The term cod reggae is popularly used to describe reggae done by non-Caribbean people, often in

a disparaging manner because of perceived inauthenticity. Boy George has been described as “one
of the great cod reggae artists of all time.”[49]

Musical characteristics
Stylistically, reggae incorporates some of the
musical elements of rhythm and blues
(R&B), jazz, mento, calypso, African, and
Latin American music, as well as other
Skank guitar rhythm often considered "'the' reggae
genres. Reggae scenes consist of two guitars,
beat"[50] or .
one for rhythm and one for lead—drums,
congas, and keyboards, with a couple of
vocalists.[51]

Reggae is played in 44 time because the symmetrical rhythmic pattern does not lend itself to other
time signatures such as 4 3. One of the most easily recognizable elements is offbeat rhythms;

staccato chords played by a guitar or piano (or both) on the offbeats of the measure, often referred
to as the skank.[52]

This rhythmic pattern accents the second and fourth beats in each bar and combines with the
drum's emphasis on beat three to create a unique sense of phrasing. The reggae offbeat can be
counted so that it falls between each count as an "and" (example: 1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and ... , etc.)
or counted as a half-time feel at twice the tempo so it falls on beats 2 and 4. This is in contrast to
the way most other popular genres focus on beat one, the "downbeat".[53]

The tempo of reggae is usually slower than both ska and rocksteady.[13] It is this slower tempo, the
guitar/piano offbeats, the emphasis on the third beat, and the use of syncopated, melodic bass
lines that differentiate reggae from other music, although other musical styles have incorporated
some of these innovations.

Drums and other percussion

Reggae drummers often
involved these three tips
for other reggae
performers: (1) go for
"One drop" sixteenth-note drum
open, ringing tones when
pattern
playing ska and
rocksteady, (2) use any
available material to stuff the bass drum so that it tightens up
the kick to a deep, punchy thud, and (3) go without a ride
cymbal, focusing on the hi-hat for timekeeping and thin
crashes with fast decay for accents.[54]

Bass

Sly Dunbar
Guitars
The guitar in reggae usually plays on the off beat of the rhythm. So if
one is counting in 44 time and counting "1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and ...",
one would play a downstroke on the "and" part of the beat.[55] A
musical figure known as skank or the 'bang" has a very dampened,
short and scratchy chop sound, almost like a percussion instrument.
Sometimes a double chop is used when the guitar still plays the off
beats, but also plays the following eighth-note beats on the up-stroke.
An example is the intro to "Stir It Up" by the Wailers. Artist and
producer Derrick Harriott says, "What happened was the musical
thing was real widespread, but only among a certain sort of people. It
was always a down-town thing, but more than just hearing the music.
The equipment was so powerful and the vibe so strong that we feel
it."[56]
Robbie Shakespeare in
1978
Keyboards
The reggae organ-shuffle is unique to reggae. In the
original version of reggae, the drummer played a
reggae groove that was used in the four bar
introduction, allowing the piano to serve as a
percussion instrument.[57]
In this typical reggae bass line, the roots of the
chords are emphasized, with musical interest
Horns created by going from the root down to the fifth
of the chord. A dotted quarter note and eighth
note rhythm is used repeatedly.
Vocals

Lyrical themes
Reggae is noted for its tradition of social criticism in its lyrics,
although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal
subjects, such as love and socializing. Many early reggae bands
covered Motown or Atlantic soul and funk songs. Some reggae
lyrics attempt to raise the political consciousness of the audience,
such as by criticizing materialism, or by informing the listener
about controversial subjects such as apartheid. Many reggae songs
promote the use of cannabis (also known as herb, ganja, or
sinsemilla), considered a sacrament in the Rastafari movement. Al Anderson
There are many artists who utilize religious themes in their music –
whether it be discussing a specific religious topic, or simply giving
praise to God (Jah). Other common socio-political topics in reggae songs include black
nationalism, anti-racism, anti-colonialism,[58] anti-capitalism and criticism of political systems
and "Babylon".

