o The study of processes such as precipitation,

Week 1: runoff, evapotranspiration, and their interaction

o The study of problems such as floods and
Hydrology - means the science of water, and derived from two droughts, and strategies to combat them.
GREEK words:
• HYDRO - water Some concepts of hydrology:
• LOGY – science 1. Watershed hydrology focuses on the study of the
geographical and temporal distribution of water within drainage
v.t. chow (1964) classified the historical development of basins. Strategies for managing watersheds seek to balance
hydrology in the following era: competing demands for water resources with the preservation
Ancient to 1400 A.D. Period of speculation and restoration of these essential ecosystems.
1400-1600 A.D. Period of observation 2. Groundwater serves as a vital source of drinking water and
1600-1700 A.D. Period of measurements supports agricultural activities across the Philippines.
1700-1800 A.D. Period of examination Sustainable groundwater management practices are essential to
1800-1900 A.D. Period of modernization prevent over-extraction and contamination of aquifers, which
1900-1930 A.D. Period of empiricism are underground reservoirs of water stored in permeable rock
formations.
1930-1950 A.D. Period of rationalization
3. Floods are common in the Philippines due to its geographical
1950 to till date Period of theorization
location, tropical climate, and vulnerability to typhoons. A Flood
management strategy, including early warning systems and
Historical development of hydrology:
infrastructure development, are crucial for minimizing the
5000-6000 yrs. ago Civilization settled on the bank of Rivers impact of floods on communities and infrastructure.
Water management begun as Canal, 4. Droughts are characterized by prolonged periods of below-
5000-6000 yrs. ago
Wells, Conduits average precipitation, affect agriculture, water supply, and
Flow rate and yields of rivers were ecosystems in the Philippines. Drought management strategies
3800 yrs. Ago
monitored by the Egyptians focus on water conservation and emergency relief efforts to
Rainfall measuring instrument were first mitigate the impacts on livelihoods and food.
2300 yrs. Ago
utilize Kautilya of India security.
Hydrological cycle, precipitation, river 5. Water pollution from various sources threatens the quality of
1400 -1600 A.D.
water comes from precipitation surface water and groundwater resources in the Philippines. The
Mathematics, Fluid Mechanics and pollution control measures and water quality monitoring
1600-1800 A.D. Hydraulics, groundwater flow, more programs are implemented to safeguard human health and
technical fact aquatic ecosystems.
First formal recognitions of the scientific 6. Climate change poses significant challenges to hydrology in
during 1950
status of hydrology the Philippines, leading to changes in precipitation patterns, sea-
Many new breakthroughs in the level rise, and increased frequency of extreme weather events.
during 21st Century
hydrological sciences are eminent Thus, adaptation and resilience strategies are crucial for
managing hydrological risks in a changing climate.
Definition of Hydrology
• the science that deals with the occurrence, circulation and Elements that are included in the scope of hydrology:
distribution of water of the earth and earth’s atmosphere. • Assessment of catchment rainfall
• the study of the distribution and movement of water both • Assessment of catchment dependable flow
on and below the Earth’s surface, as well as the impact of • Design flood computations for safety of hydraulic structure
human activity on water availability and conditions. • Assessment of losses
• A diverse field that plays a vital role in society and, in • Calculation of useful life and capacity of reservoirs
particular, the work of civil engineers in developing water • Determination of water balance
resources infrastructure • Prediction of hazard/disaster
• It is an important field where the people who study • Management of water resources
hydrology which is called HYDROLOGISTS.
o They use their knowledge and expertise to Application of Hydrology
combat water pollution, protect the earth’s water • Irrigation schemes
resources, and provide engineering hydrology • Dams and Hydroelectric Power Projects
which is an engineering specialty focusing on • Water Supply Projects
water resources. • Disaster Prevention or Flood Control Projects

Robert Elmer Horton - “Father of Modern Engineering Hydrology” Importance of Hydrology in Civil Engineering
an American civil engineer and soil scientist • It is necessary for determining the maximum probable flood
at the proposed construction site. For example, dam
Branches Of Hydrology construction.
• Chemical Hydrology • It facilitates engineers and hydrologists in
• Ecohydrology establishing the relation between surface water of
• Hydrogeology catchment and underground water resources.
• Hydro-Informatics • It enables one to determine the flow over various hydraulic
• Hydrometeorology structures such as spillways, highway culverts, urban storm
• Isotope Hydrology drainage systems, etc.
• Surface Hydrology • It is important for studying the on-site drainage and
• Drainage Basin Management seepage conditions before the commencement of any
• Water Quality engineering construction.
• Potamology • The nature of variations in water flow, rainfall patterns, etc.
• Limnology can be obtained from the use of engineering hydrology
• Crylogy/glaciology applications.
• It is necessary for determining the reservoir capacity to
In a general sense, hydrology is a very broad subject of an inter- assure an adequate supply of water for domestic and other
disciplinary nature drawing support from allied sciences, such as purposes.
meteorology, geology, statistics, chemistry, physics and fluid
mechanics. Hydrology is basically an applied science. To further
emphasize the degree of applicability, the subject is sometimes
classified as:
• Scientific hydrology — the study which is concerned
chiefly with academic aspects.
• Engineering or applied hydrology — a study concerned
with engineering applications.
o Estimation of water resources
The Hydrologic Cycle
Week 2:
WATER CYCLE
• known as the HYDROLOGIC CYCLE What is Precipitation?
• continuous circulation of water within the Earth's • It is the total supply of all forms of moisture emanating
hydrosphere and is driven by solar radiation. (coming) from the clouds and falling to the ground.
• atmosphere, land, surface water and groundwater • Precipitation is deposition of atmospheric moisture.

