ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS

I NTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS , S CIENCE & T ECHNOLOGY

Ashitava Ghosal

Department of Mechanical Engineering

&
Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore 560 012, India
Email: [email protected]

NPTEL, 2020

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 1 / 88
 1 C ONTENTS

2 L ECTURE 1
Introduction
Types and Classification of Robots

3 L ECTURE 2
Main Elements of a Robot

4 L ECTURE 3
Modeling and Analysis of Robots

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 2 / 88
O UTLINE

1 C ONTENTS

2 L ECTURE 1
Introduction
Types and Classification of Robots

3 L ECTURE 2
Main Elements of a Robot

4 L ECTURE 3
Modeling and Analysis of Robots

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 3 / 88
I NTRODUCTION

Origin of the word robot in 1923 — Translation of Czech play R. U. R.

(Rossum’s Universal Robot, 1921) by Karel Capek (Capek, 1975).
From Czech word ‘robota’ meaning slave labour!
Designed to replace human beings, and depicted as very efficient and lacking
emotion – Even now this description is prevalent!
Asimov (Asimov, 1970) in Roundabout coins robotics in his three laws of
robotics — Robots are portrayed as harmless and in control of humans!
First industrial robot patent in 1954 by George C. Devol (US Patent No.
2,988,237) for Universal Automation or Unimation.
First robot by Unimation, Inc. (Founded by J. Engelberger and George C.
Devol) called Unimate – Used by General Motors at Trenton, New Jersey
automobile plant for die-cast handling and spot welding.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 4 / 88
I NTRODUCTION
Space Shuttle Arm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm

PUMA 560 Robot MARS Rover http://www.dlr.de/en/

http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/MRLab/experiment1.html

Robotic Surgery
System – Can be
remotely operated
via Internet

Industrial Robots from Fanuc Robotics, Japan da Vinci Surgical Robot (Patient Cart)
http://www.fanucindia.com/ http://www.intuitivesurgical.com/

A popular kit
for making
robots

http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/ http://mindstorms.lego.com/en-us/Default.aspx

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F IGURE : Some modern robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 5 / 88
I NTRODUCTION
Extendable legs Cabin

Stewart Platform, 1965 Gough-Stewart platform based Flight Simulator

Tyre Testing Machine
Robotic Fish by University of Essex, UK
http://www.bmt.org/News/?/3/0/510
Other examples from MIT, USA
http://web.mit.edu/towtank/www/Pike/pike.html

Flying Micro-Robot, Epson Corp.

http://global.epson.com

Robotic Dog AIBO Lucy Bipedal walking robot

SONY, Japan http://lucy.vub.ac.be/

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F IGURE : Some more modern robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 6 / 88
D EFINITION

No clear definition of a “robot”!

The Robot Institute of America (1969) defines robot as “.... a
re-programmable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials,
parts, tools or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks”.
Currently the term “robots” are used more broadly as an “intelligent agent,
physical or virtual, capable of doing a task autonomously or with guidance”.
Robot – An electro-mechanical machine with sensors, electronics and guided by
computers.
Key concept is re-programmable and the extent of programming —
Distinguishes a robot from CNC machine tools.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 7 / 88
I NTRODUCTION

Advances in robotics has closely followed the explosive development of

computers and electronics.
According to Wikipedia article, Devol used his patent on magnetic recording
devices for the “brains” of his Unimate.
First computer, ENIAC, was developed at University of Pennsylvania in 1946
and the first transistor device was built by Shockley and Pearson in Bell Labs in
late 1940’s.
Another key ingredient, concept of feedback control — First textbook on
feedback control is by Prof. Norbert Wiener of MIT in 1948.
Feedback allows execution of a programmed (desired) motion by a robot (and a
large number of devices) with the required accuracy.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 8 / 88
I NTRODUCTION
Initial robot usage was primarily in industrial application such as part/material
handling, welding and painting and few in handling of hazardous material.
Most initial robots operated in teach-playback mode, and replaced ‘repetitive’
and ‘back-breaking’ tasks.
Growth and usage of robots slowed significantly in late 1980’s and early 1990’s
due to “lack of intelligence” and “ability to adapt” to changing environment –
Robots were essentially blind, deaf and dumb!
Last 25 years or so, sophisticated sensors and programming allow robots to act
much more intelligently, autonomously and react to changes in environments
faster.
Present-day robots
Used in cluttered workspaces in homes and factories,
Interact safely with humans in close proximity,
Operate autonomously in hazardous environments,
Used in entertainment and in improving quality of life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 9 / 88
S AMPLING OF ROBOT A PPLICATION

Industrial robots: Example – Fanuc ArcMate 120iB/10L welding robot and

material handling robots.
Hazardous environment:
Radioactive environment and use of robots for clean-up in Three mile island,
Chernobyl and recently in Fukushima, Japan, using PackBot robots, for
measurement of radiation and taking pictures.
Deep sea: Discovery of Titanic by submersible Alvin and underwater robots
Argo, 1985, Jason Junior, 1986.
Space: Shuttle Remote Manipulator System was used to deploy and retrieve
satellite and other equipment.
Electronic assembly and pharmaceutical manufacturing in clean rooms: Human
presence introduces dirt and is hazardous to the product! (See example of
electronics assembly using robots).

