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15-441: Computer Networking • Application Layer Application

Presentation
• Example Protocols
Session
• ftp
Transport
Lecture 4: Physical Layer & • http Network
Link Layer Basics • Performance Datalink
Based on slides from previous 441 lectures
Physical

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011. F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 2

Today (and beyond) Transferring Information

• Information transfer is a physical process

• In this class, we generally care about
• Physical layer. Application
• Electrical signals (on a wire)
• Datalink layer Presentation
• Optical signals (in a fiber)
Session
introduction, framing, • More broadly, EM waves
Transport
error coding, switched • Information carriers can also be ?
Network
networks. Datalink
• Broadcast-networks, Physical
home networking.

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 3 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 4

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 1

 Transferring Information From Signals to Packets

• Information transfer is a physical process Packet

Transmission Sender Receiver
• In this class, we generally care about
Application
• Electrical signals (on a wire) 0100010101011100101010101011101110000001111010101110101010101101011010111001
Packets
Presentation
• Optical signals (in a fiber) Header/Body Header/Body Header/Body
Session
• More broadly, EM waves
Transport
• Information carriers can also be Bit Stream 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
Network
• Sound waves
Datalink
• Quantum states “Digital” Signal
Physical
• Proteins
• Ink & paper, etc.
Analog Signal
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 5 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 6

From Signals to Packets Today’s Lecture

Packet • Modulation.
Transmission Sender Receiver
• Bandwidth limitations.
• Frequency spectrum and its use.
0100010101011100101010101011101110000001111010101110101010101101011010111001
Packets
Header/Body Header/Body Header/Body
• Multiplexing.
Bit Stream 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 • Media: Copper, Fiber, Optical, Wireless.
• (Next Week
“Digital” Signal
• Coding.
• Framing.)
Analog Signal
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 7 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 8

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 2

 Why Do We Care? Baseband vs Carrier Modulation

• Get the big picture. • Baseband modulation: send the “bare” signal.
• Carrier modulation: use the signal to modulate a
• Physical layer places constraints on what the higher frequency signal (carrier).
network infrastructure can deliver • Can be viewed as the product of the two signals
• Reality check • Corresponds to a shift in the frequency domain
• Impact on system performance
• Impact on the higher protocol layers
• Some examples:
• Fiber or copper?
• Do we need wires?
• Error characteristic and failure modes
• Effects of distance

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 9 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 10

Modulation Modulation

• Changing a signal to convey information • Changing a signal to convey information

• Ways to modulate a sinusoidal wave
• From Music:
• Volume: Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Volume • Pitch: Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Pitch • Timing: Phase Modulation (PM)
• Timing

• In our case, modulate signal to encode a 0 or a 1.

(multi-valued signals sometimes)

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 11 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 12

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 3

 Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

• AM: change the strength of the signal. • FM: change the frequency
• Example: High voltage for a 1, low voltage
for a 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 1

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 13 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 14

Phase Modulation Amplitude Carrier Modulation

• PM: Change the phase of the signal

1 0 1 0
Amplitude

Amplitude
Signal Carrier Modulated
Frequency Carrier
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 15 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 16

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 4

 Why Different Modulation
Why/Why Not Baseband?
Methods?
• Baseband
• Simpler hardware
• Modulated Carrier
• Control the range of frequencies used
• Wire and electronics at 100Hz can behave very differently from
wire and electronics at 10MHz
Amplitude

Carrier freq. ± few percent →

well-behaved and easy to process

Baseband Modulated

Highest frequencies many times higher than

low frequencies → may cause problems
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 17 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 18

Why Different Modulation

What Do We Care About?
Methods?
• Transmitter/Receiver complexity • Cost
• Power requirements • How much bandwidth can I get out of a specific
• Bandwidth wire (transmission medium)?
• Medium (air, copper, fiber, …) • What limits the physical size of the network?
• Noise immunity • How can multiple hosts communicate over the
• Range same wire at the same time?
• Multiplexing • How can I manage bandwidth on a transmission
medium?
• How do the properties of copper, fiber, and
wireless compare?

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 19 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 20

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 5

 Bandwidth Signal = Sum of Waves

• Bandwidth is width of the frequency range in

which the Fourier transform of the signal is non-
zero. (At what frequencies is there energy?)
• Sometimes referred to as the channel width =
• Or, where it is above some threshold value
(Usually, the half power threshold, e.g., -3dB)
+ 1.3 X
• dB
• Short for decibel
• Defined as 10 * log10(P1/P2) + 0.56 X
• When used for signal to noise: 10 * log10(PS/PN)
+ 1.15 X
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 21 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 22

The Frequency Domain The Nyquist Limit

• A (periodic) signal can be viewed • A noiseless channel of width H can at most

as a sum of sine waves of
different strengths. transmit a binary signal at a rate 2 x H.
• Corresponds to energy at a certain • Assumes binary amplitude encoding: 1→1.0, 0→ -1.0
frequency
• Every signal has an equivalent 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
representation in the frequency
domain.
• What frequencies are present and
what is their strength (energy)
• E.g., radio and TV signals.

