lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Computer maintenance and Support notes

computer support and maintenace (Garissa University College)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Computer Support & Maintenance

Contents
Basic Computer Concepts .................................................................................................. 3
Computer Components and Electrical communication ...................................... 4
Basic Computer Components ..................................................................................... 5
PC Maintenance Tools ................................................................................................. 5
Power supply ...................................................................................................................... 7
Functions/importance .................................................................................................. 7
Power Supplies Types/Form Factors and Use ........................................................... 7
Power supply problems Diagnosis: .......................................................................... 10
Common Power Problems and solutions ................................................................. 12
Motherboards and related components ........................................................................ 14
Computer Cases ........................................................................................................... 14
Motherboard components...................................................................................... 14
Types of motherboards (Form Factors) ................................................................... 17
Expansion slots: ........................................................................................................ 28
How to install a computer motherboard ................................................................... 29
Motherboard Installation .......................................................................................... 30
Computer Processing Unit (CPU) .................................................................................... 32
Components of the CPU ........................................................................................... 32
Introduction/Overview ............................................................................................ 33
CPU Packaging (Microprocessor Types) ............................................................. 34
Microprocessor Addressing Modes ...................................................................... 35
Processor selection and upgrades .............................................................................. 37
What Types Of Sockets Exist? ................................................................................ 38
How to Install a New Computer Processor on a Motherboard ............................. 39
Memory ........................................................................................................................... 41
Characteristics of Computer Memory ..................................................................... 41
Types of Memories ................................................................................................... 41
TYPES OF MEMORY MODULES PACKAGING ................................................... 41
Memory-Mapping ...................................................................................................... 44
What Is Memory-Mapping? ..................................................................................... 44
Benefits of Memory-Mapping ............................................................................... 44
Selection and upgrading memory ............................................................................. 45
Hardware Tips: Choose the Right Kind of Memory for Your System ................. 45
Storage Disks and Drives............................................................................................... 47
Types of computer storage and Disks ...................................................................... 47
Storage/Disk organization ......................................................................................... 47
Disk management ....................................................................................................... 52
Computer display ........................................................................................................... 58
Types of computer monitors ..................................................................................... 58
Factors That Affect The Quality Of A Display Device ........................................... 59

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Computer Monitor Troubleshooting........................................................................ 60

Computer Assembly and Disassembly ......................................................................... 65
Computer Selection and compatibility..................................................................... 65
Steps to a Safe and Successful Disassembly and Assembly of a System Unit... 66
What is Computer Hardware? ................................................................................. 68
What are hardware upgrades? ................................................................................. 69
Electronic Waste management ................................................................................. 71
Computer software installation .................................................................................... 73
Install the operating system ......................................................................................... 73
How To Install an Application Software on the Computer ......................................... 76
Computer Hardware Installation ................................................................................. 78
Computer system Fault finding and troubleshooting ................................................. 80
Fault finding methods and Principles ...................................................................... 80
Common Faults .......................................................................................................... 86
Computer diagnosis ................................................................................................... 88
Using troubleshooting tools to gather diagnostic information ............................... 88
Technical support........................................................................................................... 92
Safe computer use (Good working practices) .......................................................... 92
Develop a staff training program ................................................................................. 94
System selection and acquisition................................................................................... 96
Procedure for hardware software selection ............................................................. 96 Major
phases in selection .......................................................................................... 97
Criteria for Software selection: ................................................................................ 99
Evaluation process: ................................................................................................ 100
Evaluation of proposals: .......................................................................................... 100
Performance Evaluation .......................................................................................... 101
Financial consideration in selection (Cost benefit Analysis): .............................. 101
The Art of Negotiation: ........................................................................................... 102
Contract checklist .................................................................................................... 102
Computer security ....................................................................................................... 104
Computer Security - Threats & Solutions .................................................................. 104
Trends impacting the enterprise IT help desk .......................................................... 108

CHAPTER 1

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Basic Computer Concepts

Defination: A microcomputer is a type of computer which is based internally on a

microprocessor, plus a number of additional components. At its simplest, a microcomputer
will consist of a microprocessor, plus random access memory (RAM), read only memory
ROM, and an input/output section, connected by the three main communication buses

A microprocessor is a component that performs the instructions and tasks involved in

computer processing. In a computer system, the microprocessor is the central unit that
executes and manages the logical instructions passed to it.

Computer Components and Electrical communication

Inside computers, there are many internal components. In order for these components
to communicate with each other they make use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’ .
A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one computer
component to another. This pathway is used for communication purpose and it is
established between two or more computer components. We are going to check
different computer bus architectures that are found in computers.
Different Types of Computer Buses

The Computer Buses | Source

Functions of Buses in Computers

Summary of functions of buses in computers

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

1. Data sharing - All types of buses found in a computer transfer data between the
computer peripherals connected to it.
The buses transfer or send data in either serial or parallel method of data transfer. This
allows for the exchange of 1, 2, 4 or even 8 bytes of data at a time. (A byte is a group of
8 bits). Buses are classified depending on how many bits they can move at the same
time, which means that we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.
2. Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows
data to be sent to or from specific memory locations.
3. Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals connected to it.
4. Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals
attached to it with the rest of the system.
The expansion bus facilitates easy connection of more or additional components and
devices on a computer such as a TV card or sound card.
Computers have two major types of buses:
1. System bus:- This is the bus that connects the CPU to main memory on the
motherboard. The system bus is also called the front-side bus, memory bus, local bus,
or host bus.
2. A number of I/O Buses, (I/O is an acronym for input / output), connecting various
peripheral devices to the CPU. These devices connect to the system bus via a ‘bridge’
implemented in the processors chipset. Other names for the I/O bus include “expansion
bus", "external bus” or “host bus”.
Basic Computer Components
The basic components of a microcomputer are: 1) CPU 2) Program memory 3) Data
memory 4) Output ports 5) Input ports 6) Clock generator. These components are
shown in figure below: Central Processing Unit: The CPU consists of ALU (Arithmetic and
Logic Unit), Register unit and control unit.

