important when determin-
velopment. Redeveloping brownfields with solar installa- ing the feasibility and cost for development. Sometimes
tions may benefit public health, property values, and local these lands have higher cleanup costs or special site char-
ecology. Co-benefit goals, thus, can assist in bringing acteristics that constrain project design, but developers
positive impacts to groups harmed by past policy deci- may benefit from nearby existing infrastructure, such as
sions or those previously left out of community planning access roads or distribution lines. And since these sites

often have fewer potential alternative uses, they are less

Defining
controversial to develop.
Development Co-benefit goals that promote siting on brownfields
or other previously developed but currently underuti-
Understanding
the Market for lized sites might require developers to spend more
M2 Large-Scale Solar money preparing the site for installation. Local jurisdic-
Development tions will need to balance their desire to site projects
Community on underutilized lands with the necessity of commer-
Planning for
cial viability.
Development Developers are increasingly able to intentionally design
large-scale solar development to be low impact and
Zoning for ecologically valuable (Ross 2020; NREL 2020). Large-scale
solar facilities can serve as green infrastructure that pro-
Development
vides pollinator habitat, decreases stormwater runoff, and
Improving protects or improves water quality, such as by reducing Figure 6-2. Wildlife-friendly fencing at a solar facility in Moore
M5 Land-Use contamination of drinking water or restoring water and County, North Carolina (Credit: Liz Kalies, The Nature Conser-
Decision-Making soil quality for better food production. vancy)
Hosting Local jurisdictions can set project goals that promote
Large-Scale Solar green infrastructure, making the project more appeal-
M6 Development ing to residents and other local stakeholders. Existing
Projects large-scale solar facilities, such as Maces Pond Agrivoltaic Selecting Potential Sites
Assisting Project in Maine, have been co-located with agriculture Not all local-government-owned land is appropriate for
M7 Large-Scale Solar to improve crop production. Other facilities, such as the large-scale solar development. Local jurisdictions should
Development Aurora Solar Project in Minnesota use pollinators to meet develop a standardized process for selecting sites that
sustainability goals and improve water quality. The Aurora satisfy project goals, adhere to broader community goals,
M8 Maximizing Solar Project also accommodates grazing livestock to and meet other practical requirements.
Success assist with landscape maintenance, while NREL’s Flatirons Local officials can start by first identifying a list of
Campus in Colorado encourages wildlife grazing for the local sites that meet the basic physical requirements to
same purpose. And wildlife-friendly fencing at a Pine support a large-scale solar facility. Then, they can collect
Gate Renewables site in North Carolina is an example of further information on the site. Local stakeholders who
low-impact design that is unobtrusive to local ecology have ecological, financial, and technical expertise can
(Figure 6-2). assist local officials in narrowing down the list to the most

promising sites: those that have the best access to exist- which typically requires low amounts of maintenance. As
Defining
ing grid infrastructure (or the best potential for efficiently discussed below, sites that are near distribution or trans-
mission lines and have access or graded roads are more
Development building new infrastructure), the fewest potential envi-
ronmental impacts, and the most economically feasible appealing for developers.
Understanding
the Market for for development. There are several online tools officials When cleared of above-ground structures, remediated
M2 Large-Scale Solar can use to help identify and analyze potential project brownfields can be attractive sites for large-scale solar de-
Development sites (Table 6-1). velopment. They often consist of large, flat, and unshaded
Community areas near existing electricity grid infrastructure. However,
M3 Planning for Site Characteristics brownfields with subsurface contamination may require
Large-Scale Solar The topography of the site—the slope, size, and shape—
Development
costly soil removal and replacement or the use of ballast-
largely determines its suitability for large-scale solar de- ed systems and above-ground wiring.
Zoning for velopment. Developers need relatively flat land to install Sites with land-use exclusions or restrictions, such as
M4 Large-Scale Solar solar arrays on, so the slope must be low. The size and environmentally sensitive lands or historical and cultural
Development
shape of the site should be able to accommodate the lands, are not suitable for large-scale solar projects. Devel-
Improving
entire solar system, as well as any necessary buffers and opment that prevents or disturbs the ecological function
M5 Land-Use accessory structures. of a site can have adverse impacts on wildlife and the envi-
Decision-Making Additionally, ground-mounted systems require com- ronment (both on-site and on adjoining properties). While
pact soils. Ground cover and vegetation should be developers may be able to design systems that comple-
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar unobtrusive but has the potential to be ecologically ment or enhance natural functions, these designs can be
M6 Development valuable, such as pollinator-friendly or native vegetation,
Projects
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Table 6-1. Screening Tools for Identifying and Analyzing Potential Large-Scale Solar Project Sites
Development
Tool Description
Maximizing Rocky Mountain Institute’s Municipal Solar Site Selection Tool An Excel workbook designed to help local officials identify
M8 Success promising sites for PV systems; includes screening criteria for open
fields, brownfields, and landfills
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s RE-Powering America’s A downloadable application that walks users through a series of
Land Electronic Decision Tree questions about potential solar and wind project sites to produce
site screening summary and site comparison reports
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s RE-Powering Mapper 2.0 An interactive map to help users analyze the feasibility of previously
identified contaminated lands, landfills, and mine sites for solar (and
other renewable energy) projects.

more expensive. Land that serves as critical natural habitat will need to connect to either the distribution or trans-
Defining
is generally not appropriate for solar development. mission grid.
Development The amount of direct solar irradiance and shading both Local officials should consult and communicate with
affect the site’s access to the solar resource. Trees, adja- utility planners to familiarize themselves with current and
Understanding
the Market for cent buildings, and utility lines are some features that can future grid infrastructure in their jurisdictions, as well as
M2 Large-Scale Solar reduce how much sun reaches the solar arrays. the impacts of high PV penetration (see Module 8).
Development Because solar development is a long-term land use,
Community the surrounding features are liable to change over the Selecting Development Partners
Planning for After a local government has set clear project goals and
lifetime of the project. While local officials may be able
has an understanding of which sites are appropriate for
Development protect solar access by negotiating easements and
agreements that limit vegetation growth or the height large-scale solar development, the next step is selecting
Zoning for of future development adjacent to a project site, they development partners who can implement a project.
should consider the climate benefits of trees and urban Local officials will need to develop a competitive, fair,
Development and open process for selecting development partners.
densification before pursuing this approach.
Solar developers are the most common type of develop-
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Network Access ment partner, but local governments could also partner
Decision-Making The proximity of grid infrastructure to a site affects its with community-based organizations, special districts,
viability to host a large-scale solar energy system. Being and other entities to implement a large-scale solar proj-
Hosting near appropriate interconnection points can reduce initial ect that meets their needs and goals.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development project costs. Local jurisdictions can issue a request for qualifications
Projects The appropriateness of an interconnection point (RFQ) to identify potential development partners. Then,
is determined by the rated capacity of the system, its they can issue a request for proposals (RFP) to select a
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar relationship to the grid (behind or in front of the meter), partner. Partner agreements are also necessary for active
Development and the degree of PV penetration on the local distribu- participants in the project beyond solar developers and
tion grid. If grid operators and developers do not pre- operators, such as electricity offtakers and contractors.
Maximizing pare for high PV penetration, this can lead to grid insta-
M8 Success bility. Local officials and grid operators can encourage Requests for Proposals
developers to provide additional measures to mitigate Local jurisdictions issue RFPs to solicit bids from potential
instability or to efficiently connect to the transmission partners who can develop, install, finance, interconnect,
grid, but this may be more costly. operate, or maintain a solar energy system (SolSmart
The location and capacity of the local power grid is 2017; IREC 2015; TSF 2012a). The basic steps of the RFP
a crucial consideration for site selection. Depending on process include developing the RFP, issuing the RFP, ad-
whether a project will be community- or utility-scale, it ministering the RFP, evaluating submitted proposals, and
selecting the final proposal.

To develop a successful RFP, local officials will need to tions, and responsibilities that might exclude certain
Defining
communicate project goals, consult with stakeholders, development partners. Clearly listing the community’s
Development provide the potential partners with site information, and non-negotiable requirements, such as low-impact or
determine and adhere to criteria to evaluate bids. The RFP environmentally friendly design or preparation of brown-
Understanding
the Market for outlines expectations and establishes requirements that field sites for installation, will discourage unqualified
M2 Large-Scale Solar the local government has for its development partners development partners from sending in proposals.
Development (Table 6-2). The RFP should provide as much information on po-
Community Providing expectations up front—such as project tential sites as possible, including topographic maps or
Planning for
goals, priorities, and preferences—can narrow the pool aerial photography. Local governments unable to provide
Development of project applicants according to their eligibility and these resources can offer to grant temporary site access
capabilities to meet these expectations. Early in the RFP to potential developers.
Zoning for process, local officials should summarize terms, condi-
Development
Improving Table 6-2. Examples of RFPs for Large-Scale Solar Development Projects on Local Government Land
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Jurisdiction RFP
Hosting Coatesville, PA Request for Proposals RFP 1-2020: Land Lease of City-Owned Location (120
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Pratts Dam Road) For Solar Photovoltaic Projects (2020)
Projects Charlotte, NC Request for Proposal: For Partnering with The City of Charlotte in the
Development Services for Duke Energy Green Source Advantage Program
Assisting RFP #2019-407 (2019)
M7 Large-Scale Solar Concord, NH RFP 01-20: Ground-Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Systems on City-Owned
Development Parcels (2019)
Farmers Branch, TX Request for Proposals RFP#22-02: Lease of Municipally-Owned, Closed Landfill
Maximizing for Solar Development City of Farmers Branch, TX (2022)
M8 Success
Marshfield, MA Request for Proposals: Lease of Real Property to Use Site for Construction,
Operation, & Maintenance of Renewable Energy Facilities, Large Scale Ground
Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Installation (2019)
Sacramento Regional County Sanitation District, CA Request for Proposals for Solar PV PPA Project (2015)
Santa Fe County, NM RFP No. 2023-0034-CDD/BT: Lease of County Property for the Purpose of
Community Solar Development (2023)
Solid Waste Authority of Central Ohio, OH Request for Proposals to Develop a Solar Panel Array Project (2019)