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 10 / 88
S AMPLING OF ROBOT A PPLICATION

Autonomous mobile robots/vehicles: Mars Exploration Rover Mission, and

series of DARPA Grand Challenge which helped in developing autonomous
vehicles.
Robotic surgery using da Vinci robot.
Micro and nano robots at various universities and research labs.
Other miscellaneous robots: Robocup Soccer, robotic fish, NASA Robonaut
humanoid space robot and Japanese humanoid robot capable of showing
emotions through facial expressions.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 11 / 88
V IDEOS FROM I NTERNET

Welding robot.
Material handling robot.
Electronic Assembly.
daVinci surgical robot.
Humanoid robot.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 12 / 88
C URRENT R ESEARCH IIS C

Redundant robot movie.

Sun tracking using a parallel manipulator movie.
Miniaturized pneumatically actuated endoscopic catheter movie.
Cable driven flexible robots movie.
STOCH – quadruped at RBCCPS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 13 / 88
O UTLINE

1 C ONTENTS

2 L ECTURE 1
Introduction
Types and Classification of Robots

3 L ECTURE 2
Main Elements of a Robot

4 L ECTURE 3
Modeling and Analysis of Robots

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 14 / 88
T YPES AND C LASSIFICATION OF
ROBOTS

Various ways of classifying a robot

Fixed or mobile.
Serial or parallel.
According to degree of freedom (DOF).
Rigid or flexible.
Control — Point-to-point, autonomy and “intelligence”.
Most older industrial robots — Fixed base and consisting of links connected by
actuated joints.
Many modern robots can move on factory floors, uneven terrains or even walk,
swim and fly!

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 15 / 88
S ERIAL V S . PARALLEL Top Platform

Forearm
Spherical Joint
Waist Shoulder
Prismatic
Joint

Actuator
Motion

U Joint

Extensible Leg
Three rotations at Wrist Fixed Base
PUMA 560 Serial Robot

F IGURE : Parallel robot — Gough-Stewart

F IGURE : PUMA 560 serial robot platform

Serial robot — A fixed base, links and joints connected sequentially and ending
in a end-effector.
Parallel robot — More than one loop, no natural end-effector.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 16 / 88
D EGREE - OF - FREEDOM (DOF)
Degree of freedom (DOF) determines capability of a robot and number of
actuated joints.
6 (DOF) required for arbitrary task in 3D.
Painting and welding can be done by 5 DOF robot.
Electronics assembly usually done by 4 DOF SCARA robot.
For extra flexibility/working volume, 5 or 6 DOF robot mounted on 2 or 3 DOF
gantry or wheeled mobile robot.
Redundant robot with more than 6 DOF for avoiding obstacles, more flexibility
etc.
Arrangement of first three joints (in fixed serial robots) are classified as:
Cartesian, spherical and cylindrical — Motion described by Cartesian, spherical
or cylindrical coordinates.
Anthropomorphic — Human arm like.
SCARA or Selective Compliance Adaptive Robot Arm — Extensively used in
electronic assembly.
Last three joints form a wrist — Orients the end-effector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 17 / 88
 R IGID V S . F LEXIBLE

F IGURE : PUMA 700 series industrial robot F IGURE : Space shuttle robot arm

Most industrial robots are built heavy and rigid for required accuracy.
Minimizing weight for space applications — Links and joints are flexible!

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 18 / 88
C ONTROL AND M ODE OF O PERATION

Most older industrial robots were teach and playback

Robot is taken (manually) through the tasks and positions recorded.
During actual operation, the robot plays back the taught sequence.
Very time consuming to teach and robot cannot react to any changes in the
environment.
Computer controlled — Inputs are given from a computer often after being
tried out in an off-line programming system.
Sensor driven — Sensors are used to avoid obstacles and take decisions.
Intelligent — Robot can ‘learn’ about the environment using artificial
intelligence (AI) and perform efficiently.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 19 / 88
O UTLINE

1 C ONTENTS

2 L ECTURE 1
Introduction
Types and Classification of Robots

3 L ECTURE 2
Main Elements of a Robot

4 L ECTURE 3
Modeling and Analysis of Robots

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 20 / 88
E LEMENTS OF A ROBOT

Robot is a sophisticated and expensive equipment!

Components making up a robot undergoes constant improvement and
advancement and hard to keep up!
Main components: mechanical components, actuators, transmission devices,
sensors, electronics and computers.
Mechanical components — Links and joints
Links should be strong and lightweight — Usually die-cast sections.
Joints are friction and backlash free to the extent possible.
Actuators are electric, pneumatic or hydraulic.
Transmission device needed/required to transfer motion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 21 / 88
E LEMENTS OF A ROBOT

Sensors enable a robot to posses “touch and feel”, sense motion and force, and
to “see” and “learn”.
Sensors are required for feedback control — Internal sensors.
External sensors — Touch and force, distance measuring and cameras to “see”.
Specialized sensors for welding, painting, assembly and other industrial
operations.
Computers and software — More expensive than hardware!
One or more processors to control motion of actuators.
Processor for signal processing and sensing.
Processor for user interface, data logging, communication and other activities.
Off-line programming system with user friendly GUI to train operator, verify
motion and reduce downtime of a robot.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 22 / 88
J OINTS

A joint connects two or more links.