PC Maintenance Tools
Computer maintenance is the practice of keeping computers in a good state of repair.
Computer valeting is the in-depth cleaning of the physical components of a personal
computer. Computer maintenance describes various steps to keep your computer
functioning at an optimal performance level from a software and hardware point of
view.
A toolkit should contain all the tools necessary to complete hardware repairs. As you gain
experience, you learn which tools to have available for different types of jobs. Hardware
tools are grouped into four categories:
• ESD tools
• Hand tools
• Cleaning tools
• Diagnostic tools

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Maintenance Tools
To troubleshoot and repair laptop systems properly, you need a few basic tools. If you
intend to troubleshoot and repair systems professionally, you may want to purchase
many more specialized tools as well. These advanced tools enable you to more
accurately diagnose problems and make jobs easier and faster. Here are the basic tools
that should be in every troubleshooter’s toolbox:
• Simple hand tools for basic disassembly and reassembly procedures, including a
selection of flat-blade and Phillips screwdrivers (both medium and small sizes),
tweezers, an IC extraction tool, and a parts grabber or hemostat. Most of these
items are included in $10–$20 starter toolkits found at most computer stores.
Although most of the same toolkits sold for conventional desktop systems will
have these tools, for portable systems you may also need sets of smaller-sized
flat-blade and Phillips screwdrivers and a set of small Torx drivers or Torx bits as
well. For laptops, you may encounter Torx screws as small as T5, so consider
purchasing a set including bits down to that size.
• Diagnostics software and hardware for testing components in a system.
• A multimeter that provides accurate measurements of voltage and resistance, as
well as a continuity checker for testing cables and switches.
• Chemicals (such as contact cleaners), component freeze sprays, and compressed
air for cleaning the system.
• Foam swabs, or lint-free cotton swabs if foam isn’t available.
• Small nylon wire ties for "dressing" or organizing wires or small cables (such as
internal Wi-Fi/Bluetooth antennas).
You may want to consider the following items, although they’re not required for most
work:
• Memory-testing machines (used to evaluate the operation of memory modules).
Note these can be very expensive, on the order of $1,000 or more, but can be
useful for professional shops or larger companies with a lot of systems to
support.
• Serial and parallel loopback (or wrap) plugs to test serial and parallel ports.
• A network cable tester or scanner (many types with varying functionality are
available, from simple loopback jacks to full-blown Time Domain
Reflectometers).

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

CHAPTER 2

Power supply

Also called a power supply unit or PSU, the component that supplies power to a
computer. Most personal computers can be plugged into standard electrical outlets.
The power supply then pulls the required amount of electricity and converts the AC
current to DC current. It also regulates the voltage to eliminate spikes and surges
common in most electrical systems. Not all power supplies, however, do an adequate
voltage-regulation job, so a computer is always susceptible to large voltage fluctuations.
Power supplies are rated in terms of the number of watts they generate. The more
powerful the computer, the more watts it can provide to components.

Functions/importance
1. It provides the driving (electric) power for all essential computer components,
such as the processor, motherboard, memory modules, video card and add-in
cards, as well as hard drives and optical drives.

2. The computer power supply converts an alternative current (AC, which is obtained
from the wall socket) into a specified voltage direct current (DC, which can be used
by computer components).

3. Regulates (for some PSU), the voltage to eliminate spikes and surges common in
most electrical systems

Power Supplies Types/Form Factors and Use

Like motherboards and computer cases, there are several different power supply form
factors, sizes, connector types, output specifications and other important specs. The
detailed differences between these power supplies are extremely important and can make
the difference between the ability to run a computer at its full potential and having a
potentially unstable computer.

ATX
Although there are still AT form factor power supplies available for purchase, AT form
factor power supplies are undoubtedly phased out products. Even the later ATX form factor
power supply (ATX 2.03 and earlier versions) are falling out of favor. The major
differences between the ATX and AT power supply form factors are:
1. ATX power supplies provide an extra +3.3V voltage rail.
2. ATX power supplies use a single 20-pin connector as the main power connector.
3. ATX power supplies support the soft-off feature, allowing software to turn off the power
supply.
Note
There are two major types of power connectors on motherboards:

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• 12-pin, modeled after the original IBM PC power connector and used on
Baby-
AT and LPX motherboards (see Figure 5.5)
Figure 5.5. Twin 6-pin power connectors are used on AT/LPX and other power
supply types that attach to motherboards with a 12-pin connector.

• 20-pin, used by all motherboards in the ATX family (see Figure 5.6) and by
the NLX riser card (which provides power to the NLX motherboard)
Figure 5.6. The ATX power supply has a single 20-pin power connector. The
extra connectors (compared to the LPX design in Figure 5.5) provide support
for 3.3V and for software- or keyboard-controlled power down. Many of these
power supplies don't have an external power switch for that reason.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

ATX12V
The ATX12V form factor is the mainstream choice now. There are several different
versions of the ATX12V form factor, and they can be very different from one another. The
ATX12V v1.0 specification added over the original ATX form factor a 4-pin +12V
connector to deliver power exclusively to the processor; and a 6-pin auxiliary power
connector providing the +3.3V and +5V voltages. The ensuing ATX12V v1.3 specification
added on top of that the 15-pin SATA power connector.

A substantial change occurred in the ATX12V v2.0 specification, which changed the
main power connector from a 20-pin to a 24-pin format, removing the 6-pin auxiliary
power connector. In addition, the ATX12V v2.0 specification also isolated the current
limit on the 4-pin processor power connector for the 12V2 rail (+12V current is split into
the 12V1 and 12V2 rails). Later, the ATX12V v2.1 and v2.2 specifications also increased
efficiency requirements and mandated various other improvements.

All ATX12V form factor power supply units maintain the same physical shape and size as
the ATX form factor.
EPS12V, SFX12V and Others
The EPS12V power supply form factor utilizes an 8-pin processor power connector in
addition to the 4-pin connector of the ATX12V form factor. (Note: this isn't the only
difference between these two form factors, but for most desktop computer users,
knowing this should be sufficient). The EPS12V form factor was originally designed for
entry-level servers, but more and more high-end desktop motherboards are featuring the
8-pin EPS12V processor power connector now, which enables users to opt for an
EPS12V power supply.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

The Small Form Factor (SFF) designation is used to describe a number of smaller
power supplies, such as the SFX12V (SFX stands for Small Form Factor), CFX12V
(CFX stands for Compact Form Factor), LFX12V (LFX stands for Low Profile Form
Factor) and TFX12V (TFX stands for Thin Form Factor). They are all smaller than the
standard ATX12V form factor power supply in terms of physical size. SFF power
supplies need to be installed in corresponding SFF computer cases. Table 3.2 Power
Supply Connector Types and Form Factors
Modern PS Form Factors Originated Connector Associated MB
From Type Form Factors
LPX style* IBM PS/2 AT Baby-AT, Mini-
[ Low Profile eXtension ] Model 30 AT, LPX
(1987)
ATX style ATX ATX, NLX,
Intel ATX,
[ Advanced Technology Micro-ATX
ATX12V
Extended ]
(1985/2000)

SFX style Intel SFX ATX Flex-ATX,

[ Small Form Factor ] (1997) Micro-ATX
*Note: LPX is also sometimes called Slimline or PS/2.
Power supply problems Diagnosis:
1. The light or fan on the power supply does not work.
2. Nothing in the computer works.(plug something into the USB power to see if there
is power going to it)
3. No lights / fans or beeps come from the computer.

