Metalurgi (2018) 3: 109 - 124

METALURGI
Available online at www.ejurnalmaterialmetalurgi.com

METALLURGICAL EXAMINATION AND LIFE TIME ASSESMENT OF

HIGH PRESSURE STEAM PIPES OF A PALM OIL PROCESSING PLANT
Dewa Nyoman Adnyana
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology
National Institute of Science and Technology (ISTN)
Jl. Moh. Kahfi II Jagakarsa, Jakarta Selatan 12640
E-mail: [email protected]

Masuk tanggal : 24-10-2018, revisi tanggal : 25-12-2018, diterima untuk diterbitkan tanggal : 09-01- 2019

Intisari
Pipa baja sering digunakan untuk menyalurkan uap bertekanan tinggi dari sebuah ketel uap menuju ke unit turbin uap atau ke
unit produksi lainnya. Tulisan ini menyajikan penelitian metalurgi yang dilakukan pada sejumlah pipa uap bertekanan tinggi pada
sebuah pabrik yang baru dibangun untuk menyalurkan uap bertekanan tinggi dari sebuah ketel uap menuju ke pabrik pengolahan
minyak ke-lapa sawit. Tujuannya adalah untuk memastikan bahwa keterpaduan material pipa uap memiliki kesesuaian dengan
spesifikasi dan kehandalan yang diinginkan. Disamping itu, tujuannya juga ada-lah untuk memperkirakan umur layan pipa uap
tersebut. Pengujian metalurgi dilakukan dengan mempersiapkan sejumlah benda uji yang diambil dari tiga potongan pipa uap
yang diterima, yaitu meliputi : analisa kimia, uji metalografi dan uji kekerasan serta uji tarik pada suhu 300 °C. Disamping itu,
analisa umur juga dibuat menggunakan persamaan yang diambil dari ASME Boiler dan BPVC (pressure vessel code) dan dari
data standar API 530. Hasil pengujian metalurgi yang diperoleh menun-jukkan bahwa pipa uap bertekanan tinggi yang dibuat
dari material ASTM A-106 Gr. B seluruhnya dalam kondisi baik, baik dari segi struktur mikro maupun dari segi sifat mekanis.
Hasil pengujian juga menunjukkan bahwa pada struktur mikro tidak diketemukan adanya cacat yang berarti, dan seluruh (ke tiga)
pipa uap yang di uji tersebut diperkirakan dalam keadaan siap untuk dioperasikan. Pada tekanan operasi 70 bar(g) dan temperatur
operasi maksimum 300 °C yang direncanakan, diperkirakan bahwa pipa uap tersebut dapat memberikan umur desain hingga 25
tahun atau lebih dengan laju korosi 0,2 - 0,3mm/tahun.

Kata Kunci: Ketel uap, pengujian metalurgi dan analisa umur, pipa uap bertekanan tinggi

Abstract
Steel pipes are commonly used for transporting high pressure steam from a steam generating unit or boiler to a steam
turbine or other processing unit. This paper presents a metallurgical examination performed on HP steam pipes of a newly
constructed plant for transporting high pressure steam from a boiler to a palm oil processing plant. The aim was to assure that
the material integrity of the steam pipes meet the intended specification and reliability. In addition, the aim was also to determine
the estimated service life of the steam pipes. The metallurgical examination was conducted by preparing a number of specimens
from the as-received three pieces of HP steam pipes. Various laboratory exam-inations were performed including chemical
analysis, metallographic examination, hardness testing and tensile testing at 300 °C. In addition, a life-time analysis was also
made using an equation based on the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) and data obtained from the API Standard
530. Results of the metallurgical examination obtained showed that the HP steam pipes which were made of ASTM A-106 Gr. B
were all in good condition, either in microstructure or mechanical property. There were no any significant defect observed, and
all the three HP steam pipes were assumed being ready to place in service. Under the intended operating pressure and
temperature of 70 bar(g) and 300 °C (max), respectively it can be estimated that the HP steam pipes may likely reach some
design life up to 25 years or more with the corrosion rate approximately 0.2 - 0.3 mm/year.