The RFP should share basic information on the term of

Defining
the lease, the possibility of extensions, and the process
for making payments. This gives potential development
Development
partners the opportunity to share questions about terms
Understanding
the Market for
and conditions.
M2 Large-Scale Solar The RFP should also aim to reveal the capabilities of
Development the development team, its technical and project manage-
Community ment approaches, and its proposed timelines. The capa-
Planning for
bilities of the development team include its qualifications,
Development
experience, and proof of financial capacity and insurance Figure 6-3. IBEW (Local 302) workers installing combiner box-
coverage. Technical approach details the proposed sys- es for Richmond, California’s MCE Solar One brightfield proj-
Zoning for tem design, a proposed site plan, relevant studies on soil ect, which was subject to a 50 percent local hiring require-
suitability and engineering, as well as equipment speci- ment per MCE’s development partner RFP (Credit: MCE)
Development
fications; this also reflects the ability of the proponent to
Improving meet performance- and size-based project goals. Project
M5 Land-Use management approach covers operations and mainte-
Decision-Making nance procedures, as well as the team’s ability to fulfill
Hosting responsibilities for permitting, interconnection, and de- Local officials should create criteria that allow them to
Large-Scale Solar commissioning. It also describes performance monitoring evaluate submitted proposals in a standardized way. Ad-
M6 Development or control systems and performance guarantees. Another hering to evaluation criteria helps to ensure a fair process
Projects common element is a site security plan. and increases the likelihood that the proposal selected
Assisting Finally, local governments may wish to have devel- will meet project goals. Successful review processes
M7 Large-Scale Solar opment partners share their plans for participation and should emphasize the importance of a development
Development co-benefit goals, such as local hiring or training capabil- partner achieving specific outcomes, without placing
ities or how they plan to communicate with community unnecessary limits on the technical, design, and project
Maximizing members about participation opportunities, as well as management approaches development partners use.
M8 Success any general concerns (Figure 6-3). The final step in the RFP process is selecting the “win-
After finalizing the content of the RFP, local officials ning” proposal and establishing partner agreements.
can announce the RFP and begin accepting proposals.
Local officials will need to decide how they want respon- Partner Agreements
dents to submit proposals and ensure there are adequate Local government officials will need to establish agree-
staffing and resources to answer questions that potential ments with organizations and entities that play an active
development partners may have. role in project implementation. Solar developers and

operators will typically be the primary development part- exclude other uses. Through a site lease, system owners
Defining
ner. Common partner agreements include site control take on the responsibilities of paying property taxes and
Development agreements (such as a license, easement, or lease), solar insuring and securing the property. A site lease provides
access agreements, and power purchase agreements the system owner the power to grant sub-rights to other
Understanding
the Market for (PPAs) (IREC 2015). entities who provide interconnection, telecommunica-
M2 Large-Scale Solar A site license grants the large-scale solar system owner tion, or other services (IREC 2015). Therefore, a system
Development the right to use land for installation, operation, repair, and owner may grant easements or licenses, as well as sub-
Community decommissioning. Licenses might be suitable for public leases or co-leases.
Planning for
land that serves another purpose, such as a parking lot, When choosing a site control agreement, local offi-
Development where system owners might want to have less respon- cials should consider the characteristics of a project and
sibilities for the security and maintenance of the site. local laws governing local-government-owned property.
Zoning for Property owners can revoke or terminate licenses unless Officials can design easements to mirror the protections
development partners negotiate otherwise. Local officials of a lease, but the main difference is that an easement
Development
can pair long-term PPAs with site licenses to mitigate the does not allow for anything more than the purpose of
Improving risks for system owners associated with licenses. But this operating a large-scale solar system. This may or may not
M5 Land-Use does not always satisfy system owners’ concerns, in which be preferable for the local jurisdiction and can determine
Decision-Making case an easement or lease will be necessary. whether officials choose an easement or lease.
Hosting An easement is like a license in that both authorize Local officials should ensure they retain the right to
Large-Scale Solar usage for limited purposes (e.g., installing and operating a access the property for inspections, monitoring, or other
M6 Development large-scale solar energy system) without granting own- purposes. They should also use site agreements to estab-
Projects ership. But in addition to allowing for the use of land, an lish partner responsibilities that they do not want to (or
Assisting easement allows the easement holder to take from the cannot) handle themselves, such as system removal and
M7 Large-Scale Solar land and protect it from external interests. An easement decommissioning (see Module 4).
Development requires a written agreement that provides specific de- In addition to site control agreements, local officials
tails, such as the term period, rights, and purpose. Ease- should also consider establishing solar access agreements
M8 Maximizing ments can assign clear responsibilities for security, solar with neighboring property owners. The most common
Success access, and maintenance. Property owners and devel- form of a solar access agreement is a solar easement,
opment partners can negotiate these features based on which is a voluntary agreement that protects access to
system characteristics. sunlight on the host site. Solar easements prohibit neigh-
A site lease gives a lessee (such as a large-scale solar boring property owners from building any structure or
system owner) possession of a property owned by an- allowing trees to grow in a way that prevents sunlight
other person or entity. In addition to allowing the system from reaching a solar energy system.
owner to use the land, it also gives them the ability to

Defining
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Figure 6-4. State-level authorizations for third-party solar PV power purchase agreements (Source: DSIRE)
Maximizing
M8 Success
Power purchase agreements (PPAs) are long-term federal tax incentives. Local governments can also expect
contracts that allow the local jurisdiction to buy power stable electricity prices during the term of the agreement.
from a third party who owns and operates the large-scale However, PPAs are not permitted in every state (Figure
solar system (IREC 2015; NREL 2009). The benefits of a PPA 6-4), and there is no guarantee that the electricity price
that make them desirable for many local governments’ will be competitive with retail pricing.
solar projects include low up-front costs and eligibility for


Development
• Project goals for hosted solar energy systems should have a clear connection to broader community goals for
Understanding large-scale solar development.
the Market for
• Project sites must be relatively flat and unshaded by nearby structures or trees and have convenient access to
Development the electricity grid.
Community
• Local officials can use requests for proposals (RFPs) to identify and select project development partners.
Planning for • Local officials can use site agreements to establish access and use rights for development partners.
M3 Large-Scale Solar • Local officials can use solar easements to protect access to sunlight from the project site.
Development • In most states, local officials can use power purchase agreements (PPAs) to purchase the electricity produced
Zoning for by a hosted system.
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Defining
Development Argonne National Laboratory. 2023. Energy Zones Mapping Tool.
Understanding Bank, J., B. Mather, J. Keller, and M. Coddington. 2013. “High Penetration Photovoltaic Case Study Report.” Golden, Colo.: National
the Market for Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Development Cory, Karlynn, Brendan Canavan, and Ronald Koenig. 2009. “Power Purchase Agreement Checklist for State and Local Govern-
Community ments.” Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Dodson, Emily, Christopher Doyle, and Robert Lockhart. 2014. Guide to Implementing Solar PV for Local Governments.
Development Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association
Zoning for Gomez, Alexsandra. 2022. “Visual Guide to Agrivoltaics and Wildlife-Friendly Solar.” APA Blog, August 9.
Development ICF Incorporated, LLC. 2019. “Interconnection: Plugging RE-Powering Sites Into the Electric Grid.” RE-Powering America’s Land
Initiative Discussion Paper. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Improving
M5 Land-Use ———. 2019. “The Value of Existing Infrastructure for Renewable Energy Development.” RE-Powering America’s Land Initiative
Decision-Making Discussion Paper. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Hosting Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). 2015. Solar Power Purchase Agreements: A Toolkit for Local Governments.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources. 2016. The Guide to Developing Solar Photovoltaics at Massachusetts Landfills.
Projects National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2009. “Power Purchase Agreement Checklist for State and Local Governments.”
Assisting ———. 2020. “Low-Impact Solar Development Strategies Guidebook.”
Development ———. 2022. Best Practices for Siting Solar Photovoltaics on Municipal Solid Waste Landfills. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Maximizing
M8 Success
NC Clean Energy Technology Center. 2023. DSIRE Programs.
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. 2020. “Municipal Solar Procurement Toolkit.” In New York Solar
Guidebook for Local Governments.
Ross, Brian. 2020. “Solar, with Benefits! (Or, the Co-Benefits Approach to Solar Development).” Minneapolis, Minn.: Great Plains
Institute.
SolSmart. 2017. Solar Energy Toolkt: Solar Development on Public Facilities and Under-Utilized Land.

The Solar Foundation (TSF). 2012. “Leasing Municipal and Private Property for Solar: Key Steps and Considerations.”
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar ———. 2012a. “Steps to a Successful Solar Request for Proposal.”
Development
U.S. Department of Energy. 2022. Local Government Guide for Solar Deployment.
Understanding
the Market for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2018. Local Government Project Portal: Goal-Setting Guidance.
Development ———. 2019. Interconnection: Plugging RE-Powering Sites Into the Electric Grid.
Community ———. 2023. RE-Powering’s Electronic Decision Tree.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar ———. 2023. Solar Project Development Pathway & Resources.
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