If any of the above happen to you try changing the power supply unit. This can be
down by removing the computer case and removing the PSU. The PSU is only held
by a few screws.
The following types of power-protection devices are explained in the sections that
follow:
• Surge suppressors
• Phone-line surge protectors
• Line conditioners
• Standby power supplies (SPS/UPS)
• Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Surge Suppressors (Protectors)

The simplest form of power protection is any one of the commercially available surge
protectors—that is, devices inserted between the system and the power line. These
devices, can absorb the high-voltage transients produced by nearby lightning strikes and
power equipment. They clamp and shunt away all voltages above a certain level.

Line Conditioners
In addition to high-voltage and current conditions, other problems can occur with
incoming power. The voltage might dip below the level needed to run the system,
resulting in a brownout. Forms of electrical noise other than simple voltage surges or
spikes might travel through the power line, such as radio-frequency interference or
electrical noise caused by motors or other inductive loads.
Remember two things when you wire together digital devices (such as computers and
their peripherals):
• Any wire can act as an antenna and have voltage induced in it by nearby
electromagnetic fields, which can come from other wires, telephones, CRTs,
motors, fluorescent fixtures, static discharge, and, of course, radio transmitters.
• Digital circuitry responds with surprising efficiency to noise of even a volt or two,
making those induced voltages particularly troublesome. The electrical wiring in
your building can act as an antenna, picking up all kinds of noise and
disturbances.

A line conditioner can handle many of these types of problems. It filters the power,
bridges brownouts, suppresses high-voltage and current conditions, and generally acts
as a buffer between the power line and the system. A line conditioner does the job of a
surge suppressor, and much more. It is more of an active device, functioning
continuously, rather than a passive device that activates only when a surge is present. A
line conditioner provides true power conditioning and can handle myriad problems. It
contains transformers, capacitors, and other circuitry that can temporarily bridge a
brownout or low-voltage situation.
UPS
Lighting, telephones, mobiles, laptops, chargers, PCs, tablets, peripherals and servers all
depend absolutely upon a reliable electricity supply, as do industrial processes. The
answer is to use a UPS – a mature technology that is still being improved to cope with
ever more difficult power demands. UPS avoid un-planned power outages, save
valuable data and provide time (autonomy) to allow safe shutdown of affected
equipment.
UPS represent big and growing business because of the increasing reliance on ever
greater numbers of digital devices, as well as the demand for cleaner power that they
require, and from the changing nature of mains power supplies themselves. For
example, as older coal-fired power stations are phased-out, and as more renewable
sources are installed, grids will change in ways that are not fully understood – but there
will almost certainly be shortfalls. Coming smart grids will also have an effect.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Common Power Problems and solutions

Here are some of the most common power supply problems and their likely effect on
sensitive equipment:
Power Surges: A power surge takes place when the voltage is 110% or more above
normal. The most common cause is heavy electrical equipment being turned off. Under
these conditions, computer systems and other high tech equipment can experience
flickering lights, equipment shutoff, errors or memory loss.
Possibile Solutions: Surge Suppressors, Voltage Regulators, Uninterruptable Power
Supplies, Power Conditioners
High-Voltage Spikes: High-voltage spikes occur when there is a sudden voltage peak of
up to 6,000 volts. These spikes are usually the result of nearby lightning strikes, but
there can be other causes as well. The effects on vulnerable electronic systems can
include loss of data and burned circuit boards.
Possibile Solutions: Surge Suppressors,Voltage Regulators, Uninterruptable Power Supplies,
Power Conditioners
Transients: Transients are potentially the most damaging type of power quality
disturbance that you may encounter. Transients fall into 2 categories.
• Impulsive
• Oscillatory
Possibile Solutions: Surge Suppressors, Voltage Regulators, Uninterruptable Power
Supplies, Power Conditioners
Frequency Variation: A frequency variation involves a change in frequency from the
normally stable utility frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, depending on your geographic location.
This may be caused by erratic operation of emergency generators or unstable frequency
power sources. For sensitive equipment, the results can be data loss, program failure,
equipment lock-up or complete shut down. Possibile Solutions: Voltage Regulators,
Power Conditioners
Power Sag: A sag is the reduction of AC Voltage at a given frequency for the duration of
0.5 cycles to 1 minute’s time. Sages are usually caused by system faults, and often the
result of switching on loads with high demand startup currents.
Possibile Solutions: Voltage Regulators, Uninterruptable Power Supplies, Power
Conditioners
Electrical Line Noise: Electrical line noise is defined as Radio Frequency Interference
(RFI) and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and causes unwanted effects in the circuits
of computer systems. Sources of the problems include motors, relays, motor control
devices, broadcast transmissions, microwave radiation, and distant electrical storms.
RFI, EMI and other frequency problems can cause equipment to lock-up, and data error
or loss.
Possibile Solutions: Voltage Regulators, Uninterruptable Power Supplies, Power
Conditioners

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Brownouts: A brownout is a steady lower voltage state. An example of a brownout is

what happens during peak electrical demand in the summer, when utilities can’t always
meet the requirements and must lower the voltage to limit maximum power. When this
happens, systems can experience glitches, data loss and equipment failure.
Possibile Solutions: Voltage Regulators, Uninterruptable Power Supplies, Power
Conditioners
Blackouts: A power failure or blackout is a zero-voltage condition that lasts for more
than two cycles. It may be caused by tripping a circuit breaker, power distribution failure
or utility power failure. A blackout can cause data loss or corruption and equipment
damage.
Possibile Solutions: Generators