A joint imposes constraints on the links it connects.
2 free rigid bodies have 6 + 6 degrees of freedom.
Hinge joint connecting two free rigid bodies → 6 + 1 degrees of freedom.
Hinge joint imposes 5 constraints, i.e., hinge joint allows 1 relative (rotary)
degree of freedom.
Degree of freedom of a joint in 3D space: 6 − m where m is the number of
constraint imposed.
Serial manipulators → All joints actuated → One-degree-of-freedom joints used.
Parallel and hybrid manipulators → Some joints passive →
Multi-degree-of-freedom joints can be used.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 23 / 88
T YPES OF J OINTS DOF

F IGURE : – Types of joints .

. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
. .
. .
.

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 24 / 88
L INKS – I NTRODUCTION

A link is a rigid body in 3D space – most robots are rigidly built.

A rigid body in ℜ3 has 6 degrees of freedom → 3 rotation + 3 translation → 6
parameters
For links connected by rotary (R) and prismatic (P), possible to use 4
parameters – Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H)parameters (see Denavit & Hartenberg,
1955).
4 parameters since lines related to rotary(R) and prismatic (P) joint axis are
used.
For multi-degree-of-freedom joints → Use equivalent number of
one-degree-of-freedom joints.
Several different D-H Conventions!!

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 25 / 88
PUMA 560 M ANIPULATOR
Ẑ2
{2}

X̂2 Ẑ1
Ŷ2 {1}
Ŷ1 Ẑ3

{3}
O3
X̂1
a2 X̂3

Ŷ3
d4
X̂4
d3
X̂3 {4} Ẑ4
O1 , O2
{3}
a3
O4
Ŷ3 X̂6
O3 X̂5
Ŷ4 X̂4 {6} {5}

Ẑ6 Ŷ5
{4}
Ẑ4 O4 , O5 , O6

(a) The PUMA 560 manipulator (b) PUMA 560 - forearm and wrist

F IGURE : The PUMA 560 manipulator

Origins of last three joint axis intersect — Known as the wrist

. . . point.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 26 / 88
PUMA 560 M ANIPULATOR – D-H
PARAMETERS

Example – the D-H parameters for the PUMA 560 manipulator are

i αi−1 ai−1 di θi

1 0 0 0 θ1
2 −π /2 0 0 θ2
3 0 a2 d3 θ3
4 −π /2 a3 d4 θ4
5 π /2 0 0 θ5
6 −π /2 0 0 θ6

Note: θi , i = 1, 2, ..., 6 are the six joint variables.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 27 / 88
ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS

Actuators are required to move joints, provide power and do work.

Serial robot actuators must be of low weight – Actuators of distal links need to
be moved by actuators near the base.
Parallel robots – Often actuators are at the base.
Actuators drive a joint through a transmission device
Three commonly used types of actuators:
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Electric motors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 28 / 88
ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS

Source: http://www.hocdelam.org/vn/category/ho-tro/robotandcontrol/

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F IGURE : Examples of actuators used in robots
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 29 / 88
ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS –
E LECTRIC M OTORS

Electric motors or electromagnetic actuators are widely used in robots.

Readily available in wide variety of shape, sizes, power and torque range.
Very easily mounted and/or connected with transmission elements such as
gears, belts and timing chains.
Amenable to modern day digital control.
Main types of electric actuators:
Stepper motors
Permanent magnet DC servo-motor
Brushless motors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 30 / 88
E LECTRIC ACTUATORS – S TEPPER
M OTORS

Used in ‘small’ robots with small payload and “low” speeds.

Stepper motors are of permanent magnet, hybrid or variable reluctance type.
Actuated by a sequence of pulses — For a single pulse, rotor rotates by a
known step such that poles on stator and rotor are aligned.
Typical step size is 1.8◦ or 0.9◦ .
Speed and direction can be controlled by frequency of pulses.
Can be used in open-loop as cumulative error and maximum error is one step!
Micro-stepping possible with closed-loop feedback control but with loss of
torque.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 31 / 88
S TEPPER M OTORS

Parts of a Stepper Motor

http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/stepper-motors

http://www.societyofrobots.com/member_tutorials/node/28

Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motors

Number of teeth in the inner rotor (permanent magnet) is different than the number of teeth in stator.

1) Electro-magnet 1 is activated Æ Rotor rotates up such that nearest teeth line up.
2) Electro-magnet 1 is deactivated and 2 is turned on Æ Rotor rotates such that nearest teeth line up –
rotation is by a step (designed amount) of typically 1.8 or 0.9 degrees.
3) Electro-magnet 2 is deactivated and 3 is turned on Æ Rotor rotates by another step.
4) Electro-magnet 3 is deactivated and 4 is turned on and cycle repeated.

Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors – Similar to VR but rotor is radially magnetized.

Hybrid Stepper Motors – Combines best features of VR and PM stepper motors.

F IGURE : Stepper motor components and working principle

. . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
. .
. .
.

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 32 / 88
E LECTRIC ACTUATORS – DC/AC
S ERVO - MOTORS

Rotor is a permanent magnet and stator is a coil.