Two Phases Water Cycle

describes water movement as gas (water • The water cycle is the process by which water circulated
Atmospheric vapor) and liquid/solid (rain and snow) in between the earth’s oceans, atmosphere, and land.
Phase the atmosphere
Precipitation
Terrestrial describes water movement in, over, and • When the drops get together, the clouds become big and
Phase through the Earth heavy. That is the reason why they will eventually fall down
due to gravity.
Hydrologic Cycle • If the temperatures are colder, this process will produce
• series of reservoirs, or storage areas snow or hail.
• set of processes that cause water to move between those • There are two main types of precipitation:
reservoirs. 1. rain (made up of liquid water)
• largest reservoir – oceans, which hold about 97% of Earth’s 2. hail (made up of solid water, which turns into
water. balls of ice).
• remaining 3% is the freshwater.
Origin of Precipitation
Major components of hydrologic cycle 1. In the high atmosphere irrespective of soil surface or
vegetation cover (rain, snow).
Water is transferred from the surface to the 2. Near the ground (mist, fog)
atmosphere through evaporation, the process 3. At the ground surface (Dew, rime)
Evaporation by which water changes from a liquid to a gas.
The sun’s heat provides energy to evaporate Precipitation Formation
water from the earth’s surface. • Presence of Moisture
Water vapor cools down and condenses as it • Condensation Process
rises. Water usually turns into liquid when it • Cooling Process
condenses on airborne dust particles.
Condensation Occasionally, water skips the liquid phase Factors Affecting Precipitation
entirely and solidifies into ice, hail, or snow. In • Geographic variation - at equator highest rainfall; it
the liquid form the particles collect and form decreases with increase in latitude
clouds • Large evaporation areas - coastal areas receive much
Precipitation describes any liquid or solid water rain/ppt.
that falls to Earth as a result of condensation in
Precipitation
the atmosphere. Precipitation, includes rain, CLASSES OF PRECIPITATION
snow, and hail. • Clouds
Process of interrupting the movement of water On the basis of ORIGIN • Fog
in the chain of transportation events leading to • Dew
Interception streams. It can take place by vegetal cover or • Liquids
depression storage in puddles and in land On the basis of STATE
• Solids
formations such as rills and furrows.
When precipitation falls on the ground, some of
it moves downwards into cracks, joints, and MAJOR FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Infiltration
pores in the soil. The entry of water into the It is a form of precipitation that is in the form of water
subsurface is termed infiltration. Rain
drops of a size that is larger than 0.5mm.
Process of percolation refers to the subsequent It is a fine sprinkle of tiny water droplets that have a
movement of water through subsurface soil size less than 0.5mm and an intensity greater than
Percolation Drizzle
pores until it reaches the water table. At this 1mm/h. The tiny drops that form a drizzle appear
point it becomes ground floating in the air.
Process of water vapor being released from Is Ice crystals that form in clouds and fall to the
plants and soil. Plants release water vapor Snow ground. Snowflakes can vary in shape and size,
through microscopic pores called stomata. The depending on temperature and humidity levels.
Transpiration
opening of stomata is strongly influenced by Solid balls or irregularly shaped chunks of ice that
light, and so is often associated with the sun form within strong thunderstorm clouds. Hailstones
and the process of evaporation Hail
can vary in size, from pea-sized to golf ball-sized or
Describes a variety of ways liquid water moves larger.
across land. Snowmelt, for example, is an Glaze or Rain that falls as liquid water but freezes upon contact
Runoff
important type of runoff produced as snow or Freezing with surfaces that are at or below freezing
glaciers melt and form streams or pools. Rain temperature, forming a glaze of ice.
There are three basic locations of water storage Small ice pellets or grains that form when raindrops
that occur in the planetary water cycle: partially freeze as they fall through a cold layer of air
• Water is stored in the atmosphere. Sleet
Storage near the ground. Sleet can bounce when hitting a
• Water is stored on the surface of the surface.
earth
• Water stored in the ground OTHER FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Snowflakes are aggregates of ice crystals that
Snowflake appear in an infinite variety of shapes, mainly at
temperatures near the freezing point of water.
Deposit of interlocking ice crystals formed by direct
sublimation on objects, usually those of small
Rime and
diameter freely exposed to the air, such as tree
Frost
branches. The deposition of rime is different than
the process in which frost is formed.
Graupel are soft, small pellets formed when
supercooled water droplets (at a temperature
Graupel
below 32°F) freeze onto a snow crystal, a process
called riming. If the riming is particularly intense,
 the rimed snow crystal can grow to an appreciable Classification of Hydrology:
size but remain less than 0.2 inches. 1. Scientific Hydrology - study which is concerned chiefly
Dew is a type of precipitation where water droplets with academic aspects.
form on the ground, or on objects near the ground 2. Engineering/Applied Hydrology - a study concerned
in a process called condensation of moisture. Dew with engineering applications.
Dew
forms during calm, clear nights, when the ground
surface and other exposed objects, such as tips of Hydrologic Cycle - various aspects of water related to the earth such
grass or leaves, lose heat by radiation to the sky. as precipitation, Evaporation and Condensation.
This is fog those forms when rain is falling through
cold air. This is common with a warm front but it Water Budget Equation/Hydrologic Equation -the quantities of
can occur with cold fronts as well only if it's not water going through various individual paths of the hydrologic cycle
Fog in a given system.
moving too fast. Cold air, dry at the surface while
rain is falling through it evaporates and causes the
dew point to rise. Catchment Area - area of land draining into a stream or a water
Mist is a very dense water vapor, almost as thick as course at a given location. also called as drainage area or drainage
fog. Light rain can sometimes form a mist that basin.
makes it hard to see the road when you're driving.
Mist The mist you see in the air on a damp spring Planimeter - used to measure the areal. extent of the catchment is
morning is similar to the mist you spray when you obtained by tracing the ridge on a topographic map to delinate the
water your plants — it's made up of tiny water catchment.
droplets.
Water Budget 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION Equation = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 – 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘
A cyclone is a region in the atmosphere that has
a large low pressure having circular wind motion. 𝑷 – 𝑹 – 𝑮 – 𝑬 – 𝑻 = 𝜟𝑺
Cyclonic The cyclonic precipitation is caused due to the Where:
Precipitation movement of moist air mass to this region by the P = precipitation
difference in pressure. E = evaporation
Frontal Precipitation Non-Frontal Precipitation R = surface runoff
The air above the land area gets heated up due T = transpiration
to some cause. Most of this warmer air rises up, G = net groundwater flow out of
Convective the catchment
cools, and precipitates. Convective precipitation
Precipitation Water Budget of
is showery by nature. This type of precipitation ΔS = change in storage
a catchment for
occurs in varying intensities.
Time Interval:
Moving air masses have a chance to strike The storage consists of three components
barriers such as mountains. Once they strike, as
Orographic they rise up causing condensation and 𝑺 = 𝑺𝒔 + 𝑺𝒔𝒎 + 𝑺𝒈
Precipitation precipitation. The precipitation that occurs is Where:
greater on the windward side of the barrier when Ss = surface water storage
compared to the leeward side of the barrier. Ssm = water in storage as soil
moisture
CHARACTERISTICS OF RAINFALL Sg= water in storage as ground
Rainfall Features - It refers to the Quantitative physical behavior of water
the precipitation in which must be necessary to observe during
rainfall, due to its effect to the ground. This data will serve how does 𝑹 = 𝑷 –𝑳
the rainfall would have a positive or negative impact to the
community. And uses this data to solve the future problems regarding Rainfall-Runoff Where:
the effects of rainfall. Relationship: L (Losses) = water not available
to runoff due to infiltration
Common Characteristics of Rainfall (causing addition to soil moisture
Refers to the amount height of accumulated rain in and groundwater storage)
the surface area over the observed period of time
Depth with the condition of the following: No Draining of
water No Evaporation involved No Percolation
(sipping through the soil layer)
It pertains to the length of time of precipitation, it
Duration must ask how long does the rain stops or even
change its intensity.
Describes the how much rainfall occurs it also refers
Intensity
to the size of the raindrop falls into the ground.