CHAPTER 3

Motherboards

Computer Cases
There are two basic styles of cases the computer may come assembled in. They are
basically tower and desktop style cases. Desktop style is in the shape of a rectangular
box, that sets flat on a desk. Usually the computer monitor is placed on top of it. A tower
case, looks similar to a tower as the name says. These computers will be placed off to the
side of the keyboard and monitor. The tower case is the most popular style of desktop
computer today. It is also recommended by some microprocessor manufacturers since it
can be designed for better heat dissipation. Tower cases come in several sizes which are:
• Mini-tower - The smallest.
• Mid-tower - The standard size, recommended for most applications including
standard desktop systems and some servers.
• Full-tower - The largest. Usually this is a very tall case and you may have a difficult
time fitting it where overhead is limited. This case is usually used for high powered
servers.
Note: The exact locations of many of the component items vary somewhat from
computer to computer, but the overall layout is generally the same. Types of cases
come to fit AT and ATX sizes. If you want a modern computer, you will want, or should
have an ATX case. The AT or ATX version refers to the type of motherboard the case is
designed to fit. The AT case is for the old type of motherboards such as for the 80486
microprocessor based computers.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Motherboard components
This is the main circuit board of the PC. It contains all the basic, core components of the
computer. It usually contains:
• the CPU, which plugs into a socket designed for a particular CPU's pin arrangement.
Because a motherboard has sockets that can only accept certain types of CPU, it is
important to make sure when upgrading your CPU that your motherboard can
accept it.
• memory chips - these hold data and programs that the CPU is currently using.
• Input/output ports ("I/O") such as connectors that hard disk drives, floppy disk
drives and CD-ROM drives plug in to, serial port sockets, parallel port sockets and
USB port sockets.
• BIOS chips (Basic Input Output System) - the BIOS chips are PROM (Programmable
Read Only Memory) chips that contain the most basic information that a computer
needs to start up and operate. The BIOS contains bootup information, details of
what sort of CPU is installed, what hard disks are available, how the motherboard
should behave etc. More details below.
• Real time Clock (RTC) so the computer knows the time and date. The RTC needs a
battery to keep the clock running when the computer's power is turned off.
• Chips to control basic devices such as hard disks, floppy disks, serial/parallel ports
etc. These basic chips are sometimes called the "chip set".
• Some motherboards, especially laptop motherboards, have built-in graphics chips,
sound chips and modem chips so expansion cards are not needed. Unfortunately,
this also means laptops can be very hard to upgrade because these chips are usually
impossible to remove and replace. An example of "integrated peripherals" is AC '97
Audio. It combines a low-cost audio codec (compressor/decompressor) integrated
circuit (IC) with a small portion of the core chipset's processing power to form a
complete PC audio subsystem. Soft audio processing consumes minimal CPU
overhead and does away with the need for a separate PCI audio controller (e.g.
Soundblaster card). The result is reduced motherboard space and overall system
cost. Building in AC '97 costs a manufacturer about $2, compared to almost $100 for
a PCI sound card.
While motherboards have been getting smaller and smaller, computer cases seem to be
getting bigger because the new computers generate more and more heat and need lots
of empty space to ventilate themselves.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Motherboards diagram 1(a)

Motherboards diagram 1(b)

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Motherboards diagram 2
Types of motherboards (Form
Factors)
(Old school)
AT (Full vs. Baby)
XT (rip)
LPX (rip)
(Newer)
ATX vs. BTX motherboard
Definitions
AT - Advanced Technology, A motherboard that follows the same design and 12x13"
form factor that was in the original IBM PC/AT. It was superseded by the Baby AT. the
Baby AT reduced width from 12" to 8.5"
ATX motherboard (Advanced Technology EXtended motherboard) The PC
motherboard that superseded the Baby AT design. The ATX layout rotated the CPU and
memory 90 degrees, allowing full-length expansions to be plugged into all sockets. LPX
(Low Profile eXtension), originally developed by Western Digital, was a loosely defined
motherboard format (form factor) widely used in the 1990s.
BTX (for Balanced Technology eXtended) is a form factor for motherboards, originally
intended to be the replacement for the aging ATX motherboard form factor in late 2004 and
early 2005.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Note : Although all motherboards have some features in common, their layout and size
vary a great deal. The most common motherboard designs in current use include ATX,
Micro ATX, BTX, and NLX. Some of these designs feature riser cards and daughterboards.

ATX and Micro ATX

The ATX family of motherboards has dominated desktop computer designs since the
late 1990s. ATX stands for "Advanced Technology Extended," and it replaced the AT and
Baby-AT form factors developed in the mid 1980s for the IBM PC AT and its rivals. ATX
motherboards have the following characteristics:
• A rear port cluster for I/O ports
• Expansion slots that run parallel to the short side of the motherboard
• Left side case opening (as viewed from the front of a tower PC)
There are four members of the ATX family, listed in Table 3-2. In practice, though, the
Mini-ATX design is not widely used.

Table 3-2. ATX Motherboard Family Comparison

Motherboard Maximum Maximum Maximum Number of
Typical Uses
Type Width Depth Expansion Slots

ATX 12 in 9.6 in Seven Full tower

Mini-ATX 11.2 in 8.2 in Seven Full tower

microATX 9.6 in 9.6 in Four Mini tower

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

FlexATX 9.0 in 7.5 in Four Mini tower, small

form factor
Micro ATX - A smaller version of Full ATX
Flex ATX - Another version of the ATX motherboard
BTX
One problem with the ATX design has been the issue of system cooling. Because ATX
was designed more than a decade ago, well before the development of today's faster
components, it's been difficult to properly cool the hottest-running components in a
typical system: the processor, memory modules, and the processor's voltage regulator
circuits.
To enable better cooling for these devices, and to promote better system stability, the
BTX family of motherboard designs was introduced in 2004. Compared to ATX
motherboards, BTX motherboards have the following:
• Heat-producing components such as the process, memory, chipset, and voltage
regulator are relocated to provide straight-through airflow from front to back for
better cooling.
• The processor socket is mounted at a 45-degree angle to the front of the
motherboard to improve cooling.
• A thermal module with a horizontal fan fits over the processor for cooling.
• The port cluster is moved to the rear left corner of the motherboard.
• BTX cases include multiple rear and side air vents for better cooling.
• Because of the standardization of processor and memory locations, it's easy to
use the same basic design for various sizes of BTX motherboards; the designer
can just add slots.
• BTX tower cases use a right-opening design as viewed from the front.
Although BTX designs are easier to cool than ATX designs, the development of
coolerrunning processors has enabled system designers to continue to favor ATX. There
are relatively few BTX-based motherboards and systems currently on the market.
Riser Cards and Daughterboards

Riser cards and daughterboards provide two different methods for providing access to
motherboard–based resources. In current slimline or rackmounted systems based on
ATX or BTX technologies, riser cards are used to make expansion slots usable that would
otherwise not be available because of clearances inside the case. Riser card designs can
include one or more expansion slots, and are available in PCI, PCI-X (used primarily in
workstation and server designs), and PCI-Express designs
The term daughterboard is sometimes used to refer to riser cards, but daughterboard
can also refer to a circuit board that plugs into another board to provide extra
functionality. For example, some small form factor motherboards support
daughterboards that add additional serial or Ethernet ports, and some standard-size
motherboards use daughterboards for their voltage regulators.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

NLX Motherboard

NLX motherboards are designed for quick replacement in corporate environments.