MODULE 7
ASSISTING LARGE-SCALE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
H istorically, federal and state incentives, such as the federal investment tax
credit and state renewable portfolio standards, have contributed to the
rapid growth of the large-scale solar market (see Module 2). Meanwhile,
Development
Community
local assistance programs have played much smaller supportive or
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar complementary roles.
Development
Zoning for
Development This module summarizes how local technical assis- opportunities and benefits of large-scale solar develop-
tance initiatives can improve large-scale solar development. Programmatic investments can help landowners,
Improving ment outcomes and how local jurisdictions may be able residents, and developers take advantage of and maxi-
M5 Land-Use to use financial assistance programs to facilitate highly mize local large-scale solar development opportunities.
Decision-Making
desirable large-scale solar projects.
Hosting Educational Events
M6 Large-Scale Solar Providing Technical Assistance Local jurisdictions can support educational forums, work-
Development Local government officials can provide technical assis- shops, and open-house-style events initiated or hosted by
Projects
tance to help facilitate solar development projects or to development partners or industry experts that explain the
Assisting connect community members with opportunities asso- large-scale solar development process and share specific
M7 Large-Scale Solar ciated with development projects. Providing technical opportunities for local participation. Educational events
Development
assistance reflects the continuous nature of an authentic give potential development partners the chance to make
public participation process, which should be inclusive initial connections with property owners or pass along
Maximizing contact information to allow for future conversations.
M8 Success
and equitable (see Module 3).
At a minimum, this assistance requires staff time, Local officials should return to the three essential ques-
and it may also require investments in new tools, tions for planning—Who is helped? Who is harmed? Who
supplies, or materials. Consequently, local government is missing?—when supporting educational events (see
officials should reserve technical assistance efforts for Module 3). Local officials should encourage events that
solar development projects whose local benefits far cater to different audiences and their relevant opportu-
outweigh tradeoffs. nities, such as helping landowners learn the benefits and
Informational efforts can build local awareness of the tradeoffs of hosting large-scale solar projects or informing
122 | MODULE 7. Assisting Large-Scale Solar Development

residents how to apply for the shared solar programs or In 2017, Butte County, California, developed a solar
Defining
jobs. Educational events that are robust and far-reaching mapping tool to identify areas that are conducive to
are a necessary part of an authentic public participation utility-scale solar development (Figure 7-1). This tool
Development
process. And local officials can also facilitate the achieve- rates the suitability of potential parcels according to their
Understanding
the Market for
ment of broader community goals, such as equitable size and current land-use designation. It determines if a
M2 Large-Scale Solar development, by ensuring that all segments of the com- proposed site falls within “opportunity areas,” which the
Development munity are aware of the local opportunities created by county defines as either areas with limited alternative
Community large-scale solar development. uses or those in proximity to transmission lines or substa-
Planning for
Events for property owners can focus on consider- tions. It also defines areas that may be feasible for utili-
Development
ations for solar land leases, such as local average lease ty-scale solar projects, with careful planning and design.
rates, conversion penalties, increases in taxable value, tax Additionally, it identifies areas that are entirely unsuitable
Zoning for exemptions, ensuring return to pre-lease condition, and because of factors deemed important by the county
potential site design alternatives (NYSERDA 2020a). (land-use compatibility, biological resources, agricultural
Development
Educational events should primarily provide informa- resources, and natural hazards). This tool integrates a buf-
Improving tion about the process of large-scale solar development, fer analysis that constrains utility-scale solar development
M5 Land-Use but they can also create opportunities for participants to to varying degrees depending on distance from residen-
Decision-Making access information and tools that allow them to weigh all tial areas and scenic highways.
Hosting their options, as well as ways to stay in touch with local In 2020, Scenic Hudson created a similar mapping tool
Large-Scale Solar staff and experts that can guide them through the process. to help local officials, solar developers, and other com-
M6 Development munity stakeholders in New York’s Hudson Valley identify
Projects Site Assessment Tools and prioritize sites for solar development. It also created
Assisting Interactive mapping and assessment tools can help local a seven-step guide to help communities in other regions
M7 Large-Scale Solar property owners and prospective large-scale solar devel- develop their own mapping tools (2021).
Development opers evaluate the development opportunities that are The first step in creating a local site assessment tool
appropriate for their land or projects. Local officials can is assembling the project team. Ideally, this team should
Maximizing facilitate the achievement of broader community goals, include staff members and other community stakehold-
M8 Success such as low-impact siting and design, by contributing to ers with expertise in planning, geographic information
or developing site assessment tools. systems (GIS), renewable energy policy, conservation
Online solar mapping tools can educate and inform science, and public engagement. This team can establish
property owners and developers about the estimated so- the design and structure of the tool, select the platform
lar energy potential of a site and share information about that will host it, and select relevant datasets as inputs.
the likely benefits of a large-scale solar project. Engaging with stakeholders throughout this process,
especially for testing prototypes, can facilitate

Figure 7-1. An exported

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar image from Butte County,
Development California’s PowerButte
Utility-Scale Solar Guide
Understanding
the Market for Mapping Tool (Source:
M2 Large-Scale Solar Butte County GIS)
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development improvements based on feedback and build an estab- Local jurisdictions can also connect site assessment
lished group of future users. tools to local incentives. For example, they can help de-
Maximizing After finalizing the online mapping tool, local officials velopers identify preferred locations—such as those that
M8 Success can promote its use by developing user-friendly guidance have been pre-screened for suitability—that may be eli-
to help community members and solar developers un- gible for development incentives (see Module 4) or direct
derstand the purpose of the tool, how to use it, and how financial incentives from federal, state, or local programs
to interpret the outputs and results. Publicizing the tool (Figure 7-2).
through press releases, social media posts, web pages,
and interactive activities can ensure residents are aware
that the tool exists (Scenic Hudson 2021).

Figure 7-2. The World Re-

Defining
sources Institute’s IRA Bonus
Mapper (Beta) tool
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Providing Financial Assistance ties and local governments have historically underserved.
Assisting
Many cities, towns, and counties use financial incentives Tax incentives are often the most widely available form
of financial assistance as they do not require a dedicated
Development to attract development projects. Some of these incen-
tives are ad hoc and project specific; others are standard- source of local funding. However, programs that support
ized assistance programs with uniform eligibility criteria. shared solar projects may be the most locally beneficial
Maximizing
M8 Success As with technical assistance efforts, local financial incen- (Paulos 2019).
tives are only appropriate in cases in which highly desirable
projects (those that confer local benefits far outweighing Tax Incentives
tradeoffs) may be financially infeasible or carry high risks. Federal tax incentives have been critical to the success of
Potential examples include solar projects on brownfield many large-scale solar projects. The necessity of local tax
sites, floating solar (see Module 8), and those designed to incentives is often less clear, and state laws may constrain
maximize co-benefits or benefits for populations that utili- local tax incentive options.

There is no consensus method of assessing property abatements can help solar developers secure financing
Defining
taxes on large-scale solar energy systems and project for large-scale solar projects, and both can increase the
Development sites. And there is no widespread agreement about what profitability of the installation for as long as the incentive
types of property taxes should apply. Some states classify remains in effect. However, they also reduce the local
Understanding
the Market for large-scale solar energy systems as real property, while property tax revenue collected by the local jurisdiction.
M2 Large-Scale Solar others classify them as personal property (Barnes et al. The impact that property taxes have on the long-term
Development 2013; Goss and Fazeli 2018; Hintz et al. 2021). financial viability of large-scale solar projects can be sig-
Community Accurate and fair tax assessments can reduce tax nificant. Many states and local governments grant full or
Planning for
burden on large-scale solar projects. Many states and partial tax exemptions for property that serves a public or
Development local jurisdictions base their property tax assessment on beneficial purpose—such as solar energy systems. How-
the idea that a property’s replacement cost will rise every ever, most existing local tax incentives for solar focus only
Zoning for year. This does not always apply to large-scale solar facili- on residential installations. The eligibility of large-scale
ties, whose replacement costs may decrease as technolo- projects for property tax exemptions has been a point
Development
gies mature (Bernard and Mason 2018; see Module 2). of debate as the language of most incentives does not
Improving Assessors and elected officials typically oppose reduc- address them (Goss and Fazeli 2018).
M5 Land-Use ing the local tax base and might initially be hesitant to Some states exempt or abate personal property taxes
Decision-Making make large-scale systems eligible for tax incentives. Local for large-solar energy systems, and some of these states
Hosting officials will need to reconcile potentially competing authorize local jurisdictions to negotiate payments in lieu
Large-Scale Solar policy objectives, such as increasing local revenue or de- of taxes (PILOTs) from tax-exempt property owners to
M6 Development creasing tax burdens. Elected officials may find providing recover some lost revenue (Gold 2021a; Hintz, Uebelhor,
Projects tax incentives, alongside creating accurate tax valuation and Gold 2021; Table 7-1; Table 7-3). Others explicitly
Assisting models, more reasonable when they understand the po- authorize local jurisdictions to offer exemptions or abate-
M7 Large-Scale Solar tential to meet local economic development and other ments. Local jurisdictions may be able to negotiate PILOTs
Development community goals through large-scale solar development. with developers based on property and system type (e.g.,
The most common types of local tax incentives for de- large-scale installations receive different treatments than
M8 Maximizing velopment projects are property tax exemptions or abate- small-scale ones). Local jurisdictions should reference
Success ments and tax increment financing (Kenyon, Langley, and their state statutes to see if they allow or require PILOT
Paquin 2012). Each method has distinct advantages and agreements and specify terms of use.
disadvantages with respect to large-scale solar projects. Tax increment financing (TIF) provides a mechanism to
Property tax exemptions reduce the taxable value of borrow against the future property values of an area to fi-
personal or real property, while property tax abatements nance capital improvements that will spur development.
directly reduce the amount of personal or property taxes Where authorized, local jurisdictions can designate TIF
owed over a specified period. Both exemptions and districts that allow them to issue bonds to be paid back

Table 7-1. Examples of Tax Incentive Agreements

Defining
Jurisdiction Agreement
Development
Fee in Lieu of Tax Agreement Between Greenville County, South Carolina and White Horse A Solar, LLC
Understanding Greenville County, SC
(2019)
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Payment in Lieu of Taxes Agreement by and Between Chiloquin Sollar LLC and Klamath County, Oregon
Development Klamath County, OR
(2018)
Community
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Laconia, NH Payment in Lieu of Taxes Agreement Between the City of Laconia and Laconia Town Solar, LLC (2018)
Development
Payment in Lieu of Taxes Agreement for Solar Energy Systems Between the Town of Marlborough, County
Marlborough, NY
Zoning for of Ulster, the Marlboro Central School District and Marlborough Solar, LLC (2019)
Pulaski County, IN Agreement for Economic Development Between Moss Creek Solar, LLC, and Pulaski County, Indiana (2022)
Development
Swisher County, TX Tax Abatement Agreement between Swisher County, Texas, and Swisher Solar Energy LLC (2020)
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting as property tax values increase over time. The basic idea pants to purchase ownership shares or a percentage of
Large-Scale Solar behind TIF is that when a developer improves a property, the power produced by the project have proven to be an
M6 Development the value of that property rises, and the taxes generated effective strategy for broadening local access to the direct
Projects
on that site increase. The difference between the pre-im- benefits of solar energy (ACCC n.d.; Cook and Bird 2019;
Assisting provement taxes and the post-improvement taxes is the DenHerder-Thomas and Welle 2020; IREC 2016; ISC 2021).
M7 Large-Scale Solar “tax increment.” Consequently, local jurisdictions with equitable develop-
Development
TIF can help local jurisdictions invest in costly infra- ment goals might want to prioritize assistance for shared
structure upgrades, such as electric transmission or solar projects that enroll or hire members of marginalized
Maximizing distribution network expansions, that can make solar de-
M8 Success
communities, remove barriers for low- and moderate-in-
velopment projects feasible. However, once the local ju- come participants, or seek community-based developers
risdiction creates a TIF district, it cannot use the increased as development partners.
tax values to fund local services because this increment is Beyond offering property tax incentives, a local jurisdic-
earmarked to pay off the bonds. tion can also help shared solar projects secure financing
by becoming an anchor subscriber, a backstop purchaser,
Support for Shared Solar or by setting up loan loss reserves (ACCC n.d.; DenHerd-
Shared solar projects that allow multiple local partici- er-Thomas and Welle 2020; IREC 2016; USDOE n.d.).

