Chapter -4

Soil-Water-Plant Relationships
 Concepts and Components of soil-plant-water
relationships
 Soil- plant- water relationships are related to the properties
of soil and crop plants that affect the movement, retention
and use of water.
 The soil water both in content and potential plays an
important role in sustaining agricultural production.
 Soil provides the room for water and soil nutrients, which
are taken up by plants through their roots located in the
same medium.
 Water contains a large amount of dissolved nutrients,
which are essential for successful growth and development
of crop plants.
 Cont…
 If the rainfall is not adequate for plant growth during the
growing period of a crop, additional water should be
supplied to the soil for plant use in the form of irrigation.
 Therefore, the entry of water into the soil and its retention,
movement and availability to plant roots should be well
known for the efficient management of irrigated
agriculture
 The rate of infiltration of water into the soil, its retention,
movement and availability to plant roots are all physical
phenomena, related to the physical properties of soils.
 Physical properties of soil include color, texture,
structure, porosity, density, consistence, aggregate
stability, and temperature. These properties affect
processes such as infiltration, erosion, nutrient cycling, and
biologic activity.
 Cont…
 Soil bulk density is an important factor that affects soil
infiltration capacity.
 As soil bulk density increases, soil porosity decreases,
resulting in a decrease in soil infiltration capacity.
 Soil colour darkens as the soil changes from dry to moist.
But longer term colour changes are linked to water relations
as well. Careful observation of colour can help to identify
problems of waterlogging or leaching.
 Poorly drained soils are often dominated by blue grey
colours..
 Maintaining stability of soil aggregate is essential for
preserving soil productivity, minimizing soil erosion and
degradation.
 Cont…
 Soil structure is an important physical property that
influences water and nutrient flow, aeration to plants
and microbes and resistance to soil erosion and
compaction, through which it affects plant growth.
 A strong soil structure can provide sufficient water,
nutrients, and oxygen to support plant growth and
enough space for roots to penetrate, while poor soil
structure impedes root growth, water movement and
drainage.
 Hence, it is important to know the physical properties of
soils in relation to water for efficient management of
irrigated agriculture and maximize the benefit for increased
crop production and productivity.
 cont…
 Plants absorb water mainly through their roots and use
only 1.0 to 1.5% of the volume of water absorbed for
building their vegetative structures and performing various
physiological and biochemical activities.
The rest of water is lost through transpiration of plants.
Knowledge of the process of water transport in soil, into
plants and from soil and plants to the atmosphere are the
basics of irrigation practice.
Important Question while thinking of Irrigation is when to
irrigate and how much to irrigate ?
 Physical properties of soils
Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of the
earth.
They are formed by a combination of natural processes
under the interrelated influences of climate, vegetation, relief
(including hydrology), parent material, and time.
 Soil is a three phase system comprising of the solid phase
made of mineral and organic matter and various compounds,
the liquid phase called the soil moisture and
the gaseous phase called the soil air.
The main component of the solid phase is the soil particles,
the size and shape of which give rise to pore spaces of
different geometry
Diagram showing cross section of soil

Water film

Air space

Soil particles

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section of soil

 Soil particles
 The majority of agricultural soils are composed of
particles of minerals, which include large coarse
fragments, gravel, and particles of sands of varying
sizes, silt and clay.
 In addition, there are also materials of organic matter in
all stages of decomposition.
 The fine soil particle is composed of sands of varying
size, silt and clay.
 According to the International Society of Soil Science
classification of soil particles, different ranges of
diameters of soil particles are recognized /see Table 1/.
 Ranges of diameters of soil particles by soil type

Soil type Diameters of particle size, mm

Clay < 0.002
Silt 0.002 – 0.02
Fine sand 0.02 – 0.2
Coarse sand 0.2 – 2.0
Gravel > 2.0
Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil particles
in a given soil.
According to their size soils particles are grouped into
sand, silt and clay.
The percentage content of soil separates in a soil is
determined by mechanical analysis.
Sandy
soils have greater proportion of large sized particles
and hence commonly termed as coarse or light soils
encourage good drainage and aeration.
Clay
A soil which has a high percentage of fine particles
and is referred to as fine or heavy soils.
Clay soils allow slow movement of water and
cause poor drainage and aeration.
Loamy
soil having almost equal amount of sand and clay
is called medium textured soil.
movement of water, air and roots is easy and water
retention is adequate
 Size limits of soil separates

Soil separates Particle diameter (mm)

USAD ISSS
Very course sand 2.0 - 1.0 -
Course sand 1.0 - 0.5 2.0 - 0.2
Medium sand 0.50 - 0.25 -
Fine sand 0.25 - 0.10 0.20 - 0.02
Very fine sand 0.10 - 0.05 -
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 - 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002
Soil Structure
Is an arrangement and organization of soil particles in the
soil and the tendency of individual soil particles to bind
together into aggregates.