They use a riser card that provides power and expansion slots that connect to the right
edge of the motherboard (as viewed from the front). NLX motherboards have a
tworow cluster of ports along the rear edge of the motherboard. Most systems that
use NLX motherboards are considered obsolete.

NLX (Supports motherboards with overall dimensions of 9.0" x 13.6" [maximum] to

8.0" x 10.0" [minimum]) Implemented in 1998 by Intel this form factor is gaining
popularity the last couple of years because there found on most clone computers
Support for the Pentium II
Support for AGP
Support for USB.
Support for DIMM.
Easier Access to internal components
Support for motherboards that can be removed without using tools
Power supply
The power supply provides the electricity needed by the motherboard and different
components in the computer. It usually provides a series of power leads carrying 12
volts or 5 volts. A special lead feeds the motherboard and other leads power the disk
drives. The power supply is a sealed cube about 12cm on each side and has a fan in it to
cool itself and the computer case down.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Computer bus
A bus, in computing, is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits, etc.) which
can be shared by multiple hard ware components in order to communicate with one
another.

The purpose of buses is to reduce the number of "pathways" needed for communication
between the components, by carrying out all communications over a single data channel.
This is why the metaphor of a "data highway" is sometimes used.
Characteristics
A bus is characterised by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once.
This amount, expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines over which
data is sent simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel. The
term "width" is used to refer to the number of bits that a bus can transmit at once.
Additionally, the bus speed is also defined by its frequency (expressed in Hertz), the
number of data packets sent or received per second. Each time that data is sent or
received is called a cycle.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

This way, it is possible to find the maximum transfer speed of the bus, the amount of
data which it can transport per unit of time, by multiplying its width by its frequency. A
bus with a width of 16 bits and a frequency of 133 MHz, therefore, has a transfer speed
equal to:
16 * 133.106 = 2128*106
bit/s, or 2128*106/8 =
266*106 bytes/s or
266*106 /1000 = 266*103 KB/s
or 259.7*103 /1000 = 266 MB/s

Architecture
In reality, each bus is generally constituted of 50 to 100 distinct physical lines, divided
into three subassemblies:
• The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory
addresses which the processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It
is a unidirectional bus.
• The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a
bidirectional bus.
• The control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchonisation signals
coming from the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. It
is a bidirectional bus, as it also transmits response signals from the hardware.

Chipset
A chipset is the component which routes data between the computer's buses, so that all
the components which make up the computer can communicate with each other. The
chipset originally was made up of a large number of electronic chips, hence the name. It
generally has two components:
• The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling
transfers between the processor and the RAM, which is way it is located
physically near the processor. It is sometimes called the GMCH, forr Graphic and
Memory Controller Hub.
• The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion controller)
handles communications between peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH
(I/O Controller Hub). The tem bridge is generally used to designate a component
which connects two buses.

Types of Buses in Computer Architecture

Computers comprises of many internal components and in order for these components
to communicate with each other, a ‘bus’ is used for that purpose.
A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one component to
another. This pathway is used for communication purpose and can be established
between two or more computer components. We are going to review different
computer bus architectures that are used in computers.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

The Computer Buses

Functions of Buses in Computers

The functions of buses can be summarized as below:
1. Data sharing - All types of buses found on a computer must be able to transfer data
between the computer peripherals connected to it.
The data is transferred in in either serial or parallel, which allows the exchange of 1, 2, 4
or even 8 bytes of data at a time. (A byte is a group of 8 bits). Buses are classified
depending on how many bits they can move at the same time, which means that we
have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.
2. Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows
data to be sent to or from specific memory locations.
3. Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals that are connected to it.
4. Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals
attached to it with the rest of the system.
The expansion bus facilitates the easy connection of additional components and
devices on a computer for example the addition of a TV card or sound card.

Bus Terminologies
Computers can be viewed to be having just two types of buses:
1. System bus:- The bus that connects the CPU to main memory on the motherboard. The
system bus is also called the front-side bus, memory bus, local bus, or host bus.
2. A number of I/O Buses, (Acronym for input/output), connecting various peripheral
devices to the CPU -these are connected to the system bus via a ‘bridge’ implemented

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

in the processors chipset. Other names for the I/O bus include “expansion bus",
"external bus” or “host bus”.

Expansion Bus Types

These are some of the common expansion bus types that have ever been used in
computers:
• ISA - Industry Standard Architecture
• EISA - Extended Industry Standard Architecture
• MCA - Micro Channel Architecture
• VESA - Video Electronics Standards Association
• PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect
• PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also called
PC bus)
• AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port
• SCSI - Small Computer Systems Interface. Table of Comparisson
8-Bit ISA card (XT- 16-Bit ISA (AT –Bus card)
Bus)
8-bit data interface 16-bit data interface

4.77 MHZ bus 8-MHZ bus

62-pin connector 62-pin connector

36-pin AT extension connection

Comparison of 8-bit, & 16-bit ISA Bus as used in early computers.

ISA Bus
This is the most common type of early expansion bus, which was designed for use in the
original IBM PC.The IBM PC-XT used an 8-bit bus design. This means that the data
transfers take place in 8 bit chunks (i.e. one byte at a time) across the bus. The ISA bus
ran at a clock speed of 4.77 MHz.
For the 80286-based IBM PC-AT, an improved bus design, which could transfer 16-bits of
data at a time, was announced. The 16-bit version of the ISA bus is sometimes known as
the AT bus. (AT-Advanced Technology)
The improved AT bus also provided a total of 24 address lines, which allowed 16MB of
memory to be addressed. The AT bus was backward compatible with its 8-bit
predecessor and allowed 8-bit cards to be used in 16-bit expansion slots.
When it first appeared the 8-bit ISA bus ran at a speed of 4.77MHZ – the same speed as
the processor. It was improved over the years and eventually the AT bus ran at a clock
speed of 8MHz.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

MCA (Micro Channel Architecture)

This bus was developed by IBM as a replacement for ISA when they designed the PS/2
PC which was launched in 1987.
The bus offered a number of technical improvements over the ISA bus. For instance, the
MCA runs at a faster speed of 10MHz and can support either 16-bit or 32-bit data. It
also supports bus mastering - a technology that placed a mini-processor on each
expansion card. These mini-processors controlled much of the data transfer allowing the
CPU to perform other tasks.
One advantage of MCA was that the plug-in cards were software configurable i.e. they
required minimal intervention by the user when configuring.
The MCA expansion bus did not support ISA cards and IBM decided to charge other
manufacturers royalties for use of the technology. This made it unpopular and it is now
an obsolete technology.