Keywords: Boiler, metallurgical examination and life-time analysis, high-pressure (HP) steam pipe

1. INTRODUCTION Most of the materials used for HP steam pipe are

High-pressure (HP) steam pipes are low carbon or low-alloy steels [1]-[2], in which
commonly used for transporting high-pressure its microstructures containing matrix ferrite
steam from a steam generating plant or boiler to a phase and some small amount of pearlite phase
steam turbine unit or any other pro-cessing plant. [3]-[4].
During in its service, the HP steam pipe material temperature, pipe or tube outside diameter and
which is similar to the boiler tubes usually the type of material being used [19]. By
subjected to various deterioration mechanisms monitoring the wall thickness of the pipe or tube
such as softening degradation, creep, thermal periodically, it will be possible to determine the
fatigue, hot corrosion, erosion, etc., either acting corrosion rate that may oc-cur, and eventually it
alone or in combination [3]-[10]. These can be used to estimate the service life or
deterioration mechanisms are frequently known remaining life of the steam pipe or boiler tubes
as the main cause of material damage or [2],[20].
degradation that could reduce the service life of This paper presents a metallurgical
the HP steam pipes or the boiler tubes [11]-[13]. assessment performed on a number of HP steam
The total service life of the HP steam pipes or pipes being used for transporting high pressure
other boiler tubes is very much influenced by steam from a boiler to a palm oil pro-cessing
deterioration rate that may occur, and this is very plant. These HP steam pipes were just about
much dependent on the initial defect and quality being ready for commissioning to-gether with the
of the material being used, such as chemical newly constructed boiler and its palm oil
composition, microstructure and mechanical processing unit (see Figure 1). Under final
property [13]-[15], and also the operating inspection prior to commissioning, it was
parameters being applied [8], [16]. For HP steam considered to perform some ex-amination and
pipes and other boiler tubes that are operated assessment on several HP steam pipes to assure
below the creep temperature regime, most of the that the overall material integrity of the HP steam
damage occurred are due to corrosion, either by pipes were in good condition and reliable before
internal corrosion such as under deposit being placed into service. According to the plant
corrosion, pitting corrosion, cavitation, etc., or by site information, all the HP steam pipes being in-
external corrosion such as corrosion under stalled were made of material specification of
insulation, stress corrosion, pitting corrosion, etc. ASTM A-106 Gr. B. The operating pres-sure and
[17, 18]. Corrosion can reduce the pipe or tube temperature being intended to apply to the HP
wall thickness and could result in leakage when steam pipes were 70 bar (g) and 300 °C (max.),
the wall thickness reaches the minimum al- respectively.
lowable wall thickness (MAWT). According to The purpose of this metallurgical testing and
the ASME BPVC, this MAWT is a func-tion of assessment was to verify the chemical
the operating parameters such as pressure and composition, microstructure and mechanical

Figure 1. A newly built boiler construction and its corresponding HP steam piping system, connected to a
palm oil processing unit at location approximately on the right hand side (not seen)

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property, and to determine whether the ma-terial vertical tubular furnace. The tensile test specimen
used for the HP steam pipe met the specification was made according to the specification of
or suitable for its intended oper-ating condition. ASTM A 370 [22]. Finally, a life-time
Furthermore, this metallurgical testing and calculation and analysis was made which was
assessment was also aimed to estimate the useful based on the test results ob-tained. This life-time
life-time of the HP steam pipes which will be calculation and analysis was made using an
based on the test re-sults obtained. equation based on the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code (ASME BPVC) [19] and
2. EXAMINATION DETAILS AND data obtained from the API Standard 530 [20].
According to the ASME BPVC [19], the
ASSESMENT minimum allowable wall thickness (MAWT) of
In this metallurgical testing and assessment, 3 the HP steam pipe is as follows:
(three) pieces of new and similar steam pipe of Ø
P.D
4,” Ø 6,” and Ø 10" in diameter shown in Figure tmin   0.005D............................1)
2 were used to represent the HP steam pipes that 2S  P
have already been installed in the newly built where tmin is the minimum allowable wall
boiler construction plant. The three pieces of new thickness of the HP steam pipe expressed in
steam pipes were then cut into several specimens millimeters, P is the working pressure = 70 bar
for la-boratory examination. Chemical analysis (g) = 7.0 MPa = 0.714 kgf/mm2, D is the
on the prepared samples was carried out using outside pipe diameter expressed in millimeters, S
optical spark emission spectrometer. The purpose is the maximum allowable stress at 300 °C. For
of this chemical analysis was to de-termine material ASTM A-106 Gr.B, S = 117.9 MPa =
whether the material used for the HP steam pipe 12.025 kgf/mm2 (according to the ASME BPVC
met the specification. In addition, metallographic Sect.II Part D) [24].
examinations were also performed on the