 The arrangements of soil aggregates give soil its structure.

Grouping of particles into structural units occur in all soils.

However, the strength of the bonds, the size and the shape
of the structural units and the proportion of the soil particles
involved in the units differ considerably among soils.
 Soil Structure development is influenced by:
 Amount and type of clay, exchangeable ions on the clay.

 Amount and type of organic matter.

 Presence of iron and aluminum oxides (cementing agents)

 Binding between organic and inorganic compounds

(aluminum oxides, cations,clays).

 Vegetation: produces OM, roots act as holding soil

together, and protects soil surface.
 cont...

•The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in

terms of its Porosity, Aggregation, Cohesiveness,
Permeability for water or air.

•It has a pronounced effect on soil properties such as:

 Erodibility and Porosity,

 Hydraulic conductivity,

 Infiltration, and

 Water holding capacity

Volume and mass relationships
Some basic parameters which have useful practical
importance in characterizing the physical condition of a
soil. Volume
Relations
Mass
Relations

Vt  Vs  Vw  Va

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as a three-phase

system
• Symbols given in Fig. above are defined as:
 Vt=total soil volume
 Vs = volume of soil solid
 Vw = volume of water
 Va =volume of soil air
 Vv =total void volume
 Mt = total soil mass
 Ms =mass of soil solids
 Mw =mass of soil water
 Ma =mass of soil air which is negligible
 Soil Density (ρ)
• Density is the ratio of mass and volume. It is
commonly expressed in the units of g/cm3 and
Kg/m3
• Particle density (ρ): It is also called the true density,
and is the ratio of mass of soil (Ms) divided by the
volume of soil (Vs).
• ρ=Ms/Vs=(Min+Mo)/(Vin+Vo)
• Particle density of inorganic soils ranges from 2.6 to
2.8 g/cm3
• density of organic matter is about half of that of the
inorganic mineral
 Bulk density
Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid and
gaseous phase in exclusion of the liquid phase is called
bulk density.
That means it describes the soil as it is in the natural
state including pore spaces.
In other words, bulk density is the weight of oven dry
soil per unit total volume.
It is sometimes referred to as apparent specific gravity.
expressed on a dry weight basis, which vale ranging from
1.0 – 1.8 gm/cm3 for mineral soils.
To determine bulk density soil core method is widely
used. Ms Ms
b  
Vt Vs  Va  Vw 
 Bulk density (gm/cm3) while apparent specific gravity
(dimensionless).
Soil sample is taken from the filed using core sampler of
known volume and oven dried at 105 0C to obtain a constant
weight.
 Bulk density of a soil is affected by soil texture, organic
matter content and tillage practices
Particle density -
Thus the particle density of any soil is constant and does not
vary with the amount of space between the particles.
It is defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil
particles (soil solids). Ms
s 
Vs
 Relative density or specific gravity
(Gs ):
• Specific gravity is the ratio of particle density
of a soil to that of the water. Being a ratio, it is
a dimensionless entity and is expressed as: Gs
=ρs /ρw • Dense soils are suitable for
engineering functions and porous soils for
agricultural land use. • Dry specific volume
(Vb ): It is defined as the reciprocal of the dry
bulk density and has units of volume divided
by mass or cm3 /g
Total pore space and porosity (E)
Total pore space (E) is the ratio of the volume of pores
(voids) to the total volume of soil and is expressed in %.
It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water.
Air filled porosity,N=Va/Vt
Vv Va  Vw  Vt  Vs  Vs 
E    1  
Vt Vt Vt  Vt 

 b 
E  
1   
 s 

Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of

soil and ranges from 35 to 50 % in sandy soils and from
40 to 60 % in clayey soils.
Void ratio =Vv/Vs
 Air-filled porosity (fa):
• It refers to the relative proportion of air-filled
pores. • In relation to plant growth, the critical
limit of air-filled porosity is 0.10 or 10%, below
which plant growth is adversely affected due
to lack of sufficient quantity of air
anaerobiosis. Air porosity is also equal to total
porosity minus the volumetric moisture
content (Θ)
• Void ratio (e): In relation to engineering
functions, where porosity should be usually as
low as possible, the relative proportion of
voids to that of solids is expressed as void
ratio.
• Air ratio (α): It is defined as the ratio of volume
of air to that of the solids and has relevance to
plant growth and engineering applications.
 Entry of Water in to the Soil (Infiltration)

 Infiltration is as the entry or the passage of water into the

soil through soil surface.