EISA Bus

EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture)

It was developed by a group of manufactures as an alternative to MCA. It was designed
to use a 32-bit data path and provided 32 address lines giving access to 4GB of memory.
Like the MCA, EISA offered a disk-based setup for the cards, but it still ran at 8MHz in
order for it to be compatible with ISA.
The EISA expansion slots are twice as deep as an ISA slot. If an ISA card is placed in an
EISA slot it will use only the top row of connectors, whereas a full EISA card uses both
rows. It offered bus mastering.
EISA cards were relatively expensive and were normally found on high-end workstations
and network servers.
VESA Bus
Also known as the Local bus or the VESA-Local bus. VESA (Video Electronics Standards
Association) was invented to help standardize PCs video specifications, thus solving the
problem of proprietary technology where different manufacturers were attempting to
develop their own buses.
The VL Bus provides 32-bit data path and can run at 25 or 33MHZ. It ran at the same
clock frequency as the host CPU. But this became a problem as processor speeds
increased because, the faster the peripherals are required to run, the more expensive
they are to manufacture.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

It was difficult to implement the VL-Bus on newer chips such as the 486s and the new
Pentiums and so eventually the VL-Bus was superseded by PCI.

VESA slots have extra set of connectors and therefore the cards are larger. The VESA
design was backward compatible with the older ISA cards.

Features of the VESA local bus card:-

• 32-bit interface
• 62/36-pin connector
• 90+20 pin VESA local bus extension

Peripheral Component Interconnect

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is one of the latest developments in bus

architecture and is the current standard for PC expansion cards. It was developed by
Intel and launched as the expansion bus for the Pentium processor in 1993. It is a local
bus like VESA i.e. it connects the CPU, memory and peripherals to wider, faster data
pathway.
PCI supports both 32-bit and 64-bit data width; therefore it is compatible with 486s and
Pentiums. The bus data width is equal to the processor, for example, a 32 bit processor
would have a 32 bit PCI bus, and operates at 33MHz.
PCI was used in developing Plug and Play (PnP) and all PCI cards support PnP i.e. the
user can plug a new card into the computer, power it on and it will “self identify” and
“self specify” and start working without manual configuration using jumpers.
Unlike VESA, PCI supports bus mastering that is, the bus has some processing capability
and therefore the CPU spends less time processing data. Most PCI cards are designed
for 5v, but there are also 3v and dual-voltage cards, Keying slots are used to differentiate
3v and 5v cards and slots to ensure that a 3v card is not slotted into a 5v socket and vice
versa..
Accelerated Graphics Port
The need for high quality and very fast performance of video on computers led to the
development of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP). The AGP Port is connected to the
CPU and operates at the speed of the processor bus. This means that video information
can be sent more quickly to the card for processing.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

The AGP uses the main PC memory to hold 3D images. In effect, this gives the AGP video
card an unlimited amount of video memory. To speed up the data transfer, Intel
designed the port as a direct path to the PC’s main memory.
Data transfer rate ranges from 264 Mbps to 528mbps, 800 Mbps upto 1.5 Gbps. AGP
connector is identified by its brown colour.
Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (PC Card)
The Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association was founded to provide a
standard bus for laptop computers. So it is basically used in the small computers.
Small Computer System Interface
Short for Small Computer System Interface, a parallel interface standard used by Apple
Macintosh computers,PC's and Unix systems for attaching peripheral devices to a
computer.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

This is an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps. A single
USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems,
and keyboards. The USB also supports hot plugging/insertion (ability to connect a
device without turning the PC of) and plug and play (You connect a device and start
using it without configuration). We have two versions of USB:-
USB 1x
First released in 1996, the original USB 1.0 standard offered data rates of 1.5 Mbps. The
USB 1.1 standard followed with two data rates: 12 Mbps for devices such as disk drives
that need high-speed throughput and 1.5 Mbps for devices such as joysticks that need
much less bandwidth. USB 2x
In 2002 a newer specification USB 2.0, also called Hi-Speed USB 2.0, was introduced. It
increased the data transfer rate for PC to USB device to 480 Mbps, which is 40 times
faster than the USB 1.1 specification. With the increased bandwidth, high throughput
peripherals such as digital cameras, CD burners and video equipment could now be
connected with USB. IEEE 1394
The IEEE 1394 is a very fast external serial bus interface standard that supports data
transfer rates of up to 400Mbps (in 1394a) and 800Mbps (in 1394b).This makes it ideal
for devices that need to transfer high levels of data in real-time, such as video devices. It
was developed by apple with the name firewire.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

A single 1394 port can be used to connect up 63 external devices.

• It supports Plug and play
• Supports hot plugging, and
• Provides power to peripheral devices.

Expansion slots:
These are sockets that expansion cards like network cards, sound cards, graphics cards
can be plugged into. There have been various types of slots over the years to cater for
increasingly complex expansion cards. The earliest cards were ISA, then came EISA, then
PCI and AGP (which have special high-priority access to the CPU - AGP is used by fast
graphic cards). All expansions slots connect to a bus so data can travel between
subsystems and the CPU.

Cache
Cache is a storage place (buffer or bucket) that exists between two subsystems in order
for data to be accessed more quickly to increase performance. Performance is increased
because the cache subsystem usually has faster access technology and does not have to
cross an additional bus. Cache is typically used for reads, but it is increasingly being
used for writes as well. For example, getting information to the processor from the disk
involves up to five cache locations:
1. L1 cache in the processor (memory cache)
2. L2 cache (memory cache)
3. Software disk cache (in main memory)
4. Hardware disk cache (common on SCSI controllers; EIDE usually uses only a FIFO
buffer) 5. Disk buffer
For reads, one subsystem will usually request more data than what is immediately
needed, and that excess data is stored in the cache(s). During the next read, the
cache(s) are searched for the requested data, and if it is found, a read to the subsystem
beyond the cache is not necessary.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

How to install a computer motherboard

Installing a motherboard can be a complex process. This page provides general steps and
guidelines for how to install a motherboard. Please refer to the manual and configuration
guide that is included with the motherboard for specific details on installation and
configuration steps.
Note: If replacing an existing motherboard in a computer with a new motherboard, you
need to first remove the existing motherboard. The steps on this page can be referred to
for removing the motherboard, followed in reverse order.
Before getting started
1. Write down relevant information from the top or bottom of the board, such as the
Model Number, Serial Number, and specifications.
2. Ensure you are familiar with ESD and its potential dangers while working with any
circuit board.
3. When installing a motherboard, turn the computer off and disconnect the power cord
from the power supply.
Form factor
Before installing a computer motherboard, make sure the case supports the form factor of
your motherboard. Today, the majority of available computer motherboards are either
ATX or MicroATX.