Figure 2. The as received sections of new HP steam pipes of different diameters (Ø 4,” Ø 6,” and Ø 10") for
laboratory examination

prepared samples using an optical microscope at 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

various magnifications. The metallographic 3.1 Chemical Analysis
samples were mounted using epoxy and prepared Results of chemical analysis obtained from
by grinding, polishing and etching. The etchant the three different HP steam pipes having the
ap-plied was Nital’s solution [21]. A hardness three different HP steam pipes having diameter
survey was also carried out on the same sam-ple of 4,” 6" and 10" in comparison with the standard
for the metallographic examination using the material are presented in Table 1. The results
Vickers hardness method at a load of 5 kg (HV obtained indicate that the three diameters of
5). Moreover, tensile testing on the prepared steam pipe closely met to the material
samples was also performed at 300 °C using an specification of ASTM A-106 under the quality
universal testing machine equipped with a of Gr. A or Gr. B [23], typical of low or medium
Metallurgical Examination and Life Time…../ Dewa Nyoman Adnyana | 111
carbon steel having microstructures containing of 3.2 Metallographic Examination and
matrix fer-rite phase with some amount of Analysis
pearlite as second phase. The carbon steels with Microstructures obtained from HP steam pipe
such microstructures generally have low to material of 4" diameter in both cross section and
medium level of hardness or strength. From the longitudinal section are presented in Figure 4,
results of hardness test and tensile test obtained showing matrix ferrite phase (light color) with
which will subsequently be presented, it is second pearlite phase (dark color), typical of low
confirmed that all of the HP steam pipes are most to medium carbon steel [21]. In general,
likely made in accordance with the material morphology of the microstructures are well
specification of ASTM A-106 Gr. B [24]. clearly defined and homogeneously distributed,
and no any metallurgical defect such as
inclusions or crack is observed [14].

Table 1. Results of chemical analysis obtained from the new HP steam pipe material
in comparison with the standard material.
Composition, wt.-%

HP Steam Pipe Standard Materials

Element
ASTM A-106 ASTM A-106
Ø 4” Ø 6” Ø 10”
Gr.A Gr.B
Fe 98.3 97.9 98.1 Balance Balance
C 0.238 0.195 0.207 0.25 (max) 0.30 (max)
Si 0.286 0.225 0.283 0.10 (min) 0.10 (min)
Mn 0.876 0.815 1.04 0.27–0.93 0.29–1.06
P 0.0250 0.0271 0.0327 0.035 (max) 0.035 (max)
S 0.0043 < 0.0030 0.0067 0.035 (max) 0.035 (max)
Cr 0.0531 0.167 0.0353 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max)
Ni 0.0200 0.111 0.0313 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max)
Mo 0.0259 0.0585 0.0194 0.15 (max) 0.15 (max)
Cu 0.0297 0.341 0.0158 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max)
V 0.0087 0.0104 0.0138 0.08 (max) 0.08 (max)
Nb 0.0309 0.0398 0.0423 – –
Al 0.0127 0.0054 0.0375 – –
Ti 0.0020 0.0023 0.0014 – –

Table 2. Results of hardness test obtained from the three different HP steam pipes

Vickers Hardness Number (HV) of HP Steam Pipe Material

Test Point Ø 4" Ø 6" Ø 10"
No
Longitudinal Longitudinal Longitudinal
Cross-section Cross-section Cross-section
section section section
1 148.0 149.5 144.0 145.0 173.5 166.0
2 145.0 152.0 145.0 146.0 170.5 166.0
3 147.0 154.5 145.0 146.0 153.0 154.5
4 151.0 156.0 147.0 152.0 161.0 148.0
5 144.0 149.5 148.0 144.0 165.0 166.0
6 148.0 - 145.0 - 169.0 -
7 148.0 - 141.8 - 162.5 -
8 157.0 - 144.0 - 148.0 -
9 157.0 - 148.0 - 152.0 -
10 158.0 - 143.0 - 172.0 -
Average 150.3 152.3 145.1 146.6 162.6 160.1