Anchor subscribers reduce costs by helping projects such as those caused by customers in default. These
Defining
reach economies of scale. They provide assurance to programs offset financial risk, enhance the credibility of
the project, and make it possible for low- or moderate-in-
Development financiers by providing a guaranteed amount of project
cash flows. Becoming an anchor subscriber is an oppor- come customers to participate in a shared solar project.
Understanding
the Market for tunity for local governments, who typically have large However, the local jurisdiction typically pays out of pock-
M2 Large-Scale Solar electric loads, to power their operations through clean et for loan loss reserves, requiring them to prioritize this
Development energy (Table 7-2). Alternatively, local governments can spending over other activities.
Community serve as backstop purchasers, which agree to purchase Finally, local jurisdictions may be able to provide direct
Planning for
the generated energy that the main subscriber base does financial support to shared solar projects through a land
Development not use (Figure 7-3). disposition agreement. With governing board approval,
One tradeoff for local jurisdictions that take on the role local governments can donate surplus public land, or sell
Zoning for of an anchor or backstop purchaser is that they might get it at below market value, to a nonprofit organization for
locked into a power purchase agreement that might be use as a shared solar project site. But donating or dis-
Development
more expensive than alternative arrangements, though counting land for solar projects means the local jurisdic-
Improving this is uncommon. tion could lose out on revenue from leasing or selling
M5 Land-Use Besides direct participation in a shared solar project, these lands at market value.
Decision-Making local governments can also set up loan loss reserves, or
Hosting public funds put aside to pay unmet project obligations,
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting Table 7-2. Examples of Local Jurisdictions as Anchor Subscribers

Development Jurisdiction Project Participation
Ann Arbor, MI Serves as an anchor subscriber for a shared solar project on a capped landfill owned by the city (DTE
Maximizing Energy 2021)
M8 Success Denver Housing Authority, CO Financed and owns a shared solar project in Watkins, Colorado, that provides on-bill credits to public
housing residents (ICMA and Cadmus 2019)
Orlando, FL Serves as an anchor subscriber for a shared solar project owned by the city’s municipal utility
(Lindwall 2020)
Saint Paul Housing Authority, MN Serves as an anchor subscriber for multiple off-site shared solar projects to offset 100 percent of
energy use at 10 high-rise buildings and the authority’s administrative building (Grid Alternatives
and Vote Solar 2021)

Defining
Development
Understanding
the Market for
Development
Community
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success
Figure 7-3. A 618 kW shared solar project in Edina, Minnesota, for which the city serves as a backstop subscriber (Credit:
Impact Power Solutions)


Development
• Through technical and financial assistance, local jurisdictions can uplift broader community goals for large-
Understanding scale solar development.
the Market for
• Local government officials can provide technical assistance to help facilitate solar development projects or to
Development connect community members with opportunities associated with development projects.
Community
• Educational events can help landowners assess opportunities to host a large-scale solar project or utility cus-
Planning for tomers learn more about how they can subscribe to a shared solar project.
M3 Large-Scale Solar • Interactive mapping and decision-support tools can help local property owners and prospective large-scale
Development solar developers evaluate the development opportunities that are appropriate for their land or project.
Zoning for • Accurate and fair tax assessments can reduce tax burdens on large-scale solar projects.
M4 Large-Scale Solar • Local jurisdictions can help shared solar projects secure financing by becoming an anchor subscriber, a back-
Development stop purchaser, or by setting up loan loss reserves.
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Defining
Development American Climate Cities Challenge (ACCC). n.d. “Procurement Guidance: Community Solar.”
Understanding Audubon Washington. 2022. Solar Energy: Siting It Right in the Columbia Plateau.
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Barnes, Justin, Chad Laurent, Jayson Uppal, Chelsea Barnes, and Amy Heinemann. 2013. Property Taxes and Solar PV Systems:
Development Policies, Practices, and Issues. Raleigh, N.C.: North Carolina Solar Center.
Community Bernard, Tom, and Trevor Mason. 2018. “Reducing Property Taxes a Key to Profitability of Renewables.” Utility Dive, November 29.
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Butte (California), County of. 2017. “Butte Utility-Scale Solar Guide Mapping Tool.”
Development
Cape Cod Commission. 2023. Solar Screening Tool.
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar Cook, Jeffrey J., and Lori Bird. 2019. Unlocking Solar for Low- and Moderate-Income Residents: A Matrix of Financing Options by
Development Resident, Provider, and Housing Type. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Improving DenHerder-Thomas, Timothy, and Jonathan Welle. 2020. Equitable Community Solar: Policy and Program Guidance for Communi-
M5 Land-Use ty Solar Programs that Promote Racial and Economic Equity. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Local Self-Reliance.
Decision-Making
DTE Energy. 2021. DTE Energy and local communities move forward with first-of-its-kind community solar project in Washt-
Hosting enaw County.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Gold, Eli. 2021. “Solar Energy Property Taxation.” Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Center for Local, State, and Urban Poli-
Projects cy.
Assisting Gold, Eli. 2021a. “Solar Taxation in Michigan: Payment in Lieu of Taxes Considerations.” Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan
Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy.
Development
Grid Alternatives and Vote Solar. 2023. Low-Income Solar Policy Guide.
Maximizing
M8 Success
Goss, Stephen, and Sandy Fazeli. 2018. “Section 4: Property Taxes.” In U.S. Climate Alliance Solar Deployment Guidebook: A Resource
for State and Local Governments. Arlington, Va.: National Association of State Energy Officials.
Hackler, Darrene, and Ellen Harpel. 2020. “A Framework for Responsive Economic Development: Determine, Design, and Eval-
uate.” In Reflecting Community Priorities in Economic Development Practices. Philadelphia: The Pew Charitable Trusts.
Hawaii State Energy Office. 2023. Renewable EnerGIS Mapping Tool.

Hintz, Olivia, Emma Uebelhor, and Eli Gold. 2021. “Inventory of State Solar Property Tax Treatments.” CLUSUP Working Paper 54.
Defining
Ann Arbor, Mich.: Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy.
Development Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). 2016. “Shared Renewable Energy for Low- to Moderate-Income Consumers: Policy
Understanding Guidelines and Model Provisions.”
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Institute for Sustainable Communities (ISC). 2021. Catalyzing Community Solar.
Development International City/County Management Association (ICMA) and Cadmus. 2019. “Solar in Your Community Challenge Case
Community Study: The Community Affordable Renewable Energy (CARE) Project.”
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar Kenyon, Daphne E., Adam H. Langley, and Bethany P. Paquin. 2012. Rethinking Property Tax Incentives for Business. Cambridge,
Development Mass.: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
Zoning for Kentucky Energy and Environment Cabinet. 2021. Solar Siting Potential in Kentucky.
Development Lindwall, Courtney. 2020. “Meet the Sunshine State’s New Clean Energy Darling—Community Solar.” NRDC Dispatch, August 6.
Improving Maine Audubon. 2021. Renewable Energy Siting Tool.

M5 Land-Use Maryland Department of Natural Resources. 2023. SmartDG+.
Decision-Making
Mouw, Lindsay. 2022. “Exploring Siting Guidance: Agriculture Siting Matrices Inform Renewable Energy Siting.” Lyons, Neb.:
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar Center for Rural Affairs.
M6 Development National Aeronautics and Space Administration DEVELOP, Georgia Chapter of the Nature Conservancy, and Georgia Department
Projects
of Natural Resources. 2021. Georgia Low Impact Solar Siting Tool (LISST).
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2023. Low- and Moderate-Income Solar Policy Basics.
Development Nature Conservancy. 2022. Site Renewables Right.
New York State Energy Research & Development Authority (NYSERDA). 2020a. “Landowner Considerations for Solar Land Leas-
Maximizing
M8 Success es.” In New York State Solar Guidebook. Albany, N.Y.: NYSERDA.
———. 2020. “Solar Payment-In-Lieu-Of-Taxes (PILOT) Toolkit.” In New York State Solar Guidebook. Albany, N.Y.: NYSERDA.
Oregon Department of Energy. 2023. Renewable Energy Siting Assessment.
Paulos, Bentham. 2019. Minnesota’s Solar Gardens: The Status and Benefits of Community Solar. Minneapolis, Minn.: Institute for
Local Self Reliance.

Scenic Hudson. 2021. How to Solar Now.