Verify and set jumpers

Before installing the computer motherboard, make sure all the jumpers or dip switches
are correct. The jumpers and dip switches can be changed when the motherboard is
installed, but it is easier to verify them while the motherboard is outside of the case.
Today, motherboards have the jumpers set as auto, allowing either the BIOS or the
software to setup the proper settings for the CPU and memory and other settings. If the
motherboard supports this feature, make sure the jumpers are set to auto. If you want to
adjust the settings manually for your peripherals, make sure you are using acceptable
settings. Although you may be able to overclock a system, it is recommended you use
auto or the real values of the system first to make sure the system works before
tampering with its settings.

Install pegs or standoffs

After checking the jumpers, if pegs or standoffs are not in
the chassis, insert these attachments now. These are required

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

to prevent the motherboard from shorting out and must be inserted before installing the
motherboard.
When installing the pegs or standoffs make sure to insert them into the proper holes.
Many cases support different motherboard form factors, and if not placed in the proper
holes, it may cause damage to the motherboard. The holes on the case have a small
indication of what the holes are for; for example, a hole may have the words ATX
listed next to it to indicate the hole is for an ATX motherboard.
As the standoff is being installed, make sure they are installed firmly into the case to help
prevent issues such as the pegs coming loose when unscrewing the screw from the peg.

Motherboard Installation
After the standoffs are attached and the I/O plate is in place, install the motherboard into
the case and make sure you align the back of the motherboard with the back of the case.
As the motherboard is being installed align the holes in the motherboards with the pegs
or standoffs.

Once aligned, begin placing screws into the motherboard that should go into the peg or standoff
inserted earlier.
Caution: when screwing in the screw you do not want the screw to be too tight. If
tightened too much it can cause the motherboard to crack. However, the screw should be
in enough to hold the motherboard in place.
Install essential components
If not already installed, install the below necessary
components into the computer.
Front Panel Setup
Once the motherboard has been successfully physically
installed into the computer, the Fpanel (short for front panel
connectors) must be connected. This panel controls such
things as the power button, reset button, hard drive light, and
power light.
Unfortunately, the setup of this panel can be confusing at first,
even with the instructions provided from the motherboard
manufacturer. Below are steps and additional information and
help with successfully connecting the cables to this connector.
1. This connector consists of a series of two pin
connectors.
2. The cables that connect to the connector are 2, 3 or
4pin connectors.
3. The cables consist of red, green, blue, white or another
color cable with a black cable. This may vary, the
important thing to remember is that the black cable or
the dark color of the cable is ground or '-'.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

4. Most cases have a separate cable for each setting, but some computers now have all of
these cables as one large connector. If the computer has one large connector, it only
connects in one direction. If you are installing a new computer motherboard into an
OEM case that uses a large connector, it may not work with your motherboard since it
could be proprietary.
5. Finally, the computer cannot boot if one or more of the cables is not properly
connected. If you are unable to turn on the computer or receive no post, check these
cables first.

Connect Cables
Once the front panel cables are connected, connect the other cables in the below order.
1. Connect the main motherboard ATX style power cable coming from the power supply
to the motherboard.

Note: Connect the cables in the right direction and never force the cable. If
improperly connected, it can damage the motherboard. Today, ATX and other
motherboard form factors have a keyed power supply connector that allows the
cable to be connected in only one direction.
2. Next, connect the IDE/EIDE, SATA, or SCSI cables to the motherboard from the hard
drive, CD Drive, floppy drive.
3. Connect the Molex power cables from the power supply to each of the drives in the
computer.
CMOS setup
Once the motherboard has been successfully installed and connected into the computer,
connect the keyboard, monitor, and power to the computer. Do not connect all of the cables
yet in case you encounter problems and need to disconnect all the cables again. Once the
computer boots enter CMOS setup and set all of the values not automatically detected. We
recommend you check or set the below values.
1. CPU Settings - make sure the proper CPU speed and voltage is shown or that it is set to
auto.
2. Memory - make sure the memory settings are right, and all memory is detected.
3. Drives - verify the floppy, hard drive, and CD-ROM drive are all shown.
4. If onboard video, modem, network, or sound is on your motherboard and you want to
them disabled for an expansion card you are installing, disable these devices now.
5. Check other settings such as the time, date, and COM ports.
Once everything has been properly detected and setup, save the settings, then exit CMOS
setup and reboot the computer.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Computer Processing Unit (CPU)

Alternatively referred to as the brain of the computer, processor, central processor, or
microprocessor, the CPU (pronounced as C-P-U) short for Central Processing Unit. The
computer CPU is responsible for handling all instructions it receives from hardware and
software running on the computer.

Components of the CPU

In the CPU, the primary components are the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) that performs
mathematical, logical, and decision operations and the CU (Control Unit) that directs all
of the processors operations.

Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a computer processor that incorporates the functions of a
computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit
(IC),http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor or at most a few integrated circuits
Introduction/Overview
A processor, or "microprocessor," is a small chip that resides in computers and other
electronic devices. Its basic job is to receive input and provide the appropriate output. While
this may seem like a simple task, modern processors can handle trillions of calculations per
second.
The central processor of a computer is also known as the CPU, or "central processing unit."
This processor handles all the basic system instructions, such as processing mouse and
keyboard input and running applications.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:
• Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. 
Bandwidth : The number of bits-processed in a single instruction. The amount of data
that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time
• Clock speed : Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that
runs at 25MHz.

Specifications
Important specifications to consider when selecting microprocessor chips (MPU)
include:
• Data bus - Most microprocessor chips are available with an 8-bit, 16-bit, 24-bit,
32-bit, 64-bit, 128-bit, or 256-bit data bus.
• Microprocessor family - Products from many proprietary microprocessor
families are commonly available.
• Supply voltage - Supply voltages range from - 5 V to 5 V and include
intermediate voltages such as - 4.5 V, - 3.3 V, - 3 V, 1.2 V, 1.5 V, 1.8 V, 2.5 V, 3 V,
3.3 V, and 3.6 V.
• Clock speed - Clock speed, the frequency that determines how fast devices
connected to the system bus operate, is generally expressed in megahertz
(MHz).
• Random access memory (RAM) - RAM is usually expressed in kilobytes (kB) or
megabytes (MB).
• Power dissipation - Power dissipation, the device's total power consumption, is
generally expressed in watts (W) or milliwatts (mW).
• Operating temperature - Operating temperature is a full-required range.