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 23 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 24

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 6

 The Nyquist Limit How to Get Past the Nyquist Limit

• A noiseless channel of width H can at most • Instead of 0/1, use lots of different values.
transmit a binary signal at a rate 2 x H. • (Remember, the channel is noiseless.)
• Assumes binary amplitude encoding
• Can we really send an infinite amount of
• E.g. a 3000 Hz channel can transmit data at a rate of at
most 6000 bits/second? info/sec?
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 ? 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

Hmm, I once bought a modem that did 54K????

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 25 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 26

Past the Nyquist Limit Capacity of a Noisy Channel

• Every transmission medium supports • Can’t add infinite symbols

transmission in a certain fixed frequency • you have to be able to tell them apart.
range. • This is where noise comes in.

• The channel bandwidth is determined by

the transmission medium and the quality of
the transmitter and receivers.
• More aggressive encoding can increase the
channel bandwidth ... to a point ...

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 27 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 28

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 7

 Capacity of a Noisy Channel Capacity of a Noisy Channel

• Can’t add infinite symbols • Can’t add infinite symbols

• you have to be able to tell them apart. • you have to be able to tell them apart.
• This is where noise comes in.
• This is where noise comes in.
• Shannon’s theorem:
• Shannon’s theorem: C = B x log2(1 + S/N)
C = B x log2(1 + S/N) • C: maximum capacity (bps)
• C: maximum capacity (bps) • B: channel bandwidth (Hz)
• B: channel bandwidth (Hz) • S/N: signal to noise ratio of the channel
Often expressed in decibels (db) ::= 10 log(S/N)
• S/N: signal to noise (power) ratio of the channel
• Example:
Often expressed in decibels (db) ::= 10 log(S/N) • Local loop bandwidth: 3200 Hz
. • Typical S/N: 1000 (30db)
• What is the upper limit on capacity?
• 3200 x log2 (1 + 1000) = 31.895 kbits/s

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 29 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 30

Transmission Channel
Limits to Speed and Distance
Considerations
• Every medium supports transmission Good Bad • Noise: “random” energy is added to the signal.
in a certain frequency range.
• Outside this range, effects such as
attenuation degrade the signal too much • Attenuation: some of the energy in the signal leaks away.
• Transmission and receive hardware
will try to maximize the useful • Dispersion: attenuation and propagation speed are
bandwidth in this frequency band. frequency dependent.
• Tradeoffs between cost, distance, bit rate (Changes signal shape)
Frequency
• As technology improves, these • Effects limit the data rate that a channel can sustain.
parameters change, even for the • But affects different technologies in different ways
same wire.
• Effects become worse with distance.
• Tradeoff between data rate and distance

Signal
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 31 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 32

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 8

 Today’s Lecture Frequency spectrum and its use.

• Modulation.
• Bandwidth limitations.
• Frequency spectrum and its use.
• Multiplexing.
• Media: Copper, Fiber, Optical, Wireless.
• (Next Week:
• Coding.
• Framing.)

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 33 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 34

Today’s Lecture Supporting Multiple Channels

• Modulation. • Multiple channels can coexist if they transmit at a different

frequency, or at a different time, or in a different part of the
• Bandwidth limitations. space.
• Three dimensional space: frequency, space, time
• Frequency spectrum and its use.
• Space can be limited using wires or using transmit power
• Multiplexing. of wireless transmitters.
• Media: Copper, Fiber, Optical, Wireless. • Frequency multiplexing means that different users use a
different part of the spectrum.
• (Next Week: • Similar to radio: 95.5 versus 102.5 station
• Coding. • Controlling time (for us) is a datalink protocol issue.
• Media Access Control (MAC): who gets to send when?
• Framing.)

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 35 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 36

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 9

 Time Division Multiplexing FDM: Multiple Channels

• Different users use the wire at different points in Determines Bandwidth of Link

time.
• Requires spectrum proportional to aggregate

Amplitude
bandwidth.
1 user

Frequency

2 users Determines
Bandwidth
of Channel

Different Carrier
Frequency Frequencies
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 37 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 38

Frequency versus
Today’s Lecture
Time-division Multiplexing
• Modulation.
• With FDM different users use
different parts of the • Bandwidth limitations.
Frequency

frequency spectrum.
• I.e. each user can send all the
Frequency • Frequency spectrum and its use.
Bands
time at reduced rate • Multiplexing.
• Example: roommates
• With TDM different users • Media: Copper, Fiber, Optical, Wireless.
Frame
send at different times.
• I.e. each user can send at full Slot
speed some of the time • Coding.
• Example: time-share condo
• The two solutions can be
• Framing.
Time
combined.
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 39 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 40

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 10

 Copper Wire UTP

• Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) • Why twist wires?