Permanent magnets with rare earth materials (Samarium-Cobalt, Neodymium)
can provide large magnetic fields and hence high torques.
Commutation done using brushes or in brushless motor using Hall-effect sensors
and electronics.
Widely available in large range of shape, sizes, power and torque range and low
cost.
Easy to control with optical encoder/tacho-generators mounted in-line with
rotor.
Brushless AC and DC servo-motors have low friction, low maintenance, low
cost and are robust.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 33 / 88
DC S ERVO M OTORS

http://www.brushlessdcmotorparts.info http://www.rc-book.com/wiki Small RC Servo motors

/brushless-electric-motor http://www.drivecontrol-details.info
/rc-servo-motor.html

Slotted-brushless DC Servo motors Direct drive motor, Applimotion, Inc Brushless Hub motor for E-bike
http://www.motioncontroltips.com/ http://news.thomasnet.com/ http://visforvoltage.org/
company_detail.html?cid=20082162 system-voltage/49-60-volts

F IGURE : Examples of DC servo motors .

. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
. .
. .
.

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 34 / 88
D RIVE FOR DC SERVO - MOTOR

PWM Circuit for One-direction – Control speed by varying duty ratio

H – Bridge: Four switches using MOSFETS and diodes

Input A and B and the diagonal transistors can be used to change direction.
Input A Input B Motor Function
Transistor TR1 & TR4 Transistor TR2 & TR4
0 0 Motor OFF
1 0 Forward direction
0 1 Reverse direction
1 1 Not Allowed

PWM and H-Bridge control both speed and direction of motor

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F IGURE : PWM and H-bridge for DC servo motors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 35 / 88
T RANSMISSIONS USED IN ROBOTS

Purpose of transmission is to transfer power from source to load.

The purpose of a transmission is also to transfer power at appropriate speed.
Typical rated speed of a DC motor is between 1800 & 3600 rpm.
3600 rpm = 60 rps ≈ 360 radians/sec.
For a (typical) 1 m link → Tip speed is 360 m/sec — Greater than speed of
sound!
Need for large reduction in speed.
Transmissions can (if needed) also convert rotary to linear motion and
vice-versa.
Transmissions also transfer motion to different joints and to different directions.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 36 / 88
T RANSMISSIONS USED IN ROBOTS

Transmissions in robots are decided based on motion, load and power

requirements, and by the placement of actuator relative to the joint.
Transmissions for robots must be (a)stiff, (b) low weight, (c) backlash free, and
(d) efficient.
Direct drives with motor directly connected to joint. It has advantages of low
friction and low backlash but are expensive.
Typical transmissions
Gear boxes of various kinds – Spur, worm and worm wheel, planetary etc..
Belts and chain drives.
Harmonic drive for large reduction.
Ball screws and rack-pinion drives – To transform rotary to linear motions.
Kinematic linkages – 4-bar linkage.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 37 / 88
T RANSMISSIONS USED IN ROBOTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F IGURE : Examples of transmissions used in robots
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 38 / 88
E LEMENTS OF A ROBOT – S ENSORS

A robot without sensors is like a human being without eyes, ears, sense of
touch, etc.
Sensor-less robots require costly/time consuming programming.
Can perform only in “playback” mode.
No change in their environment, tooling and work piece can be accounted for.
Sensors constitute the perceptual system of a robot, designed:
To make inferences about the physical environment,
To navigate and localise itself,
To respond more “flexibly” to the events occurring in its environment, and
To enable learning, thereby endowing robots with “intelligence”.
Sensors allow less accurate modeling and control.
Sensors enable robots to perform complex and increased variety of tasks reliably
thereby reducing cost.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 39 / 88
S ENSORS IN ROBOTS

Two main categories of sensors: Internal and External sensors

Internal sensors measure variables for control
Joint position – incremental and absolute encoders
Joint velocity – tachometer
Joint torque/force – at the wrist or in the end-effector
External sensors
Proximity – inductive, capacitive etc.
Slip
Distance
Vision – most powerful external sensor

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 40 / 88
O PTICAL E NCODER

F IGURE : Optical encoder

One of the most important and widely used internal sensor.

Consists of an etched encoding disk with photo-diodes and LEDS. Disk made
from glass/ plastic or even metal.
As disk rotates, light is alternately allowed to reach photo-diode, resulting in
digital output similar to a square wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 41 / 88
O PTICAL E NCODER (C ONTD .)

F IGURE : Optical encoder outputs

Typically 3 signals available – Channel A, B and I; A and B are phase shifted by

90 degrees and I is called as the index pulse obtained every full rotation of disk.
Signals read by a microprocessor/counter.
Output of counter includes rotation and direction.
Output can be absolute or relative joint rotation.
Can be used for estimating velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 42 / 88
F ORCE /T ORQUE S ENSOR

Employed for force/torque sensing – joint and wrist sensing.

Force/Torque joint sensors – Direct sensing of force/torque by strain gages.
Force/torque wrist sensors
Mounted between end of robot arm and end-effector.
Can measure all six components of force/torque using strain gages.
Extensively used in force control.
Performance specifications to ensure that the wrist motions generated by the
force/torque sensors do not affect the position accuracy of the manipulator:
Made from a single block of metal to avoid hysteresis.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 43 / 88
 F ORCE /T ORQUE W RIST S ENSOR
F = [RF ]W

RF =
 
0 0 r13 0 0 0 r17 0
r12 0 0 0 r25 0 0 0
 
0 r32 0 r34 0 r36 0 r38 
 
0 0 0 r44 0 0 0 r48 
 
0 r52 0 0 0 r56 0 0
r61 0 r63 0 r65 0 r67 0

F = (Fx , Fy , Fz , Mx , My , Mz )T .
W = (w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 , w5 , w6 , w7 , w8 ).
F IGURE : Six axis force/torque wi are the 8 strain gauge readings.
sensors at wrist
Rij are found during calibration process using least-square techniques.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 44 / 88
S TEWART PLATFORM BASED
F ORCE /T ORQUE S ENSOR