Hyetograph - It is a graphical representation of distribution of

rainfall intensity over the period of time, it helps for the meteorologist
and engineers to the determine the effect on catch basin areas and
for the irrigation& reservoirs.

Hydrology
• science of water
• science that deals with the occurrence, circulation and
distribution of water of the earth and earth's atmosphere.
 Sample Problem 1:
A lake had a water surface elevation of 103.2 meter above datum at the beginning of a certain month. In that month the lake received an average
flow 6.0 m³/s from surface runoff sources. In the same period that outflow from the lake in had an average value of 6.5 m³/s. Further that month,
the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and the evaporation from the lake surface is estimated as 6.10 cm. The average lake surface area can be taken
as 5000 ha. Assume that there is no contribution to or from the groundwater storage.
a. Write the water budget equation for the lake.
b. Calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at the end of the month.
 Week 4: Note: when the average annual catches differ by more than lo%, the
normal-ratio method is preferable; such differences might occur in
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION regions where there are large differences in elevation (for example,
A. RAINFALL regions where orographic effects are present) or where average
Precipitation is expressed in terms of the depth to which rainfall water annual rainfall is low but has high annual variability.
would stand on an area if all the rain were collected on it. Thus, 1cm
of rainfall over a catchment area of 1 km2 represents a volume of 3. Regression Method - regression analysis is a procedure
water equal to 104 m3. The precipitation is collected and measured in for fitting an equation to a set of data. Specifically, given a
a rain gauge. Pluviometer, Ombrometer and Hyetometer set of measurements on two random variables, y and x,
regression provides a means for finding the values of the
To enable the catch of rain gauge to accurately represent the coefficients a and b for the straight line (y = a+ bx) that
rainfall in the area surrounding the rain gauge standard best fits the data. The coefficients a and b can be found
settings are adopted. For sitting a rain gauge the following using least square method using the following two
considerations are important: equations simultaneously.
1. The ground must be level and in the open and the 𝑛𝑎 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑦
instrument must present a horizontal catch surface.
2. The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to 𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥 2 = ∑ 𝑥𝑦
reduce wind effects but it must be sufficiently high to
prevent splashing, flooding, etc. Adjustment of Rainfall Records
3. The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area • A consistent record is one where the characteristics of the
of at least 5.5 m x 5.5 m. No object should be nearer to the record have not changed with time.
instrument than 30 m or twice the height of the obstruction. • An inconsistent record may result from any one of a number
of events.
Rain Gauges can be broadly classified into two categories as:
1. Nonrecording gauges (Symon’s Gauges) Lack of consistence may be due to:
2. Recording gauges (Float Type) - also known as natural- • Unreported shifting the rain gauge (by as much as 8 km
syphon type gauge here the rainfall collected by a funnel- aerially & 3m in elevation)
shaped collector is led into a float chamber causing a float • Significant construction work might have changed the
to rise. surrounding.
a. Tipping bucket type - The instrument is ideally • Change of observational procedure
suited for digitalizing of the output signal.
b. Weighting bucket type - In this rain gauge the Double Mass Curve
catch from the funnel empties into a bucket Some of the common causes for inconsistency of record are:
mounted on a weighing scale. • Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location, the
neighborhood of the station undergoing a marked change
Estimation of Missing Data and Adjustment of Records • Change in the ecosystem due to calamities, such as forest
Complete measured precipitation data are important to many fires, landslides,
problems in hydrologic analysis and design but there are missing • Occurrence of observational error from a certain date.
values. Sometimes a rainfall amount of a certain rain gauge station
for certain days may be missing due to the absence of some observer Double-mass-curve analysis is the method that is used to check
or instrumental failure. The causes of missing rainfall Data are: for an inconsistency in a gaged record.
1. The failure of the observer to make the necessary visit to
the gage may result in missing data. A double-mass curve is a graph of the cumulative catch at the rain
2. Vandalism of recording gages is another problem that gage of interest versus the cumulative catch of one or more gages in
results in incomplete data records. the regions that have been subjected to similar hydro meteorological
3. Instrument failure because of mechanical or electrical occurrences and are known to be consistent.
malfunctioning can result in missing data. • If a double-mass curve has a constant slope, the record is
consistent.
The following methods are generally used for computing the missing • If a double-mass curve has not a constant slope, the record
rainfall data: is not consistent and needs to be adjusted.
1. Station-Average Method - the station-average method
for estimating missing data uses n gages from a region to A break in the slope of the resulting plot indicates a change in the
estimate the missing point rainfall, p, at another gauge. precipitation regime of station x. The precipitation values at station x
𝑛
1 beyond the period of change of regime (point 63 in fig. 2.6) is
𝑃̂ = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑛 corrected by using the relation:
𝑖=1
𝑀𝐶
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃𝐶𝑋 = 𝑃𝑋
✓ 𝑃̂ = 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑀𝐴
• 𝑃𝐶𝑋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑡1 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥.
✓ 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑖. • 𝑃𝑋 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑡1 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥.
✓ 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒𝑠 • 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
• 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
• equation is conceptually simple but may not be accurate
when the total annual catch at any of then regional gages
differ from the annual catch at the point of interest by more Conversion of Point Rainfall Areal Rainfall
than 10%. Mean precipitation over an area
• this method is often used in flat areas with very less rainfall To convert the point rainfall values at various stations into an average
variability. value over a catchment the following three methods are in use:
1. Arithmetical-Mean Method - when the rainfall measured
at various stations in a catchment show little variation, the
2. Normal-Ratio Method average precipitation over the catchment area is taken as
the arithmetic mean of the station values. Thus if P1, P2, Pi,
𝑛
𝐴𝑥 Pn, are the rainfall values in a given period in N stations
𝑃̂ = ∑ 𝜔𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = within a catchment, then the value of the mean
𝑛𝐴𝑖
𝑖=1 precipitation P over the catchment by the arithmetic-mean
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: method is
✓ 𝜔𝑖 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑖 𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖. 𝑁
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛 1
✓ 𝐴𝑥𝑖 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥𝑖 . 𝑃̅ = = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
✓ 𝑛 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠. 𝑁 𝑁
𝑖=1

This how the missing value at gage x is calculated, 1

𝑁

𝑃̂ = 𝜔𝐴 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜔𝐵 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃̅ = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝑁
𝑖=1
̂
𝑃= 𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃
𝑛𝐴𝐴 𝐴 𝑛𝐴𝐵 𝐵 𝑛𝐴𝐶 𝐶
 2. Thiessen-Polygon Method - in this method the rainfall Sample Problem 1:
recorded at each station is given a weightage on the basis A catchment has six raingauge stations. In a year the annual rainfall
of an area closest to the station. recorded by the gauges are as follows:

The procedure of determining the weighing area is as follows:

1. Consider a catchment area as in Fig. 2.13
containing three rain gauge stations.
2. There are three stations outside the catchment
but in its neighborhood.
3. The catchment area is drawn to scale and the
positions of the six stations marked on it. Stations
1 to 6 are joined to form a network of triangles.
4. Perpendicular bisectors for each of the sides of the
triangle are drawn. These bisectors form a
polygon around each station.
5. The boundary of the catchment, if it cuts the
bisectors is taken as the outer limit of the polygon.
6. Thus, for station 1, the bounding polygon is abcd.
For station 2, kade is taken as the bounding
polygon. These bounding polygons are called
Thiessen polygons.
7. The areas of these six Thiessen polygons are
determined either with a planimeter or by using
an overlay grid.