26
 Cont’d
 It is a major loss of precipitation affecting runoff of a
basin.

 Losses like interception, depression storage and

evaporation during precipitation are small, which cannot
change the runoff of a basin significantly during major
floods

 But infiltration is a major process continuously

affecting the magnitude, timing and distribution of
surface runoff at any measured outlet of a basin.

27
 Cont’d
 Infiltration process is initiated by creation of hydrogen
bond between soil particles and the water.
 The adhesive force of attraction between soil and water,
the surface tension, capillarity and gravitational forces
help to force more water between the pores of soil
particles as more water is added to the system due to
rain.
 Infiltration rate is the rate at which the water actually
infiltrates through the soil during a storm and it must be
equal the infiltration capacities or the rainfall rate, which
ever is lesser.
 Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which a soil
in any given condition is capable of absorbing water.
28
 Cont’d
 When the water is applied at the surface of a soil, four
moisture zones in the soil

29
 Cont’d
Zone 1 : at the top, a thin layer of saturated zone is created

Zone 2: beneath zone 1, there is a transition zone

Zone 3: next lower zone is the transmission zone where the

downward motion of the moisture takes place
 The moisture content in this zone is above field capacity
but below saturation

Zone 4 : the last zone is the wetting zone. The moisture in

this zone will be near field capacity and moisture content
decreases with depth.
30
 Cont’d
 During any storm, infiltration is the maximum at the
beginning of the storm, decays exponentially and attains a
constant value
 The effect of infiltration is to
Reduce flood magnitude
Delay the time of arrival of water to the channel ..
Reduce the soil erosion
Recharge to the ground water reservoir
Fill the soil pores with water to its field-capacity, which
subsequently supply water to the plants
Avail the ground water during the non-rain periods in the
channels
Help to supply water to plants
31
 Factors Affecting Infiltration
 Factors affecting infiltration include:-
Characteristics of soil
Surface Entry
Percolation
Antecedent Moisture Condition
Climate Conditions
Rainfall Intensity and Duration
Human Activities
Depletion of Ground Water Table
Quality of Water
Vegetation
Catchment Parameters 32
 Characteristics of Soil
 The type of soil (sand, silt, or clay), its texture,
structure, permeability and drainage are the important
characteristics.
 A loose, permeable, sandy soil will have a larger
infiltration capacity than a tight, clay soil

 A soil with good drainage, i.e. the facility to transmit the

infiltrated water downward to a groundwater storage
would obviously have a higher infiltration capacity.

 Also a dry soil can absorb more water than whose pores
are already full
33
34
 Cont’d
Surface Entry
 If a soil surface is bare, the impact of raindrops causes in
washing of finer particles and clogs the surface.
 This retards infiltration.
 An area covered by grass and other bushy plants has
better infiltration capacity than a barren land.

35
 Cont’d
Antecedent Moisture Condition
Infiltration depends on the presence of moisture
in the soil.
 For the second storm in succession, the soil will have
lesser rate of infiltration than the first maiden storm of
the season.

36
 Percolation
 For infiltration to continue, water that has entered the soil
must be transmitted down by the force of gravity and
capillary actions. When percolation rate (Pr) is slow, the
infiltration rate is bounded by the rate of percolation.

37
 Cont’d
Climate Conditions
 Temperature affects the viscosity of water.
 Flow of water within the body of the soil is laminar; the
flow being directly related to viscosity.
 In summer, therefore, less viscous water causes more
infiltration than in winter.
 In sub-zero temperature, water present in soil pores
gets crystallized, thus blocking the passage.
 Other climatic factors may not influence infiltration rate
to the extent, temperature does, and
 Therefore, temperature can be considered as the only
vibrant climatic factor affecting infiltration.
38
 Cont’d
Rainfall Intensity and Duration

 During heavy rainfall, the top soil is affected by

mechanical compaction and by in wash of finer
materials.
 This leads to faster decrease in the rate of infiltration than
with low intensities of rainfall.