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 45 / 88
S TEWART PLATFORM BASED
F ORCE /T ORQUE S ENSOR

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 46 / 88
S TEWART PLATFORM BASED
F ORCE /T ORQUE S ENSOR

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 47 / 88
S ENSORS IN ROBOTS – E XTERNAL
Detection of environment variables for robot guidance, object identification and
material handling.
Two main types – Contacting and non-contacting sensors.
Contacting sensors: Respond to a physical contact
Touch: switches, Photo-diode/LED combination.
Slip.
Tactile: resistive/capacitive arrays.
Non-contacting sensors: Detect variations in optical, acoustic or
electromagnetic radiations or change in position/orientation.
Proximity: Inductive, Capacitive, Optical and Ultrasonic.
Range: Capacitive and Magnetic, Camera, Sonar, Laser range finder, Structured
light.
Colour sensors.
Speed/Motion: Doppler radar/sound, Camera, Accelerometer, Gyroscope.
Identification: Camera, RFID, Laser ranging, Ultrasound.
Localisation: Compass, Odometer, GPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 48 / 88
E XTERNAL S ENSORS – T OUCH
Allows a robot or manipulator to interact with its environment – to “touch and
feel”, “see” and “locate”.
Two types – Contact and Non-contact

Simple – LED-Photo-diode pair used

to detect presence/absence of object
to be grasped
Micro-switch to detect touch.

F IGURE : Touch sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 49 / 88
E XTERNAL S ENSORS – S LIP

F IGURE : Slip sensor

Slip sensor to detect if grasped object is slipping.

Free moving dimpled ball – Deflects a thin rod on the axis of a conductive disk
Evenly spaced electrical contacts placed under disk
Object slips past the ball, moving rod and disk – Electrical signal from contact
to detect slip– Direction of slip determined from sequence of. . contacts.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 50 / 88
E XTERNAL S ENSORS – TACTILE

“Skin” like membrane to “feel” the

shape of the grasped object
Also used to measure force/torque
required to grasp object
Change in resistance/capacitance
due to local deformation from
applied force

F IGURE : Robot hand with tactile array

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 51 / 88
E XTERNAL S ENSORS – TACTILE
(C ONTD .)

Send current in one set, measure

current in other set
Magnitude of current ∝ change in
resistance due to deformation
Magnitude of current ∝ change in
capacitance

F IGURE : Artificial Skin

Fluid filled membrane
Array of Hall-effect sensors
MEMS – Silicon micro-machined with doped strain-gauge flexure
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 52 / 88
E XTERNAL S ENSORS – P ROXIMITY

Detect presence of an object near a robot or manipulator

Works at very short ranges (<15-20 mm)
Frequently used in stationary and mobile robots to avoid obstacles and for
safety during operation
Four main types of proximity sensors
Inductive proximity sensors
Capacitive proximity sensor
Ultrasonic proximity sensor
Optical proximity sensors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 53 / 88
I NDUCTIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSOR –
M AGNETIC

F IGURE : Flux lines in a magnetic sensor

Ferromagnetic material enters or leaves the magnetic field → Flux lines of the
permanent magnet change their position.
Change in flux → Induces a current pulse with amplitude and shape
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
proportional to rate of change in flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 54 / 88
I NDUCTIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSOR –
M AGNETIC

F IGURE : Schematic of flux response in magnetic proximity sensor

Coils output voltage waveform → For proximity sensing.

Useful where access is a challenge.
Limited to ferromagnetic materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 55 / 88
C APACITIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSORS
Change in
Capacitance

F IGURE : Capacitive sensor F IGURE : Capacitive sensor response

Similar to inductive, but uses electrostatic field.

Can sense metallic as well as non-metallic materials.
Sensing element is a capacitor composed of a sensitive electrode and a
reference electrode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 56 / 88
C APACITIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSORS

Object’s entry in electrostatic field of electrodes changes capacitance.

Oscillations start once capacitance exceeds a predefined threshold.
Triggers output circuit to change between on and off.
When object moves away, oscillator’s amplitude decreases, changing output
back to original state.
Larger size and dielectric constant of target, means larger capacitance and
easier detection.
Useful in level detection through a barrier.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 57 / 88
U LTRASONIC P ROXIMITY S ENSORS

Electro-acoustic transducer to send and receive high frequency sound waves.

Emitted sonic waves are reflected by an object back to the transducer which
switches to receiver mode.
Same transducer is used for both receiving and emitting the signals – Fast
damping of acoustic energy is essential to detect close proximity objects.
Achieved by using acoustic absorbers and by decoupling the transducer from its
housing.
Typically of low resolution.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 58 / 88
O PTICAL P ROXIMITY S ENSORS

Also known as light beam sensors – Solid state LED acting as a transmitter by
generating a light beam.
A solid-state photo-diode acts as a receiver.
Field of operation of the sensor – Long pencil like volume, formed due to
intersection of cones of light from source and detector.
Any reflective surface that intersects the volume gets illuminated by the source
and is seen by the receiver.
Generally a binary signal is generated when the received light intensity exceeds
a threshold value.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 59 / 88
R ANGE S ENSORS

Measure distance of objects at larger distances.