3. Isohyetal Method – an isohyet is a line joining points of

equal rainfall magnitude. In the isohyetal method, the
catchment area is drawn to scale and the rain gauge
stations are marked. The recorded values for which areal Sample Problem 2:
average P is to be determined are then marked on the plot Following are the data of a storm as recorded in a self-recording rain
at appropriate stations. Neighboring stations outside the gauge at a station.
catchment are also considered. The isohyets of various Time from the Cumulative Incremental
values are then drawn by considering point rainfalls as Intensity
beginning of storm rainfall amount of rainfall
guides and interpolating between them by the eye (Fig. 0 0 - -
2.14). The procedure is similar to the drawing of elevation
10 19 19 114
contours based on spot levels, The area between two
20 41 22 132
adjacent isohyets is then determined with a planimeter. If
30 48 7 42
the isohyets go out of catchment, the catchment boundary
is used as the bounding line. The average value of the 40 68 20 120
rainfall indicated by two isohyets is assumed to be acting 50 91 23 138
over the inter-isohyet area. Thus P1, P2, ..., Pn, are the 60 124 33 198
values of isohyets and if a1, a2, ..., an-1. are the inter-isohyet 70 152 28 168
areas respectively, then the mean precipitation over the 80 160 8 48
catchment of area A is given by 90 166 6 36
𝑃 + 𝑃2 𝑃 + 𝑃3 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑛
𝑎1 ( 1 ) + 𝑎2 ( 2 ) + ⋯ + +𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑛−1 )
𝑃̅ = 2 2 2 a. Plot the hyetograph of the storm
𝐴

Adequacy of Rain gauge Stations: Mass Curve of Rainfall Graph

𝐶𝑣 2
𝑁=[ ]
𝜀
200

Where: 150
✓ 𝑁 = optimal number of stations
✓ 𝜀 = allowable degree of error in the estimate of the mean 100
rainfall
✓ 𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of variation of the rainfall values at the 50
existing stations (m)
✓ 𝑚 = stations
0
100 × 𝜎𝑚−1 0 20 40 60 80 100
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑃̅
Where:
✓ 𝜎𝑚−1 = √[
∑𝑚 ̅)2
1 (𝑃𝑖 −𝑃
] = standard deviation
Hyetograph
𝑚−1
✓ 𝑃𝑖 = precipitation magnitude in the cth station 250
1 198
✓ 𝑃̅ = [∑𝑚1 𝑃𝑖 ] = mean precipitation
𝑚 200 168
132 138
150 114 120
In flat regions of temperature, Mediterranean and Tropical
zones: 100
•
Ideal = 1 station for 600 – 900 km2 42 48 36
•
Acceptable = 1 station for 900 – 3,000 km2 50
0
0
In mountainous regions of temperature, Mediterranean and
Tropical zones: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
•
Ideal = 1 station for 100 – 250 km2
•
Acceptable = 1 station for 250 – 1000 km2

In Arid and Polar zones:

•
1 station for 1500 – 10,000 km2 depending on the feasibility.
 b. Plot the maximum intensity-duration curve of the
storm. Week 5:
Rainfall depth (mm) for various durations
Time since start (min)
ΔT=10 min ΔT=20 min ΔT=30 min ΔT=40 min ΔT=50 min ΔT=60 min ΔT=70 min ΔT=80 min ΔT=90 min
10 19 DEFINITION OF INFILTRATION
20 22 41
30 7 29 48 Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water
40
50
20
23
27
43
49
50
68
72 91
through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with the
60 33 56 76 83 105 124 soil. The surface phenomenon is governed by soil surface conditions.
70 28 61 84 104 111 133 152
80 8 36 69 92 112 119 141 160
90 6 14 42 75 98 118 125 147 166 Infiltration - when precipitation falls on the ground, some of it
moves downwards into cracks, joints, and pores in the soil.
Duration (min) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Max. Depth (mm) 33 61 84 104 112 133 152 160 166
Max. Intensity (mm/h) 198 366 504 624 672 798 912 960 996
Percolation - process of percolation refers to subsequent movement
of water through subsurface foil pores until it reaches the water table.

Maximum Intensity - Duration Where does infiltration happen in the water cycle?
• Infiltration happens after the water falls from the sky as
Curve of the Storm precipitation and lands on the ground.

1500 What is the role of infiltration in the water cycle?

• Infiltration stores water in the earth to be a source of water
1000 for plants and animals and to recharge
streams and rivers.
500 What step is infiltration in the water cycle?
• Since the water cycle is a continuous cycle there is no true
0 starting or stopping point, infiltration falls after
0 20 40 60 80 100 precipitation.

How is infiltration important to the water cycle?

• Infiltration is important in the water cycle because it
Common Causes of Inconsistency recharges ground water. Plant roots reach into the ground
1. Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location for water; People draw much of their water from wells
2. The neighborhood of the station undergoing a marked reaching into the ground water; and this store of water
change creates a base flow for rivers and streams.
3. Change in the ecosystem due to calamities such as forest
fires, land slides FACTOR AFFECTING INFILTRATION CAPACITY

The Use of Double-Mass Analysis 1. SLOPE OF LAND:

It is used to detect if data at a site have been subjected to a significant The steeper the slope (gradient), the less the infiltration or
change in magnitude due to external factors such as problems with seepage.
instrumentation, observation practices, or recording conditions 2. DECREE OF SATURATION:
The more saturated the loose earth materials are, the less
Applicability of Double-Mass Analysis the infiltration.
1. Base stations should be located relatively close to station 3. POROSITY:
being tested. Porosity is the percentage of open space (pores and cracks)
2. Method should not be used in mountainous areas where in an earth surface.
precipitation can deviate significantly for nearby stations. 4. COMPACTION
3. Method should only be used for long-term adjustment of The clay surfaced soils are compacted even by the impact
precipitation data but not for adjusting daily or storm of rain drops which reduce infiltration. This effect is
negligible in sandy soils.
5. SURFACE COVER CONDITION:
Vegetation - Grasses, trees and other plant types capture
falling precipitation on leaves and branches, keeping that
water from being absorbed directly into the Earth and
taking more time to reach the ground.
More the vegetation, slower the infiltration.
6. LAND USE:
Roads, parking lots, and buildings create surfaces that are
not longer permeable. Thus infiltration is less.
7. TEMPERATURE
At high temperature viscosity decreases and infiltration
increases
Summer - Infiltration ↑ Increases
Winter Infiltration ↓ Decreases