 Duration of rain affects to the extent that when the same

quantity of rain falls in n number of isolated storms
instead of a continuous one, the infiltration will be higher
in the former case.

39
 Cont’d
Human Activities
 When crops are grown or grass covers a barren land, the
rate of infiltration is increased.
 On the other hand construction of roads, houses,
Overgrazing of pastures and playgrounds reduce
infiltration capacity of an area considerably.
Depletion of Ground Water Table
 Position of ground water table should not be very close to
the surface for infiltration to continue.
 The quantity of infiltrated water entering into the soil
should be drained out fully from the top soil zone so that
there is some space available for the infiltrated water to
store during the next rain. 40
 Soil Water Condition
 Can be defined as the capacity of a soil to function, within land
use and ecosystem boundaries ,to sustain biological
productivity,maintain environmental health, and promote plant,
animal, and human health.
 Soil water condition has been classified mainly into three
heads:
 Gravitational water.
 Capillary water and
 Hygroscopic water,
1. Gravitational water
 When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually
fills the pore system expelling air completely from soil.
 Water moving downwards through soil under gravity.
 The water tension at this stage is 0.33 atm. or less.
 1. Gravitational water
 It is that water which is not held by the soil but drains
out freely under the influence of gravity.
 Not all the water present in the soil is available for plant
use.
 Some water drains beyond the rooting zone as deep
percolation and is unavailable to plants.
 Soil can be viewed as a sponge composed of air and solid
particles when dry.
 At the point when all the pores are filled with water the
soil is said to be saturated.
 Saturation is undesirable condition for the growth of most
plants because the available dissolved oxygen is quickly
depleted.
 2. Capillary water
 The water content retained in the soil after the gravitational
water has drained off from the soil is called capillary water.
 With increasing supply of water, the water film held around
soil particles thickens.
 Water enters the pores until the soil-water tension equal to
the gravity force.
 This water is available to plants.
 Factors that influence the amount of capillary water in the
soil are the structure, texture and organic matter content of
the soil.
 capillary water in fine soils > Capillary water in course
soils.
 Optimum growth of plant takes place when the soil water is
maintained at near field capacity
 3. Hygroscopic water
 Is the water which is absorbed by the particles of dry soil
from the atmosphere and is held as a very thin on the
surface of the soil particles due to adhesion or attraction
between surface of particles and water molecules.
 Below the permanent wilting point the soil contains only
hygroscopic water
 Since hygroscopic water is held with considerable fore, it
cannot be removed easily from the soil particles.
Soils vary in their capacity to hold soil moisture according
to their texture and physical structures.
 Fine soils such as clay soils can store much more water
than coarser textured soils, such as sand soils.
 According to soil water availability to plants and drainage
 Soil moisture constants
a)Saturation: Saturation capacity is reached when the
pores of the soil are completely filled with water. It is then
equal to the porosity of the soil.
b) Field Capacity:-Is the amount of water remaining in the
soil after the large pores have drained.
 Medium and small pores are still filled with water held
against the force of gravity.
 Soil water at field capacity is readily available to plants
and sufficient air is available in the soil for root and
microbial respiration.
 The optimum water content for plant growth is
considered to be close to field capacity
 Sandy soils drain readily, while clayey soils drain very
 In practice, the FC of sandy soils is usually determined by
drying for at least 24 hrs in an oven at 105 0 C after
irrigation, whereas clayey soils may requiring 48 hrs or
more
c)Permanent welting point (PWP)
 Is the moisture content level at which the plants are water
stressed and irreversibly wilt.
 If water is continually taken-up by plants and no
 Additional water is added to the soil in the form of
precipitation or irrigation water, the
 Medium and small soil pores will be emptied of water.
 with time, the plant will eventually wilt when it cannot
extract more water
 Cont…
d)Readily available soil water: The readily available
soil water (AW) or the available soil moisture is the
difference in the moisture content between FC and
PWP, which is expressed as percentage of the dry
weight of the soil or as percentage volume or as depth
in mm of water.