Uses electromagnetic or electrostatic or acoustic radiation – Looks for changes
in the field or return signal.
Highly reliable with long functional life and no mechanical parts.
Four main kinds of range sensing techniques in robots
Triangulation.
Structured lighting approach.
Time of flight range finders.
Vision .
Applications: 1) Navigation in mobile robots, 2) Obstacle avoidance, 3)
Locating parts, etc.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 60 / 88
R ANGE S ENSORS – T RIANGULATION
A narrow beam of light sweeps the
plane defined by the detector, the
object and the source, illuminating
the target.
Detector output is peak when
illuminated patch is in front.
With B and θ known → Obtain
D = B tan θ .
Changing B and θ , one can get D
F IGURE : Triangulation for all visible portions of object.

Very little computation required.

Very slow as one point is done at a time.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 61 / 88
R ANGE S ENSORS – S TRUCTURED
L IGHTING

A ’“sheet” of light generated through

a cylindrical lens or narrow slit is
projected on a target.
Intersection of the sheet with target
yields a light stripe.
A camera offset slightly from the
projector, views and analyze the
shape of the line.

F IGURE : Structured lighting

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 62 / 88
R ANGE S ENSORS – S TRUCTURED
L IGHTING

Distortion of the line is related to distance and can be calculated.

Horizontal displacement (in image) proportional to depth gradient.
Integration gives absolute range.
Calibration is required.
Advantages:
Fast, very little computation is required.
Can scan multiple points or entire view at once.

Structured lighting should be permitted.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 63 / 88
R ANGE S ENSORS – T IME - OF - FLIGHT

Utilizes pulsed lasers and ultrasonics to measure time taken by the pulse to
coaxially return from a surface.
If D is the target’s distance, c is the speed of radiation, and t is elapsed time
taken for the pulse to return
ct
D=
2
Light or electromagnetic radiation more useful for large (kilometers) distances.
Light not very suitable in robotic applications as c is large.
To measure range with ±0.25 inch accuracy, one needs to measure very small
time intervals – v 50 ps.
Suitable for acoustic (ultrasonic) radiation, since c v 330 m/s.
Can only detect distance of one point in its view — Scan required for object.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 64 / 88
 R ANGE S ENSORS – T IME - OF - FLIGHT
Phase shift and continuous laser light for measuring distance

Laser beam of wavelength λ split

– Two beams travel to detector
through two different paths.
Phase delay between two beams
is measured.
Distance traveled by first beam
L.
Total distance traveled by the
second beam D ′ = L + 2D →
θ
D ′ = L + 360 λ , θ is the phase
F IGURE : Range measurement using phase shift shift.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 65 / 88
R ANGE S ENSORS – T IME - OF - FLIGHT
For θ = 360◦ , two waveforms are aligned and D ′ = L and D ′ = L + nλ →
Waveforms cannot be differentiated on phase shift alone.
Restrict θ < 360◦ and 2D < λ
θ λ
D= ( )
360 2
λ typically small → Impractical for robot application → Modulate laser light
with a waveform of much higher wavelength.
Example: modulating frequency=10 MHz → λ = cf = 30m and D up to 15m
can be measured.
Advantages of continuous light technique
Yields intensity as well range information,
Requires very little computation,
Lasers do not suffer from specular reflection, and
Expensive, not so robust and require higher power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 66 / 88
R ANGE S ENSORS – U LTRASONIC

Similar to the pulsed laser technique.

An ultrasonic chirp is transmitted over a short time period.
From the time difference between the transmitted and reflected wave, D can be
obtained.
Generally used for navigation and obstacle avoidance in robots.
Much cheaper than laser range finder.
Shorter range as waves disperse.
Wavelength of ultrasonic radiation much larger → Not reflected very well from
small objects and corners.
Ultrasonic waves not reflected very well from plastics and some other materials.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 67 / 88
V ISION S ENSORS

Most powerful and complex form of sensing, analogous to human eyes.

Comprising of one or more video cameras with integrated signal processing and
imaging electronics.
Includes interfaces for programming and data output, and a variety of
measurement and inspection functions.
Also referred to as machine or computer vision.
Computations required are very large compared to any other form of sensing.
Computer vision can be sub-divided into six main areas: 1) Sensing, 2)
Pre-processing, 3) Segmentation, 4) Description, 5) Recognition and 6)
Interpretation.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 68 / 88
V ISION S ENSORS

Three levels of processing.

Low level vision
Primitive in nature, requires no intelligence on the part of the vision functions.
Sensing and pre-processing can be considered as low level vision functions.
Medium level vision
Processes that extract, characterize and label components in an image resulting
from a low level vision.
Segmentation, description and recognition of the individual objects refer to the
medium level function.

High level vision: Processes that attempt to emulate cognition.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 69 / 88
V ISION S ENSORS

Increasing number of robotic applications – Primarily due to increased

computational capability and low cost of camera.
Vision system can
Determine distances of objects.
Determine geometrical shape and size of objects.
Determine optical (color, brightness) properties of objects in an environment.
Can be used for navigation (map making), obstacle avoidance, Cartesian position
and velocity feedback, locating parts, and many other uses.
Can learn about environment.
Acquire knowledge and intelligence.
Vision systems extensively used in autonomous navigation in mobile robots
(Mars rovers), self driving cars etc..
Use of vision systems increasing rapidly as technology improves!
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 70 / 88
S ENSOR - BASED ROBOTICS – ASMIO

ASIMO: Advanced Step in Innovative MObility.