OTHER FACTORS
a. Entrapped air in pores - Entrapped air can greatly affect
the hydraulic conductivity at or near saturation
b. Quality of water-Turbidity by colloidal water
c. Freezing - Freezing in winter may lock pores.
d. Annual & seasonal changes - According to change land
use pattern. Except for Massive deforestation & agriculture.
MEASUREMENTS OF INFILTRATION
Infiltration is a very complex process, which can vary temporally and Week 7:
spatially.
1. Areal Measurement HORTON’S MODEL
Areal infiltration estimation is accomplished by analysis of • Named after Robert E. Horton, Horton's equation is a viable
rainfall- runoff data from a watershed. option when measuring ground infiltration rates or volumes.
The infiltration volume is obtained by subtracting runoff • It is an empirical formula that says that infiltration starts at
volume from rainfall volume. The average infiltration rate is a constant rate, and is decreasing exponentially with time.
obtained by dividing infiltration volume by rainfall duration. • After some time when the soil saturation level reaches a
certain value, the rate of infiltration will level off to the rate.
2. Point Measurement
Point infiltration measurements are normally made by 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + (𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑐 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
applying water at a specific site to a finite area and where:
measuring the intake of the soil. ✓ 𝑓𝑡 = is the infiltration rate at time t
o CYLINDER TYPE - Ring infiltrometers should be ✓ 𝑓𝑜 = is the initial infiltration rate or maximum infiltration rate
used to determine infiltration rates for inundated ✓ 𝑓𝑐 = is the constant or equilibrium infiltration rate after the
soils such as flood irrigation or pond seepage. soil has been saturated or the minimum infiltration rate
o SPRINKLER TYPE - Sprinkler infiltrometers ✓ 𝑘 = is the decay constant specific to the soil
should be used where the effect of rainfall on
surface conditions influences the infiltration rate. (𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑐 )
o TENSION TYPE - Tension infiltrometers are 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑘
used to determine the infiltration rates of soil The other method of using Horton’s equation is as below. It can be
matrix in the presence of macropores. used to find the total volume of infiltration, F, after time t
o FURROW TYPE - Furrow infiltrometers are used
when the effect of flowing water is important, as
in furrow irrigation. Sample Problem 1:
The initial infiltration capacity of a watershed is estimated as 1.5 in/hr,
o RING OR CYLINDER INFILTROMETERS and the time constant taken to be 0.35 hr-1. The equilibrium capacity
▪ SINGLE CYLINDER is estimated as 0.2 in/hr.
▪ DOUBLE CYLINDER 1. What are the values of f at t = 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr,
These infiltrometers are usually metal rings and 6 hr
with a diameter of 30 to 100 cm and a
height of 20 cm. The ring is driven into the
ground about 5 cm, water is applied inside
the ring with a constant-head device, and
intake measurements are recorded until a
constant rate of infiltration is attained. To
help eliminate the effect of lateral spreading
use a double-ring infiltrometer, which is a
ring infiltrometer with a second larger ring
around it.

o SPRINKLER INFILTROMETER - RAIN 2. What is the total volume of infiltration over the 6-hour time
SIMULATOR period?
▪ SPRINKLER TYPE
▪ RAIN SIMULATOR
With the help of rain simulator, water is
sprinkled at a uniform rate in excess of the
infiltration capacity, over a certain
experimental area. The resultant runoff R is
observed, and from that the infiltration f
using f = (P-R)/t. Where P = Rain sprinkled,
R = runoff collected, and t = duration of
rainfall.

PHILLIP’S EQUATION
• John Robert Philip, Australian Civil Engineer
• The Theory of Infiltration -pioneered analytical solutions for
infiltration. Presented the first analytical solution to
Richard’s Equation for vertical and horizontal infiltration

Philip's two-term model is used for uniform soil with:

1. uniform soil-moisture content
2. excess water-supply rate

Horizontal Infiltration
Cumulative (I) and instantaneous infiltration rate (i) are given by:
1
𝐼 = 𝑆𝑡 2

1 1
𝑖 = 𝑆𝑡 −2
2
where:
✓ 𝑆 = sorptivity or a function of initial boundary water
contents
✓ 𝑡 = time elapsed since water application
✓ When a sharp wetting front exists, the sorptivity may be
(𝑜 ,𝑖 )𝐿𝑓
approximated by 𝑆(𝑜 , 𝑖 ) =
√𝑡
✓ 𝐿𝑖 = distance from the boundary to the wetting front
Vertical Infiltration
Solution for vertical infiltration which describes the time of
dependence of cumulative infiltration as an infinite series in power of
t1/2

GREEN AMPT MODEL

• It applied Darcy's law and proposed a simple model for
water infiltration into a homogeneous soil with a uniform
initial water content.
• The model was developed by William Heber Green and
Gustav Adolph Ampt in the early 20th century.
• Infiltration is modeled as unsaturated flow.
• The Green-Ampt (GA) model assumes a homogeneous soil
with constant hydraulic conductivity, initial water content,
and head at the wetting front (see schematic below). The
saturated wetting front is assumed to move downwards as
a single piston like displacement.

PARAMETERS
• initial water content (dimensionless)
• saturated water content or porosity (dimensionless)
• wetting front soil suction head (inch)
• hydraulic conductivity (in/hr)

FIVE PRINCIPAL ASSUMPTIONS

• The soil under consideration is homogeneous and stable,
implying that macropores and preferential migration
pathways should not be considered satellites.
• The supply of ponded water at the surface is not limited.
• A distinct and precisely definable wetting front exists, and
as water continues to infiltrate, the wetting fornt advances
at the same rate with depth.
• The capillary suction just below the wetting front is uniform
throughout the profile and constant in time during the
infiltration event.
• The soil is uniformly saturated above the wetting front, and
the volumetric water contents remain constant above and
below the advancing wetting front.

GREEN AMPT EQUATION

𝑑
𝑓∗ = 𝐾𝑠 (1 + )
𝐹
where:
✓ 𝑓 = potential infiltration rate
✓ 𝐾𝑠 = effective saturated hydraulic conductivity
(permeability coefficient)
✓  = average suction across the wetting front
✓ 𝑑 = 𝑠 − 𝑖 = moisture deficit
✓ 𝑠 = Saturated water content
✓ 𝑖 = Initial (antecedent) water content
✓ F = cumulative infiltration

Ponding Time
• It is the amount of time that passes between the start of
infiltration or rainfall and the occurrence of ponding.