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar SolSmart. 20217. Solar Energy Toolkit: Market Development and Finance.
Development
Sundberg, Tanya. 2017. “Memorandum: Weighted Raster Overlay Model for Butte County.” Berkeley, Calif.: PlaceWorks.
Understanding
the Market for U.S. Department of Energy (USDOE). n.d. State and Local Solution Center: Loan Loss Reserve Funds and Other Credit Enhance-
M2 Large-Scale Solar ments.
Development
Community U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2023. RE-Powering America’s Land Initiative Mapper Tool.
Planning for
Development
Zoning for
Development
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

Table 7-3. Property Tax Incentives and Local Property Tax Incentive Options for Large-Scale Solar Development by State
Defining
State Property Tax Incentive Authorization for Local Property Tax Incentive
Development
Alabama None Authorizes localities to exempt up to 100% of personal
Understanding
property taxes for up to 10 years (with a possible 10 year
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar extension) (§40-9B)
Development Alaska None None
Community Arizona Equipment taxed at 20% of taxable original cost (minus None
Planning for
depreciation) (§42-14155)
Development Arkansas None None
California Exempts new solar energy systems from real property None
Zoning for
taxes (Revenue and Taxation Code §73)
Development Colorado Community solar gardens exempted from personal Authorizes localities to offer a property or sales tax credit
property taxes (§39-3-118.7) or rebate for the installation of a solar energy system (§30-
Improving 11-107.3 & §31-20.101.3)
M5 Land-Use Connecticut Exempts virtual net metered solar energy systems from Authorizes municipalities to exempt up to 100% of real
Decision-Making real property taxes (§12-81(57)(D)) property taxes for any solar energy system subject to
Hosting a power purchase agreement approved by the Public
Large-Scale Solar Utilities Regulatory Authority for the duration of the
M6 Development agreement (§12-81(57)(F))
Projects Delaware None None
Assisting Florida Exempts new solar energy systems on nonresidential None
M7 Large-Scale Solar property from 80% of real property taxes (§193.624)
Development Georgia None None
Hawaii None None
Maximizing
M8 Success
Idaho Exempts properties hosting supply-side solar energy None
systems (other than systems owned by regulated public
utilities) from all real and personal property taxes (§63-
602JJ); however, solar power producers must pay a 3.5%
tax on gross energy earnings (§63-3502B)
Illinois None None
Indiana None None
Iowa None None

Defining State Property Tax Incentive Authorization for Local Property Tax Incentive
M1 Large-Scale Solar Kansas Exempts new solar energy systems from personal None
Development property taxes for 10 years (§79-201(11))
Understanding Kentucky None None
the Market for
Louisiana None None
Development Maine Exempts virtual net metered solar energy systems from None
real and personal property taxes (§36-656.K; §36-655.U)
Community
Planning for Maryland Exempts solar energy systems from real property taxes None
M3 Large-Scale Solar (§7-242)
Development Massachusetts None Authorizes municipalities to enter into tax increment
Zoning for financing (TIF) exemption agreements or payment-in-lieu
M4 Large-Scale Solar of taxes agreements for qualifying projects (§40-59; §59-
Development 38H)
Michigan None Authorizes municipalities to accept a per MW capacity
Improving tax as an alternative to personal property taxes for solar
M5 Land-Use energy systems with rated capacities of 2 MW or greater
Decision-Making (Act 108 of 2023)
Hosting Minnesota Exempts solar energy systems from personal property None
Large-Scale Solar taxes (§272.02.24); however, owners of supply-side
M6 Development systems with rated capacities over 1 MW must pay a
Projects production tax (§272.0295)
Mississippi None None
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Missouri Exempts solar energy systems from real and personal None
Development property taxes (§137.100)
Montana Exempts solar energy systems with rated capacities of 1 None
Maximizing MW or greater from 50% of real property taxes for a period
M8 Success of 5 years, with a decreasing exemption percentage for
the next 5 years (§15-24-1401 et seq.)
Nebraska Exempts all solar energy systems with rated capacities None
of 100 kW or greater from personal property taxes
(§77-202(10)); however, owners must pay a nameplate
capacity tax (§77-6203)

M1 Large-Scale Solar Nevada Exempts supply-side solar energy systems from 55% of None
Development real property taxes for a period of 20 years (§701A.360 et
seq.)
Understanding
the Market for New Hampshire None None
M2 Large-Scale Solar New Jersey Stipulates that working farms that host solar energy None
Development systems with rated capacities of 2 MW or less can
Community continue to be taxed as farms, provided they meet
Planning for
specific conditions (§54:4-23.3)
Development New Mexico None None
New York Exempts solar energy systems from real property taxes for Authorizes localities to either opt out of a 15-year real
Zoning for a period of 15 years, unless localities opt out (RPT §487) property tax exemption for solar energy systems or to
M4 Large-Scale Solar negotiate payments in-lieu of taxes (RPT §487)
Development
North Carolina Exempts supply-side solar energy systems from 80% of None
Improving personal property taxes (§105-275(45))
M5 Land-Use North Dakota None None
Decision-Making
Ohio None Authorizes counties to exempt solar energy systems
Hosting with rated capacities of 20 MW or greater from personal
Large-Scale Solar property taxes through 2023 and to negotiate payments
M6 Development in-lieu of taxes (§5727.75)
Projects
Oklahoma None None
Assisting Oregon None Authorizes localities to create Rural Renewable Energy
M7 Large-Scale Solar Development Zones that exempt properties that host
Development supply-side solar energy systems from real property taxes
for a period of 3 to 5 years (§285C.350 et seq.)
Maximizing Pennsylvania None None
M8 Success Rhode Island None Authorizes municipalities to exempt solar energy systems
from personal property taxes (§44-3-21)
South Carolina None None
South Dakota Exempts solar energy systems with rated capacities up None
to 5 MW from the greater of the first $50,000 or 70% of
assessed real property value from taxation (§10-4-44)

M1 Large-Scale Solar Tennessee Caps real property tax assessment of certified solar facility None
Development sites to 12.5% of installed costs (§67-5-601)
Understanding Texas None None
the Market for
Utah None None
Development Vermont None None
Community Virginia Exempts all solar energy systems with rated capacities of 5 Authorizes localities to require owners of supply-side solar
Planning for MW or less from 100% of real and personal property taxes energy systems with rated capacities greater than 5 MW
M3 Large-Scale Solar and systems with rated capacities up to 150 MW from to pay a revenue share in exchange for a 100% personal
Development 80% of real and personal property taxes (§58.1-3660) property tax exemption (§58.1-2636)
Zoning for Washington None None

M4 Large-Scale Solar West Virginia None None
Development
Wisconsin Exempts all solar energy systems from personal property None
taxes (§70.111(18))
Improving
M5 Land-Use Wyoming None None
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

MODULE 8
MAXIMIZING SUCCESS
M1
Defining
Large-Scale Solar
Development
Understanding
the Market for
S olar technology, the modern grid system, and renewable energy policy are
all variables that can (and will) change rapidly. The decisions of different
groups also influence the future of large-scale solar development (see Module
Development
2). Local government officials that account for this uncertainty can be better
Community
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar prepared to maximize success.
Development
Zoning for
Development This module highlights the importance of monitoring Effective monitoring and evaluation starts with choos-
and evaluating the performance of local plans, programs, ing meaningful performance indicators and setting
Improving and policies that affect large-scale solar development; appropriate performance targets. These indicators and
M5 Land-Use aligning local land-use and regional utility plans; en- targets form the basis for regular performance reports.
Decision-Making
hancing resilience; and preparing for innovation in solar
Hosting technologies. Indicators and Targets
Large-Scale Solar Performance indicators are metrics that tell a story
M6 Development
Projects
Monitoring and Evaluating Performance about local government or community activities or con-
For local officials, the process of maximizing success ditions (Feiden 2016; Phillips 2003; Young 2019). Per-
Assisting begins with monitoring and evaluating the performance formance targets are aspirational indicator values that,
M7 Large-Scale Solar of existing plans, policies, and implementation programs. once met, demonstrate clear progress toward a larger
Development
Regular monitoring and evaluation can help staff and goal (Young 2019).
elected officials spotlight successes and identify strate- For indicators to be meaningful, local officials must
Maximizing
M8 Success
gies that need adjustment. tie them to the community’s vision and long-term goals
Previous modules summarized how local officials for large-scale solar development. Meaningful indicators
can influence large-scale solar development outcomes allow local government practitioners to measure progress
through community planning, zoning regulations, and and assess the well-being of the individuals, groups, and
land-use decisions; development partnerships; and systems within a jurisdiction (Table 8-1). It is unrealistic to
assistance programs. Each of these activity areas pres- select indicators that ask local government practitioners
ents distinct performance management challenges and to take responsibility for factors they cannot fully control.
opportunities. Instead, a holistic set of indicators allows the local
139 | MODULE 8. Maximizing Success

Table 8-1. Examples of Performance Indicators for Large-Scale Solar Development by Performance Area
Defining
Performance Area Potential Indicators
Development
Clean energy transition Total installed capacity of large-scale solar facilities
Understanding
the Market for Percentage of local electricity consumption offset by locally produced solar power
M2 Large-Scale Solar Low-impact siting and design Percentage of total installed capacity of large-scale solar facilities sited on previously developed
Development lands
Community
Percentage of total installed capacity associated with agrivoltaic or pollinator-friendly large-scale
Planning for
M3 Large-Scale Solar solar facilities
Development Equitable development Percentage of low- and moderate-income utility customers receiving power or utility credits
from a shared solar project
Zoning for
M4 Large-Scale Solar Percentage of large-scale solar facilities subject to community benefits agreements
Development Community resilience Total installed capacity of solar-powered battery storage facilities
Percentage of local utility customers served by solar-powered microgrids
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar jurisdiction to measure specific activities and outputs practical for local government staff to measure. Finally,
M6 Development (such as programs and procedures) and to also identify whenever possible, officials should select indicators that
Projects
the relationships among factors within complex systems make it easier to compare similar contexts within or out-
Assisting (such as the economy or ecosystems) it can reasonably side of the local jurisdiction.
M7 Large-Scale Solar influence. To assist monitoring and evaluation of the community
Development
Appropriate targets should reflect a range of time peri- planning process, local officials should select indicators
ods, from immediate changes that staff can expect to see and targets that measure progress related to procedural
Maximizing
M8 Success
within a few years to mechanisms that track long-term goals (such as inclusive public participation) and goals
changes over many decades. for large-scale solar development found in community
Local officials should select indicators that meet as plans (see Module 3). To set appropriate targets for public
many ideal characteristics as possible. This includes the participation, planning officials should start with the level
validity, consistency, reliability, and comprehensiveness of of participation in past planning processes for compara-
data and information. Indicators should also be relevant ble topics. A realistic target value should also factor in the
to the performance area, as well as to various audiences expected impact of methods that officials are using to
and purposes. They should be financially feasible and remove barriers to participation. The total number of

