CHAPTER 2

RESISTANCE

2.1 Introduction

This opposition to the flow of charge through an electrical circuit, called resistance,
has the units of ohms and uses the Greek letter omega (Ω) as its symbol. The graphic
symbol for resistance is provided in Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Resistance symbol and notation.

2.2 Resistance: Circular wires

The resistance of any material depends primarily on four factors:

Material
Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, First Edition. 7
By Osama A. Alkishriwo Copyright c 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
8 RESISTANCE

Length
Cross–sectional area
Temperature of the material
The first three elements are related by the following basic equation for resistance:
ρ`
R= (2.1)
A
where ρ is a characteristic of the material called the resistivity which is measured in
CM − Ω/f t, ` is the length of the wire, and A is the cross–sectional area of the wire
measured in circular mils (CM).

2.3 Circular Mils

In (2.1), the area is measured in a quantity called circular mils (CM). It is the quantity
used in most commercial wire tables. The mil is a unit of measurement for length
and is related to the inch (in) by

1000 mils = 1 in
By definition, a wire with a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1 CM as shown in Fig.
2.2.

Figure 2.2 Defining the circular mil (CM).

An interesting result of such a definition is that the area of a circular wire in

circular mils can be defined by the following equation:
ACM = (dmils )2 (2.2)
Applying the basic equation for the area of a circle with diameter d and substitut-
ing a diameter of 1 mil results in
π d2 π π
A= = (1 mil)2 = square mils = 1 CM
4 4 4
from which we can conclude the following:
π
1 CM = square mils (2.3)
4
 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS 9

EXAMPLE 2.1

What is the resistance of a 100 f t length of copper wire with a ρ = 10.37 CM −

Ω/f t, and a diameter of 0.020 in at 20 C o ?

Solution:

A(CM ) = (d(mils) )2 = (20 mils)2 = 400 CM

ρ` (10.37 CM − Ω/f t) (100 f t)
R= = = 2.59 Ω
A 400 CM

2.4 Temperature Effects

Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of conductors, semiconductors,

and insulators.

Conductors:
For good conductors, an increase in temperature results in an increase in the
resistance level. Consequently, conductors have a positive temperature coeffi-
cient.
Semiconductors:
For semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in
the resistance level. Consequently, semiconductors have negative temperature
coefficients.
Insulators:
As with semiconductors, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the
resistance of an insulator. The result is a negative temperature coefficient.

2.4.1 Inferred Absolute Temperature

Figure 2.3 reveals that for copper (and most other metallic conductors), the resis-
tance increases almost linearly (in a straight-line relationship) with an increase in
temperature. At two temperatures T1 and T2 , the resistance of copper is R1 and R2 ,
respectively, as indicated on the curve. Using a property of similar triangles, we may
develop a mathematical relationship between these values of resistance at different
temperatures. Let x equal the distance from −234.5 C o to T1 and y the distance
from −234.5 C o to T2 , as shown in Fig. 2.3. From similar triangles,

x y
=
R1 R2
234.5 + T1 234.5 + T2
= (2.4)
R1 R2
10 RESISTANCE

Figure 2.3 Effect of temperature on the resistance of copper.

The temperature of −234.5 C o is called the inferred absolute temperature of

copper. For different conducting materials, the intersection of the straight–line ap-
proximation occurs at different temperatures.
Equation (2.4) can easily be adapted to any material by inserting the proper in-
ferred absolute temperature. It may therefore be written as follows:

|T0 | + T1 |T0 | + T2
= (2.5)
R1 R2
where |T0 | indicates that the inferred absolute temperature of the material. For T1
and T2 less than zero, x and y are less than −234.5 C o , and the distances are the dif-
ferences between the inferred absolute temperature and the temperature of interest.

2.4.2 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Defining the temperature coefficient of resistance α20 at a temperature of 20 C o and
R20 as the resistance of the sample at 20 C o , we determine the resistance R1 at a
temperature T1 by

R1 = R20 [1 + α20 (T1 − 20 C o )] (2.6)

The higher the temperature coefficient of resistance for a material, the more sensitive
is the resistance level to changes in temperature.

2.4.3 PPM/C o

The specification is normally provided in parts per million per degree Celsius (PPM/C o ),
providing an immediate indication of the sensitivity level of the resistor to tempera-
ture. In equation form, the change in resistance is given by
Rnominal
∆R = (P P M ) ∆T (2.7)
106
where Rnominal is the nameplate value of the resistor at room temperature and ∆T
is the change in temperature from the reference level of 20 C o .
 RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS 11

EXAMPLE 2.2

For a 1 kΩ carbon composition resistor with a PPM of 2500, determine the

resistance at 60 C o .

Solution:

1000 Ω
∆R = (2500)(60 C o − 20 C o ) = 100 Ω
106
R = Rnominal + ∆R = 1000 Ω + 100 Ω = 1100 Ω

2.5 Resistance: Metric Units

In SI units, the resistivity would be measured in ohm-meters, the area in square

meters, and the length in meters. However, the meter is generally too large a unit
of measure for most applications, and so the centimeter is usually employed. Note
that the area now is expressed in square centimeters, which can be determined using
the basic equation A = πd2 /4, eliminating the need to work with circular mils, the
special unit of measure associated with circular wires.

2.6 Types of Resistors

Resistors are made in many forms, but all belong in either of two groups: fixed or
variable.
Fixed Resistors:
For a particular style and manufacturer, the size of a resistor increases with the
power or wattage rating and does not define its resistance level.
Variable Resistors:
Variable resistors have a terminal resistance that can be varied by a turning dial,
knob, or screw. They can have two or three terminals, but most have three
terminals. If the two or three terminal device is used as a variable resistor,
it is usually referred to as a rheostat. If the three terminal device is used for
controlling potential levels, it is then commonly called a potentiometer.

2.7 Conductance

By finding the reciprocal of the resistance of a material, we have a measure of how

well the material conducts electricity. The quantity is called conductance, has the
symbol G, and is measured in siemens (S). In equation form, conductance is
1
G= (2.8)
R
12 RESISTANCE

PROBLEMS
2.1 What is the resistance of a copper wire 200 f t long and 1/50 in in diameter
(T = 20 C o )?
2.2 A 2.2 Ω resistor is to be made of nichrome wire. If the available wire is 1/32 in
in diameter, how much wire is required?
2.3 What is the new resistance level of a copper wire if the length is changed from
200 f t to 100 yd, the area is changed from 40, 000 CM to 0.04 in2 , and the original
resistance was 800 mΩ?
2.4 A 22 Ω wire–wound resistor is rated at 200 P P M for a temperature range of
−10 C o to +75 C o . Determine its resistance at 65 C o .
2.5 If the wiper arm of a linear potentiometer is one–fourth the way around the
contact surface, what is the resistance between the wiper arm and each terminal if
the total resistance is 2.5 kΩ?
2.6 The conductance of a wire is 100 S. If the area of the wire is increased by two
thirds and the length is reduced by the same amount, find the new conductance of the
wire if the temperature remains fixed.