Potential Infiltration
• Sufficient amount of water is available for infiltration.

Moisture Content
• Before ponding
• During ponding
• After ponding

Up to the time of ponding, all rainfall has infiltrated.

HORTON’S MODEL EQUATION

𝑓𝑝 = 𝑓𝑐 + (𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑐 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
where:
✓ 𝑓𝑝 = infiltration capacity at any time
✓ 𝑓𝑜 = initial infiltration capacity
✓ 𝑓𝑐 = final steady state infiltration capacity
✓ 𝑘 = Horton's decay coefficient which depends upon soil characteristics and vegetation cover

Obtain the parameters of Horton’s infiltration capacity equation to represent the following data. Also plot the curve of infiltration
capacity vs time

Time since start Cumulative Infiltration Depth Time Interval Incremental Depth in Interval Infiltration Rate - fp ln (fp-fc) Time

(min) (cm) (min) (cm) (cm/hr) (hrs)

5 1.750 5 1.750 21.000 2.877 0.083
10 3.000 5 1.250 15.000 2.465 0.167
15 3.950 5 0.950 11.400 2.099 0.250
25 5.500 10 1.550 9.300 1.802 0.417
45 7.250 20 1.750 5.250 0.698 0.750
60 8.300 15 1.050 4.200 -0.041 1.000
75 9.300 15 1.000 4.000 -0.274 1.250
90 10.200 15 0.900 3.600 -1.022 1.500
110 11.280 20 1.080 3.240 1.833
130 12.360 20 1.080 3.240 2.167

Time Infiltration Rate - fp Cumulative Infiltration Depth Time

(hrs) (cm/hr) (cm) (hrs) ln (fp-fc)

0.083 21.000 1.750 0.083 2.877
0.167 15.000 3.000 0.167 2.465
0.250 11.400 3.950 0.250 2.099
0.417 9.300 5.500 0.417 1.802
0.750 5.250 7.250 0.750 0.698
1.000 4.200 8.300 1.000 -0.041
1.250 4.000 9.300 1.250 -0.274
1.500 3.600 10.200 1.500 -1.022
1.833 3.240 11.280 1.833
2.167 3.240 12.360 2.167

Chart Title ln (fp-fc)

25.000 15.000 4.000
20.000 3.000 y = -2.6751x + 2.8868
10.000 R² = 0.9859
15.000 2.000
10.000 1.000
5.000
5.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
-1.0000.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500
-2.000
Infiltration Rate - fp (cm/hr)
-3.000
Cumulative Infiltration Depth (cm) -4.000

k 2.6751
ln(f0-fc) 2.8868
(f0-fc) 17.9305
f0 21.1705
PHILIP’S MODEL EQUATION

1 1
𝑓𝑝 = 𝑠𝑡 −2 + 𝑘
2
where:
✓ 𝑠/2 = slope
✓ 𝑘 = intercept

Determine the parameters of Philip’s equation.

Time since Cumulative Incremental

Time Interval Infiltration Rate - fp ln (fp-fc) Time t-0.5
start Infiltration Depth Depth in Interval
(min) (cm) (min) (cm) (cm/hr) (hrs)
5 1.000 5 1.00 12.00 2.152 0.083 3.464
10 1.800 5 0.80 9.60 1.825 0.167 2.449
15 2.500 5 0.70 8.40 1.609 0.250 2.000
20 3.100 5 0.60 7.20 1.335 0.333 1.732
25 3.600 5 0.50 6.00 0.956 0.417 1.549
30 4.000 5 0.40 4.80 0.336 0.500 1.414
60 6.100 30 2.10 4.20 -0.223 1.000 1.000
90 8.100 30 2.00 4.00 -0.511 1.500 0.816
120 9.900 30 1.80 3.60 2.000 0.707
150 11.600 30 1.70 3.40 2.500 0.632

Plot fp on y-axis and t-0.5 on x-axis.

Infiltration Rate - fp (cm/hr)
t-0.5 Infiltration Rate - fp
14.00
(cm/hr) 12.00 y = 3.2287x + 1.23
3.464 12.00 R² = 0.9713
10.00
2.449 9.60
2.000 8.40 8.00
1.732 7.20 6.00
1.549 6.00
1.414 4.80 4.00
1.000 4.20 2.00
0.816 4.00
0.00
0.707 3.60
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000
0.632 3.40