policies that address large-scale solar development in between the characteristics of large-scale solar projects
Defining
local plans can be a relevant indicator, but officials should hosted on local government land and previously iden-
also consider ways to measure the quality of these poli-
Development tified project goals (see Module 6). By monitoring and
cies. evaluating this performance area, officials can deter-
Understanding
the Market for
Planning officials should review whether zoning regu- mine if the value and benefits of existing large-scale
M2 Large-Scale Solar lations adequately address the reoccurring characteristics solar projects hosted on local government land meet
Development of proposed large-scale solar projects (see Module 4). stakeholder expectations.
Community Indicators and targets should assist local officials in mon- When monitoring and evaluating the efficacy of
Planning for
itoring and evaluating the relationship between zoning financial and technical assistance programs, it is import-
Development
regulations and the common characteristics of proposed ant to consider which individuals and groups are taking
projects. In doing so, they can determine the appropriate- advantage of these resources (see Module 7). Indicators
Zoning for ness of existing zoning regulations and make reasonable and targets should assist local officials in monitoring and
changes that are in line with community goals. evaluating the relationship between assistance program
Development
It is important to also measure the effectiveness of activities and large-scale solar development outcomes,
Improving decision-making procedures for large-scale solar devel- such as local participation. In doing so, local government
M5 Land-Use opment, particularly for land-use decisions (see Module managers and elected officials can determine the reach
Decision-Making 5). Indicators and targets should assist local officials in and usefulness of assistance programs for large-scale
Hosting monitoring and evaluating the relationship between solar development and make necessary changes.
Large-Scale Solar development review activities and large-scale solar
M6 Development development outcomes. Good indicators and targets can Regular Reporting
Projects help local government managers and planning officials Regular reporting on performance measures can keep
Assisting understand the typical experiences of applicants regard- both local government officials and the wider commu-
M7 Large-Scale Solar ing transparency and appropriate response times during nity informed about progress toward large-scale solar
Development decision-making procedures. Furthermore, they can help development goals.
officials determine if there is consistency and fairness Reporting can empower staff to improve processes
Maximizing in the decision-making process when compared to the and activities to achieve results. Internal communication
M8 Success between local staff and elected officials—who are likely
rate of success for other development applications in the
jurisdiction (or the rate of success for large-scale solar to change over time—will ensure they remain aware of
development applications in a similar jurisdiction). the collective vision.
Local government managers and elected officials Reporting is also an important tool for engagement,
should review the types of development partnerships in keeping residents and stakeholders informed, interest-
the jurisdiction. Indicators and targets should assist local ed, and confident in the work of their local government.
officials in monitoring and evaluating the relationship Reporting can remind community members of the

collective vision that they helped set, as well as show the formance measurement information that avoids taking
Defining
progress that the local government has made toward responsibility for mistakes or shortcomings might come
achieving that vision.
Development across as unreliable and biased (NPMAC 2010). While it is
The frequency of reporting depends on the nature of often difficult to admit errors, honest and accurate re-
Understanding
the Market for
the indicator. Local officials should establish how often porting can help local officials fix problems and improve
M2 Large-Scale Solar they might expect to see change for certain indicators, future outcomes.
Development then reflect this in the reporting process. For some
Community measures, staff may be able to automate reporting and Aligning Land-Use and Utility Plans
M3 Planning for provide real-time data through an open data portal or In most areas of the country, there are few, if any, explicit
Large-Scale Solar links between local land-use and state or regional utility
Development
dashboard. For other measures, staff will need to choose
how often to collect and report data. Local officials can plans. This disconnect can frustrate local efforts to steer
Zoning for also use these dashboards to share indicators and targets. large-scale solar development to specific areas or to
Periodic reports are typically better for characterizing achieve ambitious clean energy goals.
Development
progress toward performance targets, but they can also For example, the local government’s optimal or pre-
Improving communicate the reasoning for selected indicators. ferred locations for solar energy systems may not be near
M5 Land-Use Periodic reports can either be standalone products or existing or planned transmission infrastructure. Or the
Decision-Making integrated into other regular communications, such as optimal routes for transmission infrastructure identified
news releases, community or constituent newsletters, or by utilities or grid operators may be incompatible with
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar social media posts. But reporting requires more than just local land-use plans.
M6 Development sharing data tables and target values out of context. Local To begin to change the status quo, local government
Projects government officials and the wider community will need officials will need to foster collaborative relationships with
Assisting to understand the message or story that the indicators and state and regional utility counterparts (Elkind and Lamm
M7 Large-Scale Solar targets tell. Officials might consider developing narratives, vi- 2018). This includes encouraging utility-sector participa-
Development suals, and interactive tools within performance dashboards. tion in local planning processes and engaging in public
Additionally, officials should invite community members to utility commission and regional transmission organization
Maximizing co-create data products that are relevant to them. planning and decision-making processes.
M8 Success Examples of data that might be appropriate for an
open access portal or dashboard are the number of Public Utility Commission Engagement
approved and pending large-scale solar development Public utility commissions (PUCs), also known as public
applications by type or the real-time power generation of service commissions, regulate investor-owned electric
a solar installation on local government property. utilities. They may also have authority or influence over
Reporting should communicate the truth instead of rural cooperatives and municipal utilities.
trying to make the local government look successful. Per- PUCs are primarily responsible for ensuring affordable

rates and reliable service for utility customers, as well as es of PUCs, local governments can take advantage of
Defining
financial viability for utilities. They also review and ap- valuable opportunities to influence state or utility policy
Development prove goals for renewable energy procurement as well as proposals that impact the residents they serve or the
certificates of need and power purchase agreements for economic development and environmental sustainability
Understanding
the Market for large-scale solar projects. Consequently, PUCs have con- of their jurisdiction.
M2 Large-Scale Solar siderable influence over state-level transmission planners, Each local government will have varying motivations
Development grid infrastructure developers, and power purchasers. and different levels of capacity to engage with PUCs
Community Ideally, PUCs would encourage or require these actors to (Table 8-2). Local governments with more resources can
Planning for
collaborate with local jurisdictions and incorporate local represent the interests of neighboring jurisdictions. These
Development plan recommendations—such as preferred locations local governments should be proactive in addressing the
and project designs—into their own planning processes indirect and direct effects of large-scale solar develop-
Zoning for (Elkind and Lamm 2018). ment.
While local governments typically only engage with There are many ways that local government officials
Development
PUCs about topics such as rate setting, there are a grow- can ensure a path to meaningful engagement in regula-
Improving ing number of reasons to go beyond traditional concerns tory processes. First, staff can make a clear case to elected
M5 Land-Use (Duncan and Crandall 2019), including the recent focus leadership about the connections between local energy
Decision-Making on local climate action and the demand for clean energy. goals and local government participation in PUC regu-
Hosting By becoming more involved in the regulatory process- latory processes. After doing so, local officials can start
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting Table 8-2. Potential Ways to Engage With Public Utility Commissions (PUCs) (Duncan and Crandall 2019)
Development Engagement Activity Description
Maintain an informal relationship with PUC staff Stay informed by following PUC proceedings that are relevant to your jurisdiction.
Maximizing
M8 Success
File public comments Gain enough familiarity with topics to draft meaningful comments in response to the
PUC regulatory process and proceedings.
Join (or form) a coalition of groups with shared Share responsibility with local governments or large electric customers to represent
interests interests at PUC proceedings or through public comments.
Hire expert staff or contract technical and legal Delegate responsibility to specific staff to closely follow and participate in regulatory
experts processes and proceedings.
Participate formally in the PUC regulatory process Become a formal stakeholder after consistent communication with PUC staff or
sustained participation and interest in regulatory processes and proceedings.

with less resource-intensive participation techniques and projects. The planning process considers and evaluates
Defining
slowly ease into deeper engagement over time. Elected possible solutions and alternatives that can meet specific
regional transmission needs based on reliability require-
Development officials can also designate funding to hire staff or experts,
or collaborate with other stakeholders who have similar ments, public policy, or economic considerations (Eto
Understanding
the Market for interests and motivations to pool resources. and Gallo 2017).
M2 Large-Scale Solar Finally, local officials should ensure two-way communi- By sharing their goals with RTOs, local governments
Development cation with PUC staff: not only should they closely follow can reduce the chance that lack of transmission and
Community and participate in PUC proceedings, but they should also interconnection points becomes a barrier to preferred
Planning for
provide PUC staff the chance to participate in relevant siting for large-scale solar development. It may also be
Development community planning processes. relevant for local governments to advocate for better
alignment between local land-use plans and regional
Zoning for Regional Transmission Organization Engagement transmission plans.
M4 Large-Scale Solar Regional transmission organizations (RTOs) administer Because each RTO develops its own planning cycles,
Development
wholesale energy markets and are the regional planning processes, and stakeholder engagement, local govern-
Improving
authorities for transmission planning (see Module 2, Re- ments will face different issues and conditions related to
M5 Land-Use gional Transmission Organization Plans and Policies). their RTO. There are multiple ways to engage with an RTO,
Decision-Making The planning processes of RTOs mainly involve preparing depending on organizational capacity (Table 8-3).
regional transmission plans and selecting transmission
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Table 8-3. Potential Ways to Engage With a Regional Transmission Organization (RTO) (Ratz, Roche, and Hutchinson 2021)
Assisting
Engagement Activity Description
Development
Craft public statements Initiate public dialogue on barriers to clean energy in the regional wholesale
market.
Maximizing
M8 Success File comments (or complaints) Communicate with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), which
provides oversight for RTOs, by learning how to research, draft, and submit
comments (or complaints).
Engage with the RTO as a nonmember Build relationships with RTO staff, such as by participating in RTO outreach
events.
Partner with, or form, a coalition of stakeholders Overcome organizational limitations (e.g., lack of capacity or expertise) by
working with other stakeholders, potentially through existing councils of
government and regional planning agencies, to engage with RTOs.