• Two copper wires twisted - avoid antenna effect
• Grouped into cables: multiple pairs with common sheath
• Category 3 (voice grade) versus category 5
• 100 Mbit/s up to 100 m, 1 Mbit/s up to a few km
• Cost: ~ 10cents/foot
• Coax cables.
• One connector is placed inside the other connector
• Holds the signal in place and keeps out noise
• Gigabit up to a km
• Signaling processing research pushes the
capabilities of a specific technology.
• E.g. modems, use of cat 5
Images: networkcable-tester.com, tootoo.com

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 41 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 42

UTP Light Transmission in Fiber

• Why twist wires?

1.0 LEDs Lasers
• Provide noise immunity
• Combine with Differential Signaling tens of THz
loss
(dB/km) 0.5

1.3µ
1.55µ
0.0
1000 1500 nm
(~200 Thz)

wavelength (nm)

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 43 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 44

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 11

 Ray Propagation Fiber Types

• Multimode fiber.
• 62.5 or 50 micron core carries multiple “modes”
cladding • used at 1.3 microns, usually LED source
• subject to mode dispersion: different propagation modes travel at
different speeds
core • typical limit: 1 Gbps at 100m

• Single mode
lower index • 8 micron core carries a single mode
of refraction
• used at 1.3 or 1.55 microns, usually laser diode source
• typical limit: 10 Gbps at 60 km or more
• still subject to chromatic dispersion
(note: minimum bend radius of a few cm)

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 45 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 46

Gigabit Ethernet:
Fiber Types
Physical Layer Comparison
Medium Transmit/ Distance Comment
receive
Multimode
Copper 1000BASE-CX 25 m machine room use
Twisted pair 1000BASE-T 100 m four twisted pairs,
IEEE 802.3ab
MM fiber 62 mm 1000BASE-SX 260 m
1000BASE-LX 500 m
MM fiber 50 mm 1000BASE-SX 525 m
1000BASE-LX 550 m
Single mode SM fiber 1000BASE-LX 5000 m

Twisted pair 100BASE-T 100 m 2p of UTP5/2-4p of UTP3

MM fiber 100BASE-SX 2000m

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 47 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 48

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 12

 How to increase distance? How to increase distance?

• Even with single mode, there is a distance • Even with single mode, there is a distance
limit. limit.
• I.e.: How do you get it across the ocean? • I.e.: How do you get it across the ocean?

pump
laser

source

F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 49 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 50

Regeneration and Amplification Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• At end of span, either regenerate electronically or • Send multiple wavelengths through the same fiber.
amplify. • Multiplex and demultiplex the optical signal on the fiber

• Electronic repeaters are potentially slow, but can • Each wavelength represents an optical carrier that
eliminate noise. can carry a separate signal.
• E.g., 16 colors of 2.4 Gbit/second
• Amplification over long distances made practical
by erbium doped fiber amplifiers offering up to 40 • Like radio, but optical and much faster
dB gain, linear response over a broad spectrum.
Ex: 40 Gbps at 500 km. pump
laser Optical
Splitter
source
Frequency
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 51 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 52

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 13

 Wireless Technologies Things to Remember

• Great technology: no wires to install, convenient mobility, … • Bandwidth and distance of networks is limited by physical
properties of media.
• High attenuation limits distances. Huh? 2 in free space,
typically 2 to 6 • Attenuation, noise, dispersion, …
• Wave propagates out as a sphere
• Network properties are determined by transmission medium
• Signal strength attenuates quickly  1/d3 and transmit/receive hardware.
• High noise due to interference from other transmitters. • Nyquist gives a rough idea of idealized throughput
• Can do much better with better encoding
• Use MAC and other rules to limit interference
• Low b/w channels: Sophisticated encoding, multiple bits per wavelength.
• Aggressive encoding techniques to make signal less sensitive to noise • High b/w channels: Simpler encoding (FM, PCM, etc.), many wavelengths
per bit.
• Other effects: multipath fading, security, .. • Shannon: C = B x log2(1 + S/N)
• Ether has limited bandwidth. • Multiple users can be supported using space, time, or
• Try to maximize its use frequency division multiplexing.
• Government oversight to control use • Properties of different transmission media:
• copper, optical, wireless.
F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 53 F'11 Lecture 4: Physical Layer 54

Copyright © CMU, 2007-2011 14