Slope s/2 3.2287

Intercept k 1.2300
 Week 8: Sample Problem 1:
Calculate the change in Gibbs free energy when 1 mole of liquid water
EVAPORATION evaporates at 25°C. Assume standard atmospheric pressure and that
Process by which an element or compound transitions from its liquid the water vapor behaves ideally.
state to its gaseous state below the temperature at which it boils; in
particular, the process by which liquid water enters the atmosphere Given:
as water vapor in the water cycle. • Standard molar enthalpy of vaporization of water (ΔHvap)
• Mostly from the oceans and from vegetation, replenishes = 40.7 kJ/mol
the humidity of the air. • Temperature (T) = 25°C + 273 = 298 K
• It is an important part of the exchange of energy in the • Gas constant (R) = 8.314 J/mol·K
Earth-atmosphere system that produces atmospheric
motion and therefore weather and climate. A. Find the entropy.
• This transfer of water between Earth’s surface and the ΔH𝑣𝑎𝑝
ΔS =
atmosphere occurs when some molecules in a water mass 𝑇
kJ
have attained sufficient kinetic energy to eject themselves 40.7
ΔS = 𝑚𝑜𝑙
from the water surface. 298 K
• The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature. kJ
ΔS = 0.136
Examples: 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
✓ Hot tea getting cold
✓ Wet clothes drying in the sun B. Lastly, substitute the ff. values to the equation:
✓ Evaporation of perspiration from the body
✓ Drying of mopped floor ΔG = ΔH − T ∙ ΔS
✓ Drying of wet hair kJ kJ
ΔG = (40.7 ) − (298 K) ∙ (0.136 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION EVAPORATION kJ
ΔG = 0.172
• Impact on water resources (Water availability in lakes, 𝑚𝑜𝑙
rivers, and reservoirs)
• Agricultural implications (irrigation efficiency and crop
Vapor Pressure and Temperature
water requirements)
• Vapor pressure and temperature are closely related
• Weather and climate (weather patterns, cloud formation,
concepts that play a significant role in determining the rate
and climate dynamics)
of evaporation.
• Vapor pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a vapor
PHYSICS OF EVAPORATION
in equilibrium with its liquid phase at a given temperature
in a closed system.
Basic Principles of Evaporation
• Evaporation is the process by which liquid transforms into
Clausius-Clapeyron equation:
vapor or gas phase due to the absorption of heat energy
𝑃1 ΔH𝑣𝑎𝑝 1 1
from its surroundings. This occurs at the surface of the ln = ( − )
liquid. 𝑃2 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1
• Evaporation is an endothermic process, meaning it In which:
requires energy input to occur. ✓ P₁ and P₂ are the vapor pressures at T1 and T2 respectively.
• Evaporation continues until equilibrium is reached, where ✓ T is given in units Kelvin
the rate of condensation (conversion of vapor back to ✓ n is the natural log
liquid) equals the rate of evaporation. ✓ R is the gas constant (8.314 J/K mol)
✓ ΔHvap is the molar heat of vaporization
Thermodynamics of Evaporation
• Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Increasing the temperature of the
Temperature - An liquid causes an increase in the
• Understanding thermodynamics helps us predict and
increase in the
explain how factors like temperature, humidity, and wind kinetic energy of the individual
temperature increases the
speed influence the rate of evaporation. molecules that make up the liquid.
rate of evaporation.
This makes it easier for the liquid
↑𝑻 ↑𝑬
Gibbs free energy equation: molecules to escape as gas.
• ΔG represents the change in Gibbs free energy. This tells Wind Speed - As the The presence of any form of air
us if a reaction is spontaneous or not. wind speed increases, the circulation, such as a breeze, can
• ΔH is the change in enthalpy, which is like the total heat rate of evaporation also speed up the process of evaporation
energy absorbed or released during a reaction. T is the increases. by making the environment of the
temperature in Kelvin. ↑𝑾 ↑𝑬 liquid less humid.
• ΔS is the change in entropy, which is like a measure of
disorder or randomness. The greater the surface area of the
Surface Area - As the
• Standard molar enthalpy of vaporization of water (ΔHvap) liquid container, the greater the
surface area increases,
= 40.7 kJ/mol molecules present at the surface.
the rate of evaporation
• The formula to find change in entropy: ΔS = ΔHvap / T This means more liquid molecules
also increases.
will break away from the liquid and
↑ 𝑺𝑨 ↑ 𝑬
become a gas at a given time.
ΔG = ΔH − T ∙ ΔS
where: There is a limit to how much water
Humidity - As the
✓ ΔG = Gibbs free energy vapor the atmosphere can hold. The
humidity decreases, the
✓ ΔH = Change in enthalpy greater the amount of water vapor
rate of evaporation
in the atmosphere over the liquid will
✓ ΔS = Change in entropy increases.
result in a slower rate of
✓ T = Temperature in K ↓𝑯 ↑𝑬
evaporation of the liquid.
 INDIRECT METHOD
Week 10: Formula for Mass Transfer Method or Aerodynamic Method
𝑤
𝐸 = 𝐶(𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒𝑎 ) (1 + )
Measurements of Different Factors for Evaporation 10
• The rate of evaporation is defined as the amount of water where:
evaporated from a unit surface area per unit of time. It can ✓ E = the daily evaporation in inches depth
be expressed as the mass or volume of liquid water ✓ C = pan empirical coefficient
evaporated per area in unit of time, usually as the ✓ e(0) = Saturated Vapour Pressure (SVP)
equivalent depth of liquid water evaporated per unit of time ✓ e(a) = Actual Vapour Pressure (AVP)
from the whole area. The unit of time is normally a day. ✓ W = Wind speed
The amount of evaporation should be read in millimeters
(WMO, 2003). Depending on the type of instrument, the Formula for Energy Budget Method
usual measuring accuracy is 0.1 to 0.01 mm. 𝑅𝑛 = 𝐸 + 𝐴 + 𝑆 + 𝐶
where:
Available Methods/Procedures for Estimating Evaporation ✓ Rn = Net radiation available energy from sun
from Open Water ✓ E = energy used by evaporation
✓ A = Energy used in heating air
DIRECT METHOD ✓ S = Energy used in heating water
Water Budget Technique ✓ C = Energy used in heating the surrounding water.
• Principles
The water budget technique estimates evaporation by Formula for Penman Equation
𝛥 𝛾
measuring the inputs and outputs of water in a system, 𝐸𝑇𝑜 = ( ) (𝑅𝑛 + 𝐺) + ( ) 𝑓(𝑢)(𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )
such as a lake or reservoir. 𝛥+𝛾 𝛥+𝛾
It is a combination of aerodynamics and energy budget equations.
• Factors
Considered This method takes into account Formula for Jensen Haise Method
precipitation, runoff, and changes in storage to calculate Based on energy balance equation. Approximately 1000
the net evaporation from the water body. measurements of evapotranspiration over a 35 year’s period at 20
locations in western US were made for this method/equation.
Formula for Water Budget Technique 𝐸𝑇𝑜 = 𝐾𝑝 × 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛
E=I–O±∆S Where Epan is the measured value of evaporation by US class A
where: open pan evaporimeter and Kp is pan coefficient.
✓ E = Evaporation
✓ I = inflow into soil reservoir Hagreaves Method
✓ I = Irrigation water + precipitation + incoming soil water
contribution from surrounding + G.W
✓ = deep percolation (inside soil runoff) EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATION
✓ ΔS = Change in storage Meyer’s Formula (1915)
𝑢9
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐾𝑀(𝑒𝑤 − 𝑒𝑎 ) × (1 + )
16
Lysimeter where:
• Definition ✓ 𝑢9 = monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about 9 m
A lysimeter is a device used to measure the actual above ground
evapotranspiration from a contained system. soil-plant ✓ 𝐾𝑀 = coefficient accounting for various other factors
• Principles with a value of 0.36 for large deep and 0.50 for small
It works by measuring the water balance of a known shallow waters.
volume of soil, including inputs from precipitation and
✓ 𝑒𝑤 = the saturation vapour pressure at the water
irrigation, and outputs through evapotranspiration.
temperature in mm of mercury
✓ 𝑒𝑎 = the actual vapour pressure in the air in mm of
Two Types of Lysimeter
mercury
• Non-Weighing Lysimeter
• Weighing Lysimeter
Rohwer’s Formula (1931)
𝐸𝐿 = 0.771(1.465 – 0.000732𝑃𝑎 ) (0.44 + 0.0733 𝑢𝑜 ) (𝑒𝑤 − 𝑒𝑎 )
Pan Evaporation
• Measurement where:
• Monitoring ✓ 𝑃𝑎 = mean barometric reading in mm of mercury
• Correlation ✓ 𝑒𝑤 = the saturation vapour pressure at the water
temperature in mm of mercury
Application of Evaporation Pans
✓ 𝑒𝑎 = the actual vapour pressure in the air in mm of
• Estimating Evapotranspiration
mercury
• Monitoring Water Losses
✓ 𝑢𝑜 = mean wind velocity in km/h at ground level, which
• Calibrating Evaporation Models
can be taken to be the velocity at 0.6 m height above
• Irrigation Scheduling
ground.
Types of Pan
The wind velocity can be assumed to follow the 1/7 power law.
• Class a Land Pan
• Colorado Sunken Pan 1
• Isi Pan 𝑈ℎ = 𝐶ℎ7
• USGS Floating Pan where:
✓ 𝑈ℎ = wind velocity at a height h above the ground and
Formula for Pan Evaporation ✓ C = constant
𝐸 = 𝐴 × 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑛 × 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛 This equation can be used to determine the velocity at any desired
where: level.
✓ E = Annual Evaporation
✓ A = Area of Water Surface
✓ 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑛 = Pan Coefficient
✓ 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛 = Pan Evaporation Rate
 Using Darcy’s law,
Week 11: 𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴𝑖
𝑑ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴
Basic Subsurface Flow (Steady State Condition) 𝑑𝑙
where:
Subsurface Flow ✓ Q = rate of water flow/discharge
✓ part of streamflow that has infiltrated the ground, has ✓ K = hydraulic conductivity
entered the saturated zone, and has been discharged into ✓ A = cross-section area
a stream channel, or springs and seepage water. ✓ i = hydraulic gradient (dh/dl or rise over run)