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However, there are only seen some slight surface formation at the internal surface of the pipe and
defect occurred on some of pipe surface exterior. these may have been caused by some internal
The occurrence of these surface defects is likely oxidation occurred during the pipe manufacturing
not affecting significantly to the overall strength process [14].
of the pipe material [25]. These outer surface
defects may have been caused by the effect of
shipping and handling of the pipes during
transportation and/or construction. In addition,
there are also seen some slight scale or deposit

Table 3. Calculated Tensile Strength (TS) of HP steam pipe material

based on the results obtained from the hardness test shown in Table 2
Average Converted
Pipe Calculated TS
Hardness Measured Hardness
Diameter (MPa)
(HV) (HB)
150.3 143.1 491.0
Ø 4”
152.3 145.0 497.6
145.1 138.0 473.5
Ø 6”
146.6 141.0 483.8
162.6 154.0 528.4
Ø 10”
160.1 152.1 521.9
Note:
Calculated TS = 0.35 HB (kgf/mm2); HB = Brinell Hardness Number

Figure 3. The three broken tensile test specimens after being tested at 300 °C

Table 4. Results of tensile test at 300 °C obtained from the HP steam pipe materials
Test Temperature: 300°C
Pipe
Diameter Sample TS
Ao Fm
Diameter ɛ (%)
(mm²) (kN) (N/mm2) (kgf/mm2)
(mm)
Ø 10” 8.58 57.8 29.0 502 51.1 29.0

Ø 6” 6.05 28.7 15.0 522 53.2 32.0

Ø 4” 6.25 30.7 17.0 554 56.5 34.0

Note:
Ao = Cross sectional area; Fm = maximum tensile load; TS = Tensile Strength

Metallurgical Examination and Life Time…../ Dewa Nyoman Adnyana | 113

 Figure 4. Microstructures obtained from the cross-section of the 4" diameter of HP steam pipe, showing matrix
ferrite phase (light color) and second pearlite phase (dark color), typical of low to medium carbon steel. Etched
with 5% Nital solution

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Figure 5. Microstructures obtained from the longitudinal-section (b) of the 4" diameter of HP steam pipe,
showing matrix ferrite phase (light color) and second pearlite phase (dark color), typical of low to medium
carbon steel. Etched with 5% Nital solution

Metallurgical Examination and Life Time…../ Dewa Nyoman Adnyana | 115

 Figure 6. Microstructures obtained from the cross-section of the 6" diameter of HP steam pipe showing matrix
ferrite phase (light color) and second pearlite phase (dark color), typical of low to medium carbon steel. Etched
with 5% Nital solution

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Figure 7. Microstructures obtained from the longitudinal-section of the 6" diameter of HP steam pipe showing
matrix ferrite phase (light color) and second pearlite phase (dark color), typical of low to medium carbon steel.
Etched with 5% Nital solution

Metallurgical Examination and Life Time…../ Dewa Nyoman Adnyana | 117

 Figure 8. Microstructures obtained from the cross-section (a) and the longitudinal-section (b) of the 10"
diameter of HP steam pipe showing matrix ferrite phase (light color) and second pearlite phase (dark color),
typical of low to medium carbon steel. Etched with 5% Nital solution

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Figure 9. Microstructures obtained from the cross-section (a) and the longitudinal-section (b) of the 10"
diameter of HP steam pipe showing matrix ferrite phase (light color) and second pearlite phase (dark color),
typical of low to medium carbon steel. Etched with 5% Nital solution