A humanoid robot developed by HONDA car
company of Japan.
Sensors for vision, speed, balance, force, angle, and
foot area.
34 degrees of freedom controlled by servo motors.
F IGURE : ASIMO climbing
Capable of advanced movement stairs
Walking and running.
Maintaining posture and balance.
Climbing stairs & avoiding obstacle.
Intelligence
Charting a shortest route.
Recognizing moving objects.
Distinguish sounds and recognize faces and gestures. F IGURE : ASIMO playing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
soccer
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 71 / 88
S UMMARY

Main elements of a robot

Links & Joints
Actuators & Transmission
Sensors
Computing elements
Robot is an expensive equipment with sophisticated and expensive components
Sensors and computing add “intelligence” to a robot and more are being used.
Sensors, computing and algorithms make up more than 60% of the cost

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 72 / 88
O UTLINE

1 C ONTENTS

2 L ECTURE 1
Introduction
Types and Classification of Robots

3 L ECTURE 2
Main Elements of a Robot

4 L ECTURE 3
Modeling and Analysis of Robots

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 73 / 88
M ODELING AND A NALYSIS OF
ROBOTS

New robots with improved capabilities made every day.

Technology changes but the underlying science/principles change more slowly.
Basic ingredients — Kinematics, dynamics, control, sensing and programming.
Kinematics — Motion of a object in three dimensional space without worrying
about the cause.
6 degrees of freedom (DOF) — 3 translations and 3 rotations of a rigid link.
6 actuators at joints to achieve 6 DOF — Direct and Inverse kinematics problem.
Linear and angular velocities of rigid bodies and links.
Acceleration analysis.
Serial and parallel manipulator kinematics.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 74 / 88
M ODELING AND A NALYSIS OF
ROBOTS

Dynamics — Motion of links and end-effector due to the action of external

forces/moments.
Obtain equations of motion by using Newton Laws or Lagrangian formulation.
Direct (or forward ) and inverse problem in dynamics for simulation and control.
Inverse problem solution required for advance control and design of
manipulators
Required to be done efficiently – O(n) algorithms

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 75 / 88
M ODELING AND A NALYSIS OF
ROBOTS

Desired motion and feedback control.

A desired task is converted to a smooth desired motion — Cubic trajectories.
Controller ensures that the robot achieves the desired motion.
Simple PID or newer model-based controllers used for improved performance.
Controllers for force (as well as position) control.
Feedback control implemented using modern digital microprocessors.
Linear and non-linear control schemes used in robots.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 76 / 88
D EGREES OF F REEDOM (DOF)

Grübler-Kutzbach’s criterion
J
DOF = λ (N − J − 1) + ∑ Fi (1)
i=1

N – Total number of links including the fixed link (or base),

J – Total number of joints connecting only two links (if joint connects three
links then it must be counted as two joints),
Fi – Degrees of freedom at the i th joint, and λ = 6 for spatial, 3 for planar
manipulators and mechanisms.
PUMA 560 — N = 7, J = 6, F1 = 1, λ = 6 → DOF = 6.
Grübler criterion does not work for over-constrained mechanisms (see Mavroidas
and Roth(1995), Gan and Pellegrino(2003), review paper by Gogu(2007)).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 77 / 88
D EGREES OF F REEDOM (C ONTD .)

DOF — The number of independent actuators.

DOF — Capability of a manipulator with respect to λ .
1 DOF = λ → End-effector can be positioned and oriented arbitrarily.
2 DOF < λ → λ − DOF relationships containing the position and orientation
variables.
3 DOF > λ → Position and orientation of the end-effector in ∞ ways – Redundant
manipulators.
Typically all actuated joints are one DOF joints → J = DOF .
Multi-degree-of-freedom actuated joints are rare in mechanical manipulators
but common in biological joints actuated with muscles.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 78 / 88
T WO P ROBLEMS IN K INEMATICS OF
S ERIAL ROBOTS
Direct Kinematics Problem:
Given the constant D-H link parameters and the joint variable, find the position
and orientation of the last link in a fixed or reference coordinate system.
Most basic problem in serial manipulator kinematics.
Can always be solved and solution is unique
Example – for the PUMA 560

x = c1 (a2 c2 + a3 c23 − d4 s23 ) − d3 s1

y = s1 (a2 c2 + a3 c23 − d4 s23 ) + d3 c1 (2)
z = −a2 s2 − a3 s23 − d4 c23

The “wrist point” depends on sine and cosine of first three joint angles.
Orientation will depend on all 6 joint angles.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 79 / 88
T WO P ROBLEMS IN K INEMATICS OF
S ERIAL ROBOTS

Inverse Kinematics Problem:

Given the constant D-H link parameters and the position and orientation of the
end-effector ({n}) with respect to the fixed frame, find the joint variables.
More difficult than direct kinematics problem – requires solution of
transcendental (nonlinear) equations.
Existence of solution leads to the notion of workspace of a robot.
Non-unique solution – more than one configuration to reach a desired position
and orientation.
Solution of inverse kinematics problem required for motion planning and
visualization of motion.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 80 / 88
K INEMATICS OF PARALLEL ROBOTS