Confined Aquifer Using Darcy’s law, the groundwater flow per unit width of the aquifer
✓ A confined aquifer is a geologic formation, sediment, can be determined as:
or rock that contains body of water trapped within 𝑄 = 𝐾𝑏𝑖
sediment underneath the ground by at least one 𝑄 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑙
confining layer. where:
✓ Q = rate of water flow/discharge
Two Types of Confining Units ✓ K = hydraulic conductivity
1. AQUITARD layer that slows but does not ✓ b = thickness of the confined aquifer
completely stop water from passing through ✓ i = hydraulic gradient ( dh/dl or rise over run)
2. AQUICLUDE layer that is impermeable or does
not allow any amount of water to pass through. Storage Coefficient (S):
The volume of water given out by a unit prism of aquifer when the
Unconfined Aquifer piezometric surface (confined aquifers) drops by unit depth is called
✓ An unconfined aquifer is a body of water that isn’t the storage coefficient of the aquifer (S) and is dimensionless
sediment or rock, just beneath the surface. This (fraction).
aquifer receives direct infiltration from the surface 1 1
𝑆 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑛𝑏 ( + )
when it rains and snow. The surface of the saturated 𝐾𝑤 𝑛𝐸𝑠
zone is the water table.
where:
LAW OF DARCY ✓ S = storage coefficient
Formulated by French hydraulic engineer named ✓ 𝛾𝑤 = specific weight of water
Henry Darcy in 1856 It was a results of ✓ n = porosity of soil
experiments on the flow of water through beds of ✓ b = thickness of the confined aquifer
DEFINITION sand Darcy’s law states the principle which ✓ Kw = bulk modulus of elasticity of water
governs the movement of fluid in the given ✓ Es = modulus of compressibility (elasticity) of the soil grains
substance. of the aquifer.

Unsaturated and Saturated flow. Flow in fractured Porosity Of Soil:

𝑉𝑣
rocks and granular media. Transient flow and 𝑛=
LIMITATIONS steady-state flow. Flow in aquitards and aquifers. 𝑉𝑜
Flow in Homogeneous and heterogeneous where:
systems. ✓ n = porosity of soil
✓ 𝑉𝑣 = volume of voids
DARCY’S LAW EQUATION ✓ 𝑉𝑜 = volume of porous medium
𝑑ℎ
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴 The storage coefficient (confined aquifers), values have to be
𝑑𝑙
where: determined for the aquifers in order to make estimates of the changes
✓ Q = rate of water flow/discharge in the ground water storage due to fluctuation in the GWT or
✓ K = hydraulic conductivity piezometric surface (ps) from the relation.
✓ A = cross-section area
✓ i = hydraulic gradient (dh/dl or rise over run) Changes in the Ground Water Storage:
∆GWS = 𝐴𝑎𝑞 × ∆GWT or ps × S
DISCHARGE:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 where:
✓ ∆GWS = change in ground water storage
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT: ✓ 𝐴𝑎𝑞 = involved area of the aquifer
𝛥𝐻 ✓ ∆GWT or ps = fluctuation in GWT or ps
𝑖=
𝐿 ✓ S = storage coefficient (confined aquifer)
where:
✓ i = hydraulic gradient GROUNDWATER FLOW IN UNCONFINED AQUIFERS
✓ ∆h= head loss An unconfined aquifer is defined as a body of water formed from
✓ L = length of flow over which head loss occur ground water, rain water runoff and stream with its water table, or
upper surface, open to the atmosphere.
GROUNDWATER FLOW IN CONFINED AQUIFERS
Uses of Water in Unconfined Aquifer
AQUIFER. an aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material which The water from unconfined aquifers is mainly used for domestic and
is not only stores water but yields in sufficient quantity agricultural purposes.

A Confined aquifer, also known as artesian aquifer, is an aquifer How An Unconfined Aquifers Recharge and Discharge?
which is confined between two impervious beds. • Recharge typically occurs via infiltration of rainfall or
snowmelt to the water table but can also result from human
Groundwater in a confined aquifer is under pressure and will rise up activities such as irrigation of cropland.
inside a borehole drilled into the aquifer. The level to which the water • Unconfined aquifers are usually recharged by rain or stream
rises is called the piezometric surface. water infiltrating directly through the overlying soil.
• Discharge can occur via springs (focused discharge) or
If there is a steady movement of groundwater in a confined aquifer, seeps (diffuse discharge), and it can take place beneath
there will be a linear gradient or slope to the piezometric surface. For surface-water bodies (e.g., lakes, streams, estuaries, or the
this type of groundwater flow, Darcy’s law can be directly applied. ocean).

PUMPING AN UNCONFINED AQUIFER

• Pumping a well in an unconfined aquifer causes actual
dewatering of the material.
 • The Dupuit-Thiem equation is normally used to assess flow
towards a pumping well in unconfined aquifers under
steady-state conditions.

PUMPING FROM UNCONFINED AQUIFER FORMULAS

𝜋𝐾(ℎ1 2 − ℎ2 2 )
𝑄= 𝑟
ln ( 1 )
𝑟2
where:
✓ 𝑄 = well pumping rate
✓ 𝑟𝑤 = well radius
✓ ℎ𝑤 = Hydraulic head in the well
✓ ℎ𝑟 = Hydraulic head at distance r
✓ 𝐻 = Initial hydraulic head
✓ 𝑏 = Thickness of the aquifer
✓ 𝑅 = Radius of well influence
✓ 𝑠𝑤 = Drawdown in the well
✓ 𝐾 = Hydraulic conductivity

𝑅 = 3000 𝑠𝑤 √𝐾 (𝑠𝑤 → 𝑚, 𝐾 → 𝑚/𝑠)