Metallurgical Examination and Life Time…../ Dewa Nyoman Adnyana | 119

 Figure 10. Stress curves (SI units) for ASTM A 53 Grade B (seamless), ASTM A 106 Grade B and
ASTM 210 Grade A-I medium-carbon steels (according to API Standard 530) [20]
The microstructures obtained from HP steam
pipe material of 6" diameter in both cross section 3.3 Hardness Test and Analysis
and longitudinal section which are presented in Results of hardness test obtained from
Figure 4 are very much similar to those obtained specimens of the three different HP steam pipes
from the HP steam pipe material of 4" diameter, are presented in Table 2. It can be seen that the
either in pattern and morphology of the hardness values obtained were very much close
microstructures, or the external and internal among the three pipes examined, ranging from
formation of surface defects occurred on the pipe. 145.1 to 162.6 HV. This hardness range obtained
Similar microstructures obtained from HP steam indicated that the microstructure-mechanical
pipe material of 4" and 6" in diameter were also property rela-tionship of the three pipe materials
observed in HP steam pipe material of 10" in were about similar and homogeneous [14], [25].
diameter, either in cross section or in longitudinal The hardness test results shown in Table 2 can
section of the specimens (see Figure 6). This be used to calculate or estimate the value of
further indicated that all the three HP steam pipes tensile strength (TS) of the pipe material, see
were made and manufactured by the same Table 3. It can be seen that the value of all the
material specification of ASTM A-106 Gr. B calculated TS were well above the minimum TS
[23]. In addition, most of the microstructures according to the materi-al specification of ASTM
obtained from the three HP steam pipe materials A-106 Gr. B (or ASME SA-106 Gr.B) which is
are equaxed and/or elongated and this indicated 415 MPa (min) [23] –[24].
that the HP steam pipes were manufactured by
hot rolling and may also have been further 3.4 Tensile Test at 300 °C
subjected to some annealing or normalizing heat The broken tensile test specimens after they
treatment [14]. Combination of this rolling andhave been tested at 300 °C are seen in Figure 3,
heat treatment process may have resulted and and the tensile test data obtained are summarized
improved the microstructure and mechanical in Table 4. It can be seen that the TS values of
property relationship of the steam pipe material
the three pipes of diameter 10,” 6" and 4" are
[15]. well above the min-imum TS value according to
the material specification of ASTM A-106 Gr. B,
either based on the ASME Boiler and Pressure
120 | Metalurgi, V. 33.3.2018, E-ISSN 2443-3926/ 109 - 124
Vessel Code (ASME BPVC), or based on the t0 - t min 10.84- 5.152
CR    0.2275mm/year
API standard 530 (see Figure 10) [20]. 25 year 25
The test results shown in Table 4 indicate that
all the HP steam pipe materials are in ac- where t0 =10.84 mm is the initial wall thickness
cordance with the material specification of of HP steam pipe of 6" diameter.
ASTM A-106 Gr.B. According to the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II Part For HP steam pipe of 10" diameter, the minimum
D, for material of ASTM A-106 Gr.B, the tensile allowable wall thickness is as follows:
strength (TS) at room temperature : 415 MPa (0.714).(254)
t min   0.005(254),
(min), while the tensile strength and max. 2(12.025) (0.714)
allowable stress at 300 °C are 413.7 MPa (min) or tmin  8.59mm
and 117.9 MPa, re-spectively [24]. Similarly,
according to API Standard 530 (see Figure 10), For design life is assumed of 25 years, corrosion
for material of ASTM A-106 Gr.B, the tensile rate (CR) can be calculated as follows:
strength at room temperature: 410 MPa (min), t0 - t min 16.10- 8.59
while the tensile strength and the allowable stress CR    0.3 mm/year
25 year 25
at 300 °C are 387.5 MPa (min) and 115 MPa, re-
spectively [20]. In addition to the tensile strength, where t0 = 16.10 mm is the initial wall thickness
the elongation obtained as shown in Table 4 is of HP steam pipe of 10" diameter.
relatively high, and this could improve the
toughness of the pipe material.
b). Life-time estimation based on the tensile test
result at 300°C
3.4 Life-Time Analysis of the HP Steam From the tensile test results at 300 °C shown
Pipes in Table 4, it can be seen that the average value
a). Life-time estimation based on the ASME of TS (Tensile Strength) is about 526 MPa. If the
BPVC allowable stress of the HP steam pipe material at
Life time estimation of all the three diameter 300 °C is assumed about 66.7% from its Tensile
steam pipes were calculated based on the Strength at 300 °C (see the comparison value of
equation 1), and the results obtained are this percentage in Figure 10) [20] , the allowable
summarized as follows : stress (S) of the HP steam pipe material at 300 °C
becomes:
For HP steam pipe of 4" diameter, the minimum
allowable wall thickness is as follows: S = 66.7% x 526 MPa = 350.8 MPa, or 35.8
(0.714).(101.6) kgf/mm2.
t min   0.005(101.6),
2(12.025) (0.714)
or t min  3.44mm By using the equation as mentioned above, the
minimum allowable wall thickness of the HP
For design life is assumed of 25 years, corrosion steam pipe can be calculated.
rate (CR) can be calculated as follows:
t0 - t min 9.15 - 3.44 For HP steam pipe of 4" diameter, the minimum
CR    0.2284 mm/year
25 year 25 allowable wall thickness is as follows:
(0.714).(101.6)
tmin   0.005(101.6),
where t0 = 9.15 mm is the initial wall thickness 2(35.8) (0.714)
of HP steam pipe of 4" diameter. or t min  1.5 mm

