CONNECTION SCHEMES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Distribution is done by constant voltage system. The following distribution circuits are
used:
1) Radial System.
In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors
at one end only. Figure 6 (a) shows a single line diagram of a radial system for DC
distribution where a feeder OC supplies a distributor A B at point A. Obviously, the
distributor is fed at one end only i.e., point A is this case. Fig (b) shows a single line
diagram of radial system for AC. distribution. The radial system is employed only when
power is generated at low voltage and the substation is located at the center of the load.

(a) (b)

Figure 6: Radial distribution system

This system of distribution has the lowest initial cost. However, it has the following
disadvantages:
 The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.

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  The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore,
any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on
the side of the fault away from the substation.
 The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious
voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
Because of these restrictions, this distribution system is used for short distances only.
2) Ring main system.
In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The loop circuit
starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and
returns to the substation. Figure 7 shows the single line diagram of ring main system for
AC distribution where substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS.

Figure 7: Ring main distribution system

The distributors are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the feeder through
distribution transformers. The ring main system has the following advantages:

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  There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
 The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders. In the event
of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained. For
example, suppose that fault occurs at any point F of section SLM of the feeder.
Then section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for repairs and at the same time
continuity of supply is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.
3) Interconnected system.
When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called inter-connected system. Figure 8 shows the single line diagram of
interconnected system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations
S and S at points D and C respectively.

Figure 8: Interconnected System

Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution
transformers. The interconnected system has the following advantages:
 It increases the service reliability.

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  Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed from
the other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and increases
efficiency of the system.
REQUIREMENTS OF A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
It is important to maintain an electric power supply within the requirements of various
types of consumers. Some of the requirements of a good distribution system are proper
voltage and availability of power on demand and reliability.
 Proper voltage.
There must be no or very low voltage variations at the consumer’s terminal. The changes
in voltage are generally caused due to the variation of load on the system. Low voltage
causes
 Loss of revenue
 Inefficient lighting and
 Possible burning out of motors.
High voltage causes lamps to burn out permanently and may cause failure of other
appliances. Therefore, a good distribution system should ensure that the voltage
variations at consumer’s terminals are within permissible limits. The statutory limit of
voltage variations is ± 6% of the rated value at the consumer’s terminals. Therefore, if the
required voltage is 230 V, the highest voltage of the consumer should not exceed 244 V
while the lowest voltage of the consumer should not be less than 216 V.
 Availability of power on demand.
Power must be available to the consumers in any amount that they may require from
time to time. For example, motors may be started or shut down, lights may be turned on
or off, without advance warning to the electric supply company. As electrical energy
cannot be stored, therefore, the distribution system must be capable of supplying load
demands of the consumers. This necessitates that operating staff must continuously
study load patterns to predict in advance those major load changes that follow the known
schedules.

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  Reliability.
Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its operation. Homes and
office buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and ventilated by electric power. This calls for
reliable service. Unfortunately, electric power, like everything else that is made by
human, can never be totally reliable. However, the reliability can be improved to a
considerable extent by
(a) Interconnected system
(b) Reliable automatic control system
(c) Providing additional reserve facilities.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most important factor
responsible for delivering good service to the consumers. For this purpose, design of
feeders and distributors requires careful consideration.
 Feeders.
Current carrying capacity is the important factor in the design of a Feeder. Voltage drop
is given less consideration during design because the voltage drop can be compensated
by means of regulating equipment at the substation.
 Distributors.
A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in it. It is because a
distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a statutory limit of voltage
variations at the consumer’s terminals (± 6% of rated value). The size and length of the
distributor should be such that voltage at the consumer’s terminals is within the
permissible limits.
A.C. DISTRIBUTION
Introduction: In the beginning, electrical power was generated, transmitted and
distributed as DC. The major disadvantage observed in the DC system was that the DC
voltage level could not be changed easily. With the development of transformers, AC
system has dominated and leave the DC system un-applicable in most part of the world.
At present, large power system has been possible due to adoption of AC. Electrical energy