This is also known as capillary water because this

water is retained in the soil pores by capillary action
and is available for use to the plant. This is expressed
as: FC - PWP = AW
 Soil Water Content
 Soil moisture content can be defined as the amount of
water available in the soil.
 Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume
basis.
 It is measured using gravimetric, neutron scattering,
gamma ray, capacitance method, time domain
reflectrometer.
1. Gravimetric method (on mass or volume basis)
 A soil sample is weighed, then dried in an oven at 105 0C
and weighed again.
 The difference in weight is a measure of the initial water
content. Samples can be taken on a mass or on a volume
basis.
 In the first case, we take a disturbed quantity of soil, put
it in a plastic bag, and transport it to the laboratory,
where it is weighed, dried, and re-weighed after drying.
Mass basis:
W2  W3 Mw
w 100 w
W3  W1 Ms

• W1 = weight of empty aluminium box, gm

• W2 = weight of box + moist soil sample, gm
• W3 = weight of box + dried soil sample, gm
 The gravimetric method is still the most widely used
technique to determine the soil water content and is often
taken as a standard for the calibration of other methods
The volume fraction of water can be calculated
b 
Vw Vw
v  w 
Vs  V f 
w Vt

A disadvantage is that it is laborious, because samples in duplicate

or in triplicate are required to compensate for errors and variability.

Specific gravity of soil solids (SG). To find it, divide the density of
soil solids by the density of water (Pw), which is 1,000 kg/m3. The
calculation should then be: SG = Ps/Pw
 Cont…
 The ratio of the total volume of voids to the volume of
free water in a sample, stated as a percentage, is known
as the degree of saturation of soil and is calculated using
the formula
 S = ((w*Gs)/e) or
 Degree of saturation = ((Water content*Specific gravity
of the soil)/Void ratio.
Example 1. One liter of soil has a wet weight of 1500 g,
dry weight of 1200 g, and volume of soil solids of 450
cm3. Compute the following properties
• particle density bulk density
• specific gravity total porosity
• air-filled porosity
• gravimetric moisture content
• volumetric moisture content
• Degree of saturation
2. Neutron-Scattering
The neutron-scattering method is based on fast-moving
neutrons emitted by a radioactive source

A detector counts part of the slowed-down reflected

(thermal) neutrons.

Because hydrogen slows down neutrons much more

than other soil constituents, and since hydrogen is
mainly present in water, the neutron count is strongly
related to the water content.
 We use an empirical linear relationship between the
ratio of the count to a standard count of the
instrument, which is called the count ratio, and the
soil-water content.
 For field measurements, portable equipment has
been developed.
 The most frequently used equipment consists of a
probe unit and a scalar .
 The probe, containing a neutron source, is lowered
into a tube, called an access tube, in the soil down to
the required depth.
•The standard count is taken under standard conditions,
preferably in a pure water body.
•The empirical relationship is given by
  ab R

R = the count ratio (-)

a and b = soil specific constants (-)
Fig. Neutron probe
Fig. 2.5: Neutron probe to measure soil-water content
•Constant a in Equation increases with bulk density; constant
b is influenced by soil chemical composition (Gardner
1986).
Advantages:
 Soil-water content can be measured rapidly and
repeatedly in the same place;
 Average soil-water content of the sphere of influence can
be measured with depth;
 Temporal soil-water content changes can easily be
followed;
 Relation between count ratio and soil-water content is
linear.
Disadvantages are:
Counts have a high variability; measurement is not
completely repeatable;
Poor depth resolution;
Measurements are interfered with by many soil
constituents;
The use of a radioactive source can pose health risks if no
appropriate care is taken.
Measurements near the soil surface are impossible.
 Capacitance method
 The purpose of capacitance probe is to measure soil
moisture in order to indicate when and how much to
irrigate.
 Capacitance probe uses sensors to measure soil moisture.
 The volume of water in the total volume of soil most
heavily influences the dielectric permittivity of the soil.
 When the amount of water changes in the soil, a sensor
will measure a change in capacitance due to the change
in dielectric permittivity that can be directly correlated
with a change in soil water content.
 Result provided is the water available for the plant,
expressed in several units: mm, % , m3/m3.
 Capacitance method
 With several sensors distributed along the tube, capacitance
probe provides soil water status at different depths (e.g.
every 10 cm).
 The 60 cm long probe with 6 sensors is may be the most
polyvalent.
 Probe is installed by drilling a hole in the soil, from the
width and length of the tube. A good contact between soil
and probe is essential to ensure reliable measures.
 The main advantages are : an instantaneous response,
results sent on a smartphone or computer by remote
sensing, a high level of precision, which allows its use for
irrigation scheduling.
 Cont…
 Capacitance probe responds over a large range of soil
moisture contents (15 to 180 cbars).
 Besides, multi-parameters probe are also available and can
be used to measure soil salinity and temperature.
 Capacitance probe with 4 sensors, 60cm long
 Because capacitance probe is expensive, most of the time
only one probe is used to monitor a field.
 Hence, careful site selection is needed.