For HP steam pipe of 6" diameter, the minimum If the maximum corrosion rate (CR) is estimated
allowable wall thickness is as follows: about 0.3 mm/year, the life-time (LT) of HP
(0.714).(152.4) steam pipe material of 4" diameter can be
tmin   0.005(152.4),
2(12.025) (0.714) calculated as follows:
or t min  5.152mm t0 - t min 9.15 - 1.5
LT    25.5 year
CR 0.3

For design life is assumed of 25 years, corrosion where t0 = 9.15 mm is the initial wall thickness
rate (CR) can be calculated as follows: of HP steam pipe of 4" diameter.

Metallurgical Examination and Life Time…../ Dewa Nyoman Adnyana | 121

For HP steam pipe of 6" diameter, the minimum and/or mechanical degradation that may have
allowable wall thickness is as follows: occurred during the utilization of the HP steam
(0.714).(152.4) pipes in service due to any unexpected change in
t min   0.005(152.4),
2(35.8) (0.714) operating conditions.
or t min  2.26 mm
4. CONCLUSIONS
If the maximum corrosion rate (CR) is estimated From the results of chemical analysis,
about 0.3 mm/year, the life-time (LT) of HP metallographic examination, hardness test and
steam pipe material of 6" diameter can be tensile test obtained, it can be seen that the
calculated as follows: material used for the HP steam pipes are very
t0 - t min 10.84- 2.26 much close and met to the material specification
LT    28.6 year
CR 0.3 of ASTM A-106 Gr. B (or ASME SA-106 Gr.B).
In addition, the morphology of
where t0 = 10.84 mm is the initial wall thickness microstructures in combination with the hardness
of HP steam pipe of 6" diameter. and tensile strength values obtained are all in
favor and supporting that the ma-terial of HP
For HP steam pipe of 10" diameter, the minimum steam pipes are all in good condition. Although
allowable wall thickness is as follows: there are some slight defects and/or scale
(0.714).(254) formation occurred on some of the exterior and
t min   0.005(254),
2(35.8) (0.714) interior surface of the HP steam pipes, however,
or t min  3.78 mm most likely these slight imperfections may not be
likely affecting to the mechanical property or
If the maximum corrosion rate (CR) is estimated performance of the HP steam pipes quite
about 0.3 mm/year, the life-time (LT) of HP significantly in service.
steam pipe material of 10" diameter can be Based on the present status and condition of
calculated as follows: the HP steam pipes, it can be estimated that under
t0 - t min 16.10- 3.78 the intended operating pressure and temperature
LT    41 year
CR 0.3 of 70 bar(g) and 300 °C (max.), respectively, the
HP steam pipes may likely reach some design life
where t0 = 16.10 mm is the initial wall thickness up to 25 years or more. This estimated design life
of HP steam pipe of 10" diameter. is made based on the corrosion rate approxi-
mately 0.2–0.3 mm/year.
Based on the aforementioned test results and
life-time assessment, all the HP steam pipes that
have been installed are considered to be ready
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express his gratitude to
being placed into service. This consideration is
the Head and Members of Department of
made under assumption that all the HP steam
Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial
pipes that have been tested were representing to
Technology of the National Institute of Science
all of the constructed HP steam pipes.
and Technology (ISTN) for their support and
In order to assure that the corrosion rate
encouragement in publishing this work.
occurred on the HP steam pipes during their
future operation is remained within the range of
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