Enhancing Resilience
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Distributed solar power generation is part of the vision
Development for a more resilient grid. However, better technology,
planning, and flexibility will be necessary to prepare the
Understanding
the Market for existing grid system to better accommodate intermittent
M2 Large-Scale Solar power sources, including solar energy systems. Grid op-
Development erators will need to be able to react quickly to changing
Community conditions that affect generation patterns. If not man-
Planning for
aged correctly, this could compromise grid stability and
Development lead to power shortages or blackouts.
Recent disasters have shown that the utility industry
Zoning for needs to be proactive by evaluating resiliency options
and pursuing new ways to structure and operate the
Development
grid sooner rather than later (O’Neill-Carrillo et al. 2017). Figure 8-1. The AES Lawai Solar Project in Kauai, Hawaii,
Improving Large-scale solar facilities that incorporate energy storage which consists of a 28 MW PV system and 100 MWh battery
M5 Land-Use and other advanced controls can help to decarbonize the energy storage system and can restart the island’s electricity
Decision-Making grid to achieve climate goals, as well as improve system grid in case of an outage (Photo by Dennis Schroeder, NREL
Hosting reliability and resiliency. 57998)
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Energy Storage
Projects The fluctuation of power output that PV systems experi-
ence could become a major issue as solar energy gen- as well as during isolated incidents. Battery energy stor-
Assisting
age, either standalone or coupled with solar, can increase
M7 Large-Scale Solar eration increases. One way to increase the penetration
grid resilience and stability.
Development of PV generation into the grid is to add energy storage
devices—such as batteries, compressed air, and pumped Users can design energy storage for individual loads,
storage hydropower—to large-scale solar projects but community energy storage that serves multiple cus-
Maximizing
M8 Success (O’Neill-Carrillo et al. 2017). By doing so, developers can tomers in a specific distribution area has a better chance
ensure their systems contribute to balanced loads and of building local resilience. Utility-owned community en-
enhanced grid stability (Figure 8-1). ergy storage can offer greater reliability to utility custom-
Additionally, increased demand for energy coupled ers, add the cost of storage into the utility rate, and phase
with increased intensity and frequency of adverse weath- in higher levels of solar energy generation. But state and
er due to climate change has revealed the vulnerability local policymakers will need to pay close attention to
and fragility of our energy grid during normal operations how local utility rate structures and incentives encourage

user behavior and usage patterns and collaborate with ical makeup, and under extreme conditions, batteries
Defining
can explode, catch fire, and, potentially, release toxic
M1 Large-Scale Solar utilities to find ways that prepare for the solar energy load
gases. Once ignited, they are also susceptible to burning
Development (IRENA 2019; NREL 2017a; NREL 2022).
Local government officials can align goals and policies intensely for a prolonged period (i.e., thermal runaway).
Understanding
the Market for that address the installation, operation, maintenance, and Consequently, local officials should ensure that all battery
M2 Large-Scale Solar decommissioning of energy storage systems with goals storage facilities are in compliance with the National Fire
Development
and policies that guide large-scale solar development Protection Association’s NFPA 855 standard.
Community (see Module 3). After doing so, officials can adopt reason- The New York State Energy Research and Development
Planning for Authority’s New York State Battery Energy Storage Guide-
M3 Large-Scale Solar able zoning standards for solar facilities that incorporate
Development energy storage systems (see Module 4) and for stand- book includes model zoning regulations that define and
alone energy storage facilities. regulate large-scale (“Tier 2”) energy storage systems as a
Zoning for distinct use. And a growing number of local jurisdictions
M4 Large-Scale Solar Battery storage facilities have special public safety
Development considerations (NFPA 2023). Depending on their chem- have updated their zoning codes to clarify standards for
energy storage facilities (Table 8-4).
Improving
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting Table 8-4. Examples of Local Zoning Codes That Define and Regulate Energy Storage Facilities as a Distinct Use
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Jurisdiction Zoning Approach
Projects
Beaumont, CA Defines and regulates energy storage systems as a distinct use (§17.11.160)
Assisting Defines and regulates accessory and “stand-alone” energy storage systems as distinct uses (§56-14; §56-3-307;
M7 Large-Scale Solar Ellsworth, ME
§56-8-824)
Development
Defines and regulates battery energy storage facilities associated with small and large solar energy systems
Johnson County, KS
(Resolution No. 038-22)
Maximizing
M8 Success King George County, VA Defines and regulates battery energy storage facilities as a distinct use (Appendix A §1.9; §2.12; §4.19)
Pueblo County, CO Defines and regulates battery energy storage facilities associated with large-scale solar facilities (§17.168)
Will County, IL Defines and regulates battery energy storage facilities as a distinct use (§155-9.220)

Microgrids Preparing for Innovation

Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar A microgrid is a small network of electricity users Some of the growing demand for large-scale solar facil-
Development connected to one or more local power sources. Often, ities may be met by new approaches to solar develop-
microgrids are linked to the wider local distribution ment. Floating and linear-infrastructure PV installations
Understanding
the Market for and transmission system (the “macrogrid”), but opera- provide potential alternatives to the dominant approach
M2 Large-Scale Solar tors can control and operate them independently (in to the deployment of large-scale PV systems. While there
Development “island mode”). are barriers to widespread adoption, each could prove
Community The key components of a microgrid are electricity beneficial in minimizing land-use conflicts.
Planning for
generation, control technologies, and energy storage.
Development The benefits of microgrids include improved reliabili- Floating Installations
ty and cost-efficiency. Pairing community-scale solar Floating solar or floating photovoltaics (PV) is the instal-
Zoning for energy systems with battery storage and advanced lation of a PV system on the surface of a body of water.
inverters can create microgrids that enhance commu-
Development
nity resilience.
Improving Local governments can support microgrid develop-
M5 Land-Use ment through local policies, assistance programs, or
Decision-Making public investments. For example, local jurisdictions can
Hosting offer zoning incentives for large-scale solar development
Large-Scale Solar projects that include features compatible with microgrids,
M6 Development such as energy storage or intelligent energy manage-
Projects ment (Vine and Morsch 2017). They may even participate
Assisting directly in microgrid projects by joining as an anchor sub-
M7 Large-Scale Solar scriber or providing space on local government land. The
Development National Renewable Energy Laboratory provides suggest-
ed language for solar project requests for proposals (RFPs)
M8 Maximizing that can encourage developers to design microgrid-ready
Success solar PV systems (NREL 2017b).
Currently, few states have a clear regulatory framework
for microgrids (Shea 2022). However, several pioneering
states have taken steps to clarify regulations and create Figure 8-2. A floating PV system on a retention pond at a mu-
financing tools and many other states are exploring op- nicipal water treatment facility in Walden, Colorado (Photo
tions for removing regulatory and financial barriers. by Dennis Schroeder, NREL 53975)

Existing floating solar installations are commonly found officials may need to define and regulate floating solar
Defining
on man-made bodies of water, such as wastewater stor- energy systems as a distinct use to unlock development
age ponds or reservoirs (Figure 8-2). One of the primary
Development potential.
benefits of floating installations is that they shift solar en-
Understanding Linear Infrastructure Installations
the Market for
ergy’s increasing demand for land to water, making them
M2 Large-Scale Solar potentially more reasonable in areas with high land prices Pairing PV systems with linear infrastructure, such as
Development or strong land conservation policies (Spencer et al. 2019). highways and other public rights-of-way (ROWs), is an-
Community Solar PV systems can also benefit by locating on water, other strategy for minimizing potential land-use conflicts
M3 Planning for often experiencing improved performance due to cool- associated with large-scale solar development. Several
Large-Scale Solar state departments of transportation and highway author-
Development
ing; more direct solar access; less adjacent development,
such as buildings and infrastructure, that might limit ities have already piloted solar projects in highway ROWs
Zoning for access to the solar resource or compete for land; and (Cullen 2018; FHWA 2017). Others are testing methods for
reduced grid interconnection costs when sited near exist- integrating PV components into roadway materials and
Development
ing hydropower facilities (Spencer et al. 2019). There can installing PV systems on canopies over roadways.
Improving also be benefits for the body of water, including reducing While many ROWs are too narrow for installations
M5 Land-Use water evaporation, improving water quality, and minimiz- parallel to roadways, areas around highway interchanges
Decision-Making ing algal blooming. However, these benefits might not and rest areas may be suitable sites for community-scale
translate to ecologically sensitive bodies of water with solar energy systems (Figure 8-3). Researchers at the Uni-
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar fragile ecosystems. versity of Texas have estimated that there are more than
M6 Development Currently, floating solar makes up a very small per- 200 miles of interstate ROW, totaling over 127,500 acres
Projects centage of PV installations. This is likely due to relatively of land, that could host systems (Beagle et al. 2020). They
Assisting high engineering and construction costs as compared to estimate the total generation potential to be 36,000,000
M7 Large-Scale Solar ground-mounted PV. MW hours per year, or about one percent of total elec-
Development In general, developers must consider the impact of tricity usage in the U.S. In light of this potential, California
water and moisture on electrical infrastructure, as it can now requires its state department of transportation to
Maximizing lead to faster degradation of equipment (Agostinelli evaluate opportunities to use state-owned rights-of-
M8 Success way for renewable energy, energy storage, and electrical
2020). Nevertheless, properly designed floating solar has
noteworthy potential when combined with hydropower transmission facilities (SB 49, 2023).
reservoirs. Since both renewable energy systems can use Existing roadway-integrated solar panels are not dura-
the same power distribution infrastructure, the cost-ef- ble enough to withstand regular traffic and may not be
fectiveness and economies of scale can be attractive for efficient enough to justify the extra maintenance they
developers. While floating solar will likely not replace require (Create Digital 2017; Grimwood 2020). Howev-
ground-mounted solar, as this technology matures, local er, this approach could still prove promising for linear

infrastructure with less intense usage, such as sidewalks

Defining
and trails. Additionally, a company in Massachusetts is
Development exploring putting solar panels on highway sound barri-
ers (Lewis 2022b).
Understanding
the Market for Meanwhile, three major European technology research
M2 Large-Scale Solar institutions are exploring the feasibility of developing PV
Development canopies over busy highways (Enkhardt 2020). While the
Community project is still in the conceptual stage, there is a potential
Planning for
precedent. In South Korea, a 20-mile-long solar canopy cov-
Development ers a dedicated two-way bike path located in the median of
a highway connecting Daejon and Sejong (Sorrel 2015).
Zoning for Installing PV canopies over waterways is another prom-
ising approach. Researchers at the University of California Figure 8-3. A one MW PV system at Exit 14 along Interstate 85
Development
have estimated that covering all 4,000 miles of California’s in West Georgia (Credit: Ray C. Anderson Foundation)
Improving public water delivery canals would produce 13 GW of
M5 Land-Use power annually and prevent 63 billion gallons of water
Decision-Making from evaporating in transit (McKuin et al. 2021). The Tur-
Hosting lock Irrigation District’s Project Nexus is testing the feasi-
Large-Scale Solar bility of this approach at three sites along its canal system.
M6 Development The $20 million project will break ground in early 2023,
Projects with funding and technical assistance from the California
Assisting Department of Water Resources (Lewis 2022a; TID 2022).
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success