 It is recommended to place the probe close to the root zone,

within the irrigated area but not directly under the dripper
(10 to 20 cm away).
 Time Domain Reflectometry method
 A method that also uses the dielectrical properties of the
soil.
 The soil bulk dielectric constant (Kab) is determined by
measuring the time it takes for an electro-magnetic pulse
(wave) to propagate along a transmission line (TL) that is
surrounded by the soil.
 The propagation time of a pulse travelling along a wave
guide is measured.
 This time depends on the dielectrical properties of the soil
surrounding the wave guide, and hence on the water content
of the soil.
 The TDR method can be used for many soils without
calibration, because the relationship between the apparent
dielectric constant and volumetric water content is only
weakly dependent on soil type, soil density, soil
temperature, and salt content .

 Time-domain reflectrometry has become popular in recent

years.
 Energy State of Soil-Water
 The total energy state of soil water is defined by its
equivalent potential energy, as determined by the various
forces acting on the water per unit quantity.
 Forces acting on soil water
 Soil water is constantly subject to various forces including
matric, osmotic or gravitational forces.
 The forces are responsible for either soil water retention or
movement in the soil media.
 The matric and osmotic forces are negative forces and are
known as matric tension and osmotic tension
 Water moves from high water potential to low water
potential wet soil to dry soil.
 Water as well moves due to gravitational forces and
concentration gradient.
 Matric Force
 The matric forces may consist of:
 Adsorptive or capillary forces
 Adsorptive forces cause the water molecules adsorbed on
clay particles, in clay crystal lattices and around certain
adsorbed particles on clay particles.
 The phenomena of water/moisture adsorption to the clay
surface is due the fact that water molecules are dipole and
the clay particles have a net negative charge at their outer
shells. These get attracted
 Cont…
• The adsorbed layer of the water molecules is rather
thin (3-10 molecules of water).
• The effectiveness of the attractive forces diminishes
as the distance as the distance from the clay
particles.
• Adhesion is the attraction of solid surfaces for water
molecules.
• The strong attraction of the soil water to the clay
particles is due to the negative clay charges and the
polar bonding of the water molecules
 Cont…
 The adsorption of water on the surface o the soil produces:
reduction in the motion of the water molecules and energy
status as well as the release of heat associated with the
transformation of water to lower energy level.
 Cohesive forces on the other hand, operate between the
water molecules between two water molecules.
 As the thickness of the soil water increases, the cohesion
force takes place.
 However, when the film of water surrounding the soil
particles get thicker and thicker, the force of gravity start
acting and the water flows downwards through the large
pores.
 Capillary Force
 Capillary tension is mainly responsible for retention of
water around soil particles, in wedges b/n soil particles and
micro-pores.
 When water comes from a soil below, the soil above gets
wetted and this is due to the effect of capillarity (capillary
rise) as in the case from capillary rise from GW table.
 The capillary force also comprises two forces, the force of
cohesion and adhesion.
 The capillary force can take place at liquid-air, soil air and
soil-liquid
 Osmotic Force
 Owing to their constant thermal motion, molecules of any
given species in a heterogeneous solution tend to migrate
from a zone where their concentration is higher to where it
is lower, in a spontaneous tendency toward a state of equal
concentration and composition throughout.

 This migration of molecular species in response to spatial

differences in concentration is called diffusion.

 If a physical barrier is placed between the two regions,

across the path of diffusion, and if that barrier is permeable
to molecules of the solvent but not to those of the solute, the
former will diffuse through the barrier in a process called
osmosis.
 Solvent will pass through the membrane and enter the
solution compartment, driving the solution level up the left-
hand tube until the hydrostatic pressure of the column of
dilute solution on the left is sufficient to counter the
diffusion pressure of the solvent molecules drawn into the
solution through the membrane.

 The hydrostatic pressure at equilibrium, when solvent

molecules are crossing the membranes in both directions at
equal rates, is the osmotic pressure of the solution.
 Gravitational Force
The gravity force acts on soil water simultaneously
with and osmotic tensions.
Downward movement of water occurs when the
osmotic and matric tensions on soil water are less;
especially after irrigation or rainfall (after the soil
get saturated.
The simultaneous effect of evaporation and
percolation diminish the soil water from saturation
and the force of gravity and the force of
osmotic/matric tension get at equilibrium ( FC)