In recent years, Jamaican (and non-Jamaican) reggae musicians have used more positive themes
in reggae music. The music is widely considered a treasured cultural export for Jamaica, so
musicians who still desire progress for their island nation have begun focusing on themes of
hopefulness, faith, and love. For elementary children, reggae songs such
as "Give a Little Love", "One Love", or "Three Little Birds", all written by
Bob Marley, can be sung and enjoyed for their optimism and cheerful
lyrics.[59]

Criticism of dancehall and reggae lyrics

Some dancehall and ragga artists have been criticised for
homophobia,[60] including threats of violence.[61] Buju Banton's song
"Boom Bye-Bye" states that gays "haffi dead" (have to die). Other notable
dancehall artists who have been accused of homophobia include
Elephant Man, Bounty Killer and Beenie Man. The controversy
surrounding anti-gay lyrics has led to the cancellation of UK tours by UB40's former frontman
Beenie Man and Sizzla. Toronto, Canada has also seen the cancellation of Ali Campbell performing
in 2009.
concerts due to artists such as Elephant Man and Sizzla refusing to
conform to similar censorship pressures.[62][63]

After lobbying from the Stop Murder Music coalition, the dancehall music industry agreed in 2005
to stop releasing songs that promote hatred and violence against gay people.[64][65] In June 2007,
Beenie Man, Sizzla and Capleton signed up to the Reggae Compassionate Act, in a deal brokered
with top dancehall promoters and Stop Murder Music activists. They renounced homophobia and
agreed to "not make statements or perform songs that incite hatred or violence against anyone
from any community". Five artists targeted by the anti-homophobia campaign did not sign up to
the act, including Elephant Man, TOK, Bounty Killa and Vybz Kartel.[66] Buju Banton and Beenie
Man both gained positive press coverage around the world for publicly renouncing homophobia by
signing the Reggae Compassion Act. However, both of these artists have since denied any
involvement in anti-homophobia work and both deny having signed any such act.[67]

Global significance
Reggae has spread to many countries around the world, often incorporating local instruments and
fusing with other genres.[68] In November 2018 UNESCO added the "reggae music of Jamaica" to
the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[48][69]

Americas
Reggae en Español spread from mainland South American
Caribbean from Venezuela and Guyana to the rest of South
America. It does not have any specific characteristics other
than being sung in Spanish, usually by artists of Latin
American origin. Samba reggae originated in Brazil as a blend
of samba with Jamaican reggae. Reggae also has a presence in
Veracruz, Mexico. The most notable Jarocho reggae group
being Los Aguas Aguas from Xalapa. Some of the most popular
reggae groups across Latin America come from the Southern Toots and the Maytals performing at
Cone, such as the Chilean band Gondwana, and the the 2017 Coachella festival
Argentinian band Los Cafres. The Puerto Rican band Cultura
Profética is also widely recognized in the region. Hispanic
reggae includes three elements: the incorporation of the Spanish language; the use of translations
and versions based on known riddims and background music; and regional consciousness. It is a
medium of rebellious contestation rising from the underground. Hispanic reggae is related to rap,
sharing characteristics that can be found not only in the social conditions in which they developed
in the region but also in the characteristics of social sectors and classes that welcome them.[70]

Brazilian samba-reggae utilized themes such as the civil rights movement and the Black Soul
movement, and especially the Jamaican independence movement since the 1960s and its messages
in reggae and Rastafari. Thus, the sudden popularity of reggae music and musicians in Bahia,
Brazil, was not the result of the effects of the transnational music industry, but of the need to
establish cultural and political links with black communities across the Americas that had faced
and were facing similar sociopolitical situations.[71]

Musically, it was the bloco afro Olodum and its lead percussionist, Neguinho do Samba, that began
to combine the basic samba beat of the blocos with merengue, salsa, and reggae rhythms and
debuted their experimentations in the carnival of 1986. The new toques (drumming patterns) were
labeled "samba-reggae" and consisted basically of a pattern in which the surdo bass drums (four of
them at minimum) divided themselves into four or five interlocking parts.

In the state of Maranhão, in northeastern Brazil, reggae is a very popular genre. São Luís, the state
capital, is known as the Brazilian Jamaica. The city has more than 200 radiolas, the name given to
sound teams formed by DJs and sound systems with dozens of powerful amplifiers stacked. Reggae
in Maranhão has its own characteristics, such as melody and dance style, as well as having its own
radio and television programs. In 2018, the Reggae Museum of Maranhão was inaugurated, the
second reggae museum in the world (after Jamaica), with the objective of preserving the state's
reggae cultural history.[72]

In the United States, bands like Rebelution, Slightly Stoopid, Stick Figure, and SOJA are
considered progressive reggae bands sometimes referred to as Cali Reggae or Pacific Dub. The
American reggae scene is heavily centred in Southern California, with large scenes also in New
York City, Washington, D.C., Chicago, Miami, and Honolulu. For decades, Hawaiian reggae has
had a big following on the Hawaiian islands and the West coast of the US.[73] On the east coast
upstate NY has seen a rise in original roots reggae bands such as Giant Panda Guerilla Dub Squad
and John Brown's Body who were inspired by Jamaican reggae bands that performed in the area in
the 1980s and 1990s.[74] Matisyahu gained prominence by blending traditional Jewish themes with
reggae.[75] Compounding his use of the hazzan style, Matisyahu's lyrics are mostly English with
more than occasional use of Hebrew and Yiddish. There is a large Caribbean presence in Toronto
and Montreal, Canada, with English and French influences on the reggae genre. Canadian band
Magic!'s 2013 single "Rude" was an international hit.