Parallel robots have more than 1 loop and no natural output link.
Parallel robots have more joints than DOF – Several of the joints are passive
and can be multi-DOF joints.
Need to obtain constraint equation to solve for passive the joints in terms of
actuated joints
Direct kinematics involve a) find the passive joint variables and then b) position
and orientation of chosen output link.
Direct kinematics more difficult in parallel manipulators.
Direct kinematics problem leads to the notion of mobility or ability to assemble.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 81 / 88
K INEMATICS OF PARALLEL ROBOTS

Inverse kinematics simpler problem

“Break” a parallel manipulator into more than one serial manipulator
Inverse kinematics problem can be solved in “parallel”
Most challenging is the kinematics of Stewart-Gough platform.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 82 / 88
V ELOCITY A NALYSIS OF ROBOTS

Velocity kinematics
Linear velocity of the links of a robot from the derivative of position vector.
Angular velocity can be obtained from derivative of a rotation matrix.
For serial manipulator → velocity propagation formulas exists.
For parallel manipulators no propagation formulas – need to obtain velocity of
each link from position vector and rotation matrix.
Notion of a manipulator Jacobian matrix relating joint rates to Cartesian
velocities – very useful in velocity analysis.
Singularities in manipulator Jacobian results in loss or gain of degrees of
freedom

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 83 / 88
DYNAMICS OVERVIEW
Kinematics → Cause of motion not considered.
Dynamics → Motion of links of a robot due to external forces and/or moments.
Main assumption: All links are rigid – No deformation.
Motion of links described by ordinary differential equations (ODEs), also called
equations of motion.
Several methods to derive the equations of motion – Newton-Euler, Lagrangian
and Kane’s methods.
Newton-Euler – Obtain linear and angular velocities and accelerations of each
link, free-body diagrams, and Newton’s law and Euler equations.
Lagrangian formulation – Obtain kinetic and potential energy of each link, obtain
the scalar Lagrangian, and take partial and ordinary derivatives.
Kane’s formulation – Choose generalised coordinates and speeds, obtain
generalised active and inertia forces, and equate the active and inertia forces.
Each formulation has its advantages and disadvantages.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 84 / 88
DYNAMICS OVERVIEW

Two main problems in robot dynamics:

Direct problem – Obtain motion of links given the applied external
forces/moments.
Inverse problem – Obtain joint torques/forces required for a desired motion of
links.
Direct problem involves solution of ODE’s → Simulation.
Inverse dynamics → For sizing of actuators and other components, and for
advanced model based control schemes.
Computational efficiency is of interest – seek O(N) or O(logN) .
Dynamics of parallel manipulators complicated by presence of closed-loops →
Typically give rise to differential-algebraic equations (DAEs) → More difficult
to solve.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 85 / 88
C ONTROLS OVERVIEW

Specify & generate desired trajectory of manipulator in joint space or task

space efficiently
Typically cubic polynomials in time – C 2 continuity.
Goal of control
Make the joint or end-effector follow desired trajectory accurately, and
In spite of external disturbances and internal parameter changes.
A robot is a highly non-linear system.
Most robots still use linear control – proportional + integral + derivative (PID)
control
Works due to slow speed of operation and large gear reduction – effect of
non-linearity reduced.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 86 / 88
C ONTROLS OVERVIEW

Linear control does not give uniform performance in the entire workspace.
Advanced non-linear control schemes perform better
Nonlinear control schemes use knowledge of dynamics
Computed torque scheme – partitioning of controller into model driven and PID
Better the knowledge of model, better the performance
Position control is not enough – Control of force is required when in contact
with environment
Advanced hybrid position/force control schemes have been developed.
Many new “learning” control schemes are being developed.
Many theoretical issues in nonlinear control of robots not yet settled.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 87 / 88
S UMMARY
Fundamental of robot kinematics, dynamics, control discussed in detail in this
course
Week 2 – Mathematical preliminaries to model and represent robots
Week 3 & 4 – Kinematics of serial and parallel robots
Week 6 – Velocity kinematics
Week 8 – Dynamics of serial and parallel manipulators
Week 9 & 10 – Linear and nonlinear control of robots
Robotics is of growing interest worldwide – Large amount of resource material
(videos/research articles etc.) available on Internet.
Several examples of research and robots developed at IISc will be presented in
Weeks - 5 & 7.
Several textbooks available – accompanying textbook for course
Robotics: Fundamental Concepts and Analysis by Ashitava Ghosal – Oxford
University Press (2006)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C ) ROBOTICS : BASICS AND A DVANCE C ONCEPTS NPTEL, 2020 88 / 88
Suggested Additional Reading – Week -1
• Visit the robotics lab websites of MIT, Stanford, JPL/Caltech and ETH Zurich – there are
many other good robotics labs elsewhere too!.

• Find out and make a list of main Journals (top 5!) and Conferences (top 5!) in the field of
robotics.

• Get a copy and read the classic papers in robotics

– Denavit, J. and Hartenberg, R. S. 1955, “A kinematic notation for lower-pair mechanisms

based on matrices”, ASME, Journal of Applied Mechanics, pp. 215-221.
– Stewart, D. 1965, “A platform with six degrees of freedom”, Proc. of the Institution of
Engineers, Vol. 180, No. 1, pp. 371-386.

• Several textbooks available – accompanying textbook for course

Robotics: Fundamental Concepts and Analysis by Ashitava Ghosal – Oxford University Press
(2006)