Development
• The process of learning with and adapting to the future begins with monitoring and evaluating the perfor-
Understanding mance of existing plans, policies, and implementation programs.
the Market for
• Performance indicators should connect to the community’s vision and long-term goals for large-scale solar
Development development.
Community
• Reporting regularly on performance measures can help keep elected officials and the wider community
Planning for informed about progress toward large-scale solar development goals.
M3 Large-Scale Solar • Fostering collaborative relationships with public utility commissions and regional transmission organizations
Development is important in overcoming the disconnect between local land-use and state and regional utility planning
Zoning for processes.
M4 Large-Scale Solar • Large-scale solar facilities that incorporate energy storage and other advanced controls can help to decar-
Development bonize the grid to achieve climate goals, as well as improve system reliability and resiliency.
• Floating PV systems and PV systems installed in public rights-of-way have potential to minimize land-use
Improving
conflicts associated with large-scale solar development.
M5 Land-Use
Decision-Making
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development
Projects
Assisting
Development
Maximizing
M8 Success

Defining References and Resources

Development Agostinelli, Guido. 2020. “Floating Solar Photovoltaic on the Rise.” Washington, D.C.: International Finance Corporation.
Understanding American Clean Power Association. 2023. “Considerations for Government Partners on Energy Storage Siting & Permitting.”
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Beagle, Emily A., Kelsey J. Richardson, Joshua D. Rhodes, and Michael E. Webber. 2020. The Ray Solar Highway Project: Assessment
Development of Solar Potential Installed in ROWs Across the United States. Austin, Tex.: University of Texas at Austin, Webber Energy Group.
Community
Planning for Bunker, Kaitlyn, Kate Hawley, and Jesse Morris. 2015. Renewable Microgrids: Profiles from Islands and Remote Communities Across
M3 Large-Scale Solar the Globe. Boulder, Colo.: Rocky Mountain Institute.
Development
Cleary, Kathryne, and Karen Palmer. 2020. “Renewables 101: Integrating Renewable Energy Resources Into the Grid.” Washing-
Zoning for ton, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
Development Create Digital. 2017. “Solar Roads: The Way of the Future, or a Path to Nowhere?” Create, October 15.
Improving Cullen, Anna. 2018. “Nation’s 1st Pollinator-Friendly Right-of-Way Solar Project Comes to Georgia.” Ray C. Anderson Founda-
M5 Land-Use tion, August 29.
Decision-Making
Duncan, Jake, and Kelly Crandall. 2019. “Local Government Engagement With Public Utility Commissions Mini Guide.” Washing-
Hosting ton, D.C.: Institute for Market Transformation.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development Elkind, Ethan N., and Ted Lamm. 2018. A New Solar Landscape: Improving County-Level Landscape Planning for Utility-Scale Solar
Projects PV Facilities. Los Angeles: UCLA School of Law, Emmett Institute on Climate Change and the Environment.
Assisting Eto, Joseph H., and Guilia Gallo. 2017. Regional Transmission Planning: A Review of Practices Following FERC Order Nos. 890
M7 Large-Scale Solar and 1000. Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Development
Enkhardt, Sandra. 2020. “Photovoltaics for Highways.” PV Magazine, September 1.
Maximizing Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2017. “Value Capture Defined: Solar Energy Use.”
M8 Success
Feiden, Wayne. 2016. “Metrics and Data.” Chapter 7 in Local Planning Agency Management. PAS Report 582. Chicago: American
Planning Association.
Feiden, Wayne, and Elisabeth Hamin. 2011. Assessing Sustainability: A Guide for Local Governments. PAS 565. Chicago: American
Planning Association.
Grimwood, Mariah. 2020. “Solar Roads: Will They Ever Come?” Ecavo, September 9.

Defining Hatry, Harry P. 2014. Transforming Performance Measurement for the 21st Century. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2019. Innovation Landscape Brief: Utility-Scale Batteries.
Development
Understanding Kavanagh, Shayne. 2013. Lessons from Performance Management Leaders: A Sample of Larger Local Governments in North Amer-
the Market for ica. Chicago: Government Finance Officers Association.
Development Lanckton, Talia and Subin DeVar. 2021. Justice in 100 Metrics: Tools for Measuring Equity in 100% Renewable Energy Policy Imple-
Community mentation. Boston: Initiative for Energy Justice.
Planning for
Lewis, Michelle. 2022a. “In a US First, California Will Pilot Solar-Panel Canopies Over Canals.” Electrek, August 26.
Development Lewis, Michelle. 2022b. “Massachusetts Will Host the First US Solar on Highway Sound Barriers.” Electrek, January 25.
Zoning for Massachusetts Department of Transportation. 2021. “MassDOT Renewable Energy Projects.”
Development McKuin, Brandi, Andrew Zumkehr, Jenny Ta, Roger Bales, Joshua H. Viers, Tapan Pathak, and J. Elliott Campbell. 2021. “Energy and
Water Co-Benefits from Covering Canals With Solar Panels.” Nature Sustainability 4: 609–617.
Improving
M5 Land-Use O’Neill-Carrillo, Efraín, Isaac Jordán, Agustín Irizarry-Rivera, and Rafael Cintrón. 2018. “The Long Road to Community Microgrids.”
Decision-Making IEEE Electrification Magazine, December.
Hosting National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2023. Energy Storage & Solar Systems.
Large-Scale Solar
M6 Development National Performance Management Advisory Commission (NPMAC). 2010. A Performance Management Framework for State and
Projects Local Governments: From Measurement and Reporting to Management and Improving. Lexington, Ky.: National Association of
State Auditors, Comptrollers, and Treasurers.
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2017a. “Distributed Solar PV for Electricity System Resiliency.”
Development
———. 2017b. “Microgrid-Ready Solar PV: Planning for Resiliency.”
Maximizing ———. 2022. “Storage Futures Study.”
M8 Success
National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Smart Electric Power Alliance. 2020. Voices of Experience: Microgrids for Resiliency.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy.
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. 2020. “New York Battery Energy Storage System Guidebook for
Local Governments.”
Oregon Department of Transportation. 2016. Solar Highway Program: From Concept to Reality.

Phillips, Rhonda. 2003. Community Indicators. PAS Report 517. Chicago: American Planning Association.
Defining
M1 Large-Scale Solar Ratz, Heidi B., Priyanka Roche, and Norma Hutchinson. 2021. Local Government Voices in Wholesale Market Issues: Engagement
Development Approaches for Decarbonization. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
Understanding Ray C. Anderson Foundation. 2023. Right-of-Way Solar.
the Market for
M2 Large-Scale Solar Shea, Daniel. 2022. “Microgrids: State Policies to Bolster Energy Resilience.” Washington, D.C.: National Conference of State Leg-
Development islatures.
Community
Planning for Sorrel, Charlie. 2015. “This South Korean Bike Highway Has a 20-Mile Solar Roof.” Fast Company, July 27.
Development Spector, Julian. 2019. “AES Completes Record-Breaking Solar and Battery Plant on Kauai.” Greentech Media, January 8.
Zoning for Spencer, Robert S., Jordan Macknick, Alexandra Aznar, Adam Warren, and Matthew O. Reese. 2019. “Floating Photovoltaic
M4 Large-Scale Solar Systems: Assessing the Technical Potential of Photovoltaic Systems on Man-Made Water Bodies in the Continental United
Development States.” Environmental Science & Technology 53(3): 1680–89.
Improving Steinberger, Harold I. 2009. State and Local Governments’ Use of Performance Measures to Improve Service Delivery. Alexandria,
M5 Land-Use Va.: Association of Government Accountants.
Decision-Making
Turlock Irrigation District (TID). 2022. Project Nexus.
Hosting
Large-Scale Solar U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2023. Battery Storage in the United States: An Update on Market Trends.
M6 Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2019. RE-Powering Critical Infrastructure.
Projects
Vine, Doug, and Amy Morsch. 2017. “Microgrids: What Every City Should Know.” Arlington, Va.: Center for Climate and Energy
Assisting
M7 Large-Scale Solar Solutions.
Development World Bank Group, Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, and Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore. 2019.
Where Sun Meets Water: Floating Solar Handbook for Practitioners. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Maximizing
M8 Success Young, Gerald. 2019. Getting Started: Performance Management for Local Government, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: International
City/County Management Association.
Zitelman, Kiera. 2021. User Objectives and Design Approaches for Microgrids: Options for Delivering Reliability and Resilience,
Clean Energy, Energy Savings, and Other Priorities. Arlington, Va.: National Association of State Energy

ICMA
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Suite 500
Washington, DC 20002-4201
icma.org
American Planning Association

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SOLAR@SCALE

A Local Government Guidebook

American Planning Association

• Cameran Bailey, NEOO Partners

Introduction and priorities in the United States, the guidebook avoids

Module 6: Hosting Module 7: Assisting Additional

Module 1: Defining Large-Scale Solar Module 2: Understanding the Market Foundational

Figure A. Overview of guidebook

elected and appointed officials. Similarly, “planning

Module 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development........................26

Module 3. Community Planning for Large-Scale Solar Development.................................49

Module 4. Zoning for Large-Scale Solar Development.........................................................71

Module 5. Improving Land-Use Decision-Making for Large-Scale Solar Development.....91

Module 6. Hosting Large-Scale Solar Development Projects.............................................107

Module 7. Assisting Large-Scale Solar Development..........................................................121

Module 8. Maximizing Success..............................................................................................138

11 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

economically viable scale. Furthermore, few U.S. regions

12 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

Transmission networks use high-voltage power lines

13 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

Assisting Table 1-1. Community-Scale vs. Utility-Scale Solar

14 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

15 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

16 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

17 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

18 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

Effects on Historic or Cultural Sites Changes to Existing Views

19 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

20 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

Defining Key Takeaways

21 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

References and Resources

22 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

23 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

24 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

25 | MODULE 1. Defining Large-Scale Solar Development

27 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

30% ITC Median LCOE (2022 $/MWh)

28 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

Declining costs will lead to a substantial increase in Major Corporation Interests).

29 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

30 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

31 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

32 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

33 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

34 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

Regional Transmission Organization

35 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

36 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

37 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

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to approve solar development on land they own through

39 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

References and Resources

40 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

41 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

Understanding ISO/RTO Council (IRC). 2023. About the IRC.

42 | MODULE 2. Understanding the Market for Large-Scale Solar Development

———. 2023b. DSIRE Programs.