In 2017, Toots and the Maytals became the second reggae-based group to ever perform at the
Coachella festival, after Chronixx in 2016.[76][77][78]

Europe
The UK was a primary destination for Caribbean people looking to emigrate as early as the 1950s.
Because of this, Caribbean music in the United Kingdom, including reggae, has been popular since
the late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Most notable of these is lovers
rock, but this fusion of Jamaican music into English culture was seminal in the formation of other
musical forms like drum and bass and dubstep. The UK became the base from which many
Jamaican artists toured Europe and due to the large number of Jamaican musicians emigrating
there, the UK is the root of the larger European scene that exists today. Many of the world's most
famous reggae artists began their careers in UK. Singer and Grammy Award-winning reggae artist
Maxi Priest began his career with seminal British sound system Saxon Studio International.

Three reggae-tinged singles from the Police's 1978 debut album, Outlandos d'Amour, laid down
the template for the basic structure of a lot of rock/reggae songwriting: a reggae-infused verse
containing upstrokes on guitar or keyboards and a more aggressive, on-the-beat punk/rock attack
during the chorus. The end of the 1970s featured a ska revival in the UK. By the end of the 1970s, a
revival movement had begun in England, with such bands as the Specials, Madness, the (English)
Beat, and the Selecter. The Specials' leader and keyboardist, Jerry Dammers, founded the 2 Tone
record label, which released albums from the aforementioned racially integrated groups and was
instrumental in creating a new social and cultural awareness. The 2 Tone movement referenced
reggae's godfathers, popular styles (including the genre's faster and more dance-oriented
precursors, ska and rocksteady), and previous modes of dress (such as black suits and porkpie
hats) but updated the sound with a faster tempo, more guitar, and more attitude.[79]

Birmingham based reggae/pop music band UB40 were main

contributors to the British reggae scene throughout the 1980s
and 1990s. The achieved international success with hits such as
"Red Red Wine", "Kingston Town" and "(I Can't Help) Falling
in Love with You."

Other UK-based artists that had international impact include

Aswad, Misty in Roots, Steel Pulse, Janet Kay, Tippa Irie,
Smiley Culture and more recently Bitty McLean. There have
UB40 perform in Birmingham, 2010
been a number of European artists and bands drawing their
inspiration directly from Jamaica and the Caribbean
community in Europe, whose music and vocal styles are almost identical to contemporary
Jamaican music. The best examples might be Alborosie (Italy) and Gentleman (Germany). Both
Gentleman and Alborosie have had a significant chart impact in Jamaica, unlike many European
artists. They have both recorded and released music in Jamaica for Jamaican labels and producers
and are popular artists, likely to appear on many riddims. Alborosie has lived in Jamaica since the
late 1990s and has recorded at Bob Marley's famous Tuff Gong Studios. Since the early 1990s,
several Italian reggae bands have emerged, including Africa Unite, Gaudi, Reggae National Tickets,
Sud Sound System, Pitura Freska and B.R. Stylers.

Reggae appeared on the Yugoslav popular music scene in the late 1970s, through sporadic songs by
various rock acts, most prominently by new wave bands Haustor, Šarlo Akrobata, Aerodrom,
Laboratorija Zvuka, Piloti, Zana, Du Du A and Grupa I. In the mid-1980s appeared Del Arno Band,
often considered the first Yugoslav band whose sound was primarily reggae-oriented, remaining
one of the most notable reggae acts on the post-Yugoslav music scene.

The first homegrown Polish reggae bands started in the 1980s with groups like Izrael. Singer and
songwriter Alexander Barykin was considered the father of Russian reggae.[80] In Sweden, Uppsala
Reggae Festival attracts attendees from across Northern Europe and features Swedish reggae
bands such as Rootvälta and Svenska Akademien as well as many popular Jamaican artists.
Summerjam, Europe's biggest reggae festival, takes place in Cologne, Germany, and sees crowds of
25,000 or more. Rototom Sunsplash, a week-long festival which used to take place in Osoppo,
Italy, until 2009, is now held in Benicassim, Spain, and gathers up to 150,000 visitors every year.