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is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of AC because of the economic
aspects.
The electrical energy produced at the power station is transmitted at very high voltages
by 3-phase, 3-wire system to step-down sub-stations for distribution. The distribution
system consists of two parts that are primary distribution and secondary distribution.
The primary distribution circuit is 3-phase, 3-wire and operates at voltages (3·3 or 6·6 or
11kV) somewhat higher than general utilization levels. It delivers power to the secondary
distribution circuit through distribution transformers situated near consumers’ localities.
Each distribution transformer steps down the voltage to 400 V and power is distributed
to ultimate consumers by 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
METHODS OF SOLVING A.C. DISTRIBUTION PROBLEMS
In AC distribution calculations, power factors of various load currents have to be
considered since currents in different sections of the distributor will be the vector sum of
load currents and not the arithmetic sum. The power factors of load currents may be
given ( i) w.r.t. receiving or sending end voltage or ( ii) w.r.t. to load voltage itself.
 Power factors referred to receiving end voltage.
In Figure 9, consider an a.c. distributor A B with concentrated loads of I 1 and I2 tapped
off at points C and B as shown in Figure. Taking the receiving end voltage VB as the
reference vector, let lagging power factors at C and B be cos φ 1 and cos φ 2 w.r.t. VB. Let
R1, X1 and R2, X2 be the resistance and reactance of sections A C and CB of the distributor.

Figure 9: AC distributor fed at one end

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Example 1. A single phase a.c. distributor AB 300 meters long is fed from end A and is
loaded as under:
(i) 100 A at 0·707 p.f. lagging 200 m from point A
(ii) 200 A at 0·8 p.f. lagging 300 m from point A.
The load resistance and reactance of the distributor is 0·2 Ω and 0·1 Ω per kilometer. Calculate
the total voltage drop in the distributor. The load power factors refer to the voltage at the far end.
Solution. Figure 1.1 shows the single line diagram of the distributor. Impedance of
distributor/km = (0·2 + j 0·1) Ω

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ASSIGNMENT: Read and go through calculations regarding Power factors referred to
respective load voltages.
TYPES OF D.C. DISTRIBUTORS
DC distributors are classified according to the way they are fed by the feeders. On this
basis, DC distributors are classified as:
1. Distributor fed at one end
2. Distributor fed at both ends
3. Distributor fed at the center
4. Ring distributor.

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 1) Distributor fed at one end.
The distributor is connected to the supply at one end and loads are taken at different
point along the length of the distributor as seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10: DC distributor fed at one end

Figure 10 shows the single line diagram of a DC. distributor A B fed at the end A and
loads I1, I2 and I3 tapped off at points C, D and E respectively.
Points to take care in the DC distributor fed at one end
 The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding point goes
on decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more than the current in section CD
and current in section CD is more than the current in section DE.
 The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on decreasing. Thus
in Figure the minimum voltage occurs at the load point E.
 In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole distributor will
have to be disconnected from the supply mains. Therefore, continuity of supply is
interrupted.
2) Distributor fed at both ends.
The distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends and loads are tapped off at
different points along the length of the distributor. The voltage at the feeding points can
or cannot be equal. Figure 11 shows a distributor A B fed at the ends A and B and loads
of I1, I2 and I3 tapped off at points C, D and E respectively. Here, the load voltage goes on
decreasing as we move away from one feeding point say A, reaches minimum value and
then again starts rising and reaches maximum value when we reach the other feeding
point B.

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 Figure 11: DC distributor fed at both ends
Advantages
1. If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
2. In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
3. The area of X-section required for a doubly fed distributor is much less than that
of a singly fed distributor
3) Distributor fed at the center.
The center of the distributor is connected to the supply mains as shown in Figure 12. It is
equivalent to two singly fed distributors, each distributor having a common feeding point
and length equal to half of the total length.

Figure 12: DC distributor fed at the center

4) Ring mains.
The distributor is in the form of a closed ring as shown in Figure 13. It is equivalent to a
straight distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages, the two ends being brought

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together to form a closed ring. The distributor ring may be fed at one or more than one
point.

Figure 13: A ring mains distributor

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