CPU Packaging (Microprocessor Types)

The actual microprocessor and its associated electronic circuits are packaged in a protective
outer packaging. When you look at a processor, it's the packaging you see and not the
microprocessor itself. Typically, the processor's packaging is ceramic or plastic.

The outer covering of the processor protects its core (also called the die) that contains the
microchip and the wiring that connects the chip to the processor's mounting pins. A
variety of packaging types have been used on processors. Here are the basic types.

1) Pin Grid Array (PGA): Common among early processors, the mounting pins are
located on the bottom of the chip in concentric squares. The earliest chips were
packaged in the Ceramic PGA (CGPA). Later chips , including some current
ones, use the Plastic PGA (PPGA). The early Pentium chips used a variation that
staggered the pin pattern (in order to cram more pins onto the package) called the
Staggered PGA (SPGA). The Pentium III features a variation of the PGA package
with its Slot 370-like Flip Chip-Pin Graphics Assembly (FC-PGA)

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

2) Plastic Ball Grid Array (PBGA): The Primary difference between this packaging
technology and the PGA is that the PBGA doesn't have mounting pins projecting
from the bottom of the chip, which eliminates the threat of bent pins on the
bottom of the processor. Otherwise, these package styles look similar.

3) Single Edge Connector (SEC): You may find a few variations on the packageing
technology, including the Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC) and others.
They all boil down to a packaging style that is mounted perpendicular to the
motherboard into a single slot, much like expansion cards and memory modules.
The Pentium II was the first processor to sport this new packaging style. This
style made cooling the processor easier.

Processor selection and upgrades

Upgrading your CPU can be a frustrating experience, even though the physical acts of
removing an old processor and installing the new one are pretty easy. The more difficult

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

questions to answer are these: When is the right time for me to upgrade a CPU? What
processor will give me the best bang for the buck?
Complicating the matter for Intel CPU users is the plethora of socket formats that may be
involved. At last count, Intel had four active socket formats for desktop PCs:
Choosing a replacement processor
Socket type, motherboard compatibility, and other factors limit the range of suitable
upgrade processors. Even with those limitations, though, you'll likely have at least
several and possibly dozens of processors to choose among. Microprocessor
manufacturers
There are a bunch of microprocessor manufacturers but Intel and AMD are the major
producers and distributers in the microprocessor market.
Intel - Intel is the leading microprocessor manufacturer. Its microprocessors include
the Pentium, Celeron and Core lines. Intel Corporation is an American multinational
technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. Intel is one of the world's
largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers, based on revenue. It is the
inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal
computers.
AMD - AMD is Intel's main microprocessor rival. Its microprocessors include the
Athlon, Turion and Phenom lines. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) is an
American worldwide semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, United
States, that develops computer processors and related technologies for business and
consumer markets.

Processor Socket and Slot Types

The motherboard has one or more sockets or slots into which the processor is inserted.
The type of processor that can be used is defined by the type of socket or slot present
on the motherboard.
A CPU socket or CPU slot is a mechanical component(s) that provides mechanical and
electrical connections between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB). This
allows the CPU to be placed/ sat and replaced without soldering.

CPU socket example

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

A CPU slot is a computer processor connection designed to make upgrading the

processor much easier, where the user would only have to slide a processor into a slot.

What Types Of Sockets Exist?

Many sockets have existed throughout history but only three are relevant today. These
are LGA, PGA and BGA.

LGA and PGA can be understood as opposites. LGA stands for land grid array and
consists of a socket with pins on which the processor is placed. PGA, on the other hand,
places the pins on the processor, which are then inserted in a socket with appropriately
placed holes. Intel uses the former while AMD uses the latter.

Then there’s BGA, which stands for ball grid array. This technique is used to permanently
attach a processor to its motherboard during production, making future upgrades

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

impossible. BGA is typically less expensive and requires less physical space than a
socket-able processor.
BGA technically is not technically a socket because it’s permanent. It’s worth mentioning
however, because it serves the same function and may become the socket’s
replacement. Intel will start to ship more processors with BGA packaging by 2014 and
ARM processor manufacturers, like Qualcomm and Nvidia, already rely heavily on BGA.

How to Install a New Computer Processor on a Motherboard Things

You Need:
• Processor
• Motherboard
• Screwdriver
Building your own computer can be a fun and challenging do-it-yourself project.
Installing a new computer processor on your motherboard is the most delicate and
important upgrade installation you can do. The computer processor is the centerpiece
of the entire machine. You'll want to be cautious when installing processors in a socket
on your motherboard, but it's a quick and simple task. Follow these simple steps to
install your own computer processor safely.
Installing a Computer Processor:
1. Check motherboard compatibility: Each motherboard has a computer processor
socket, but not all processors fit all motherboards. If you've already purchased
either the motherboard or the processor or both, be sure that your computer
processor is compatible with the processor socket on the motherboard.
2. Prepare the motherboard: If you're simply upgrading an old computer processor on
an old motherboard, you may want to disassemble the computer and remove the
motherboard from the computer case. Work on your computer in a non-carpeted
area to reduce static electricity which can damage your computer processor, your
motherboard and other components. Touch an unpainted metal surface to discharge
static from your body.
3. Inspect the computer processor: The bottom of your processor will have many tiny
pins. If any of the pins are broken or severely bent, you may need to return it for a
new one.
4. Insert the processor: Most motherboards have a zero insertion force (ZIF) computer
processor socket. This means you won't need to press down on the processor to
install it. You'll instead use a lever on the motherboard socket itself.
o Unlock the processor socket on the motherboard by lifting the small metal or
plastic lever on the side of the processor socket. If you're replacing the old
computer processor, remove it now and set it aside. o Align the processor
with the socket. The pins on the bottom of your computer processor are
arranged in a specific pattern. When properly aligned, the pins will simply fall
into place on the motherboard socket. Often, one corner of the processor will

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

be marked to match up with a corresponding corner on the motherboard

socket.
o Drop the processor into place and lock the socket. Once the pins are aligned
with the holes in the processor socket, very gently lower and drop the
processor into the socket on the mother board. Don't apply any pressure or
force. Instead, gently close the socket lever and lock it in place. Your computer
processor is now installed.
5. Finish installing components and test: Once you've finished installing the
motherboard and other components into the computer case, test your computer
system.

CHAPTER 5
Memory
Memory is the electronic holding place for instructions and data that your computer's
microprocessor can reach quickly. When your computer is in normal operation, its memory
usually contains the main parts of the operating system and some or all of the application
programs and related data that are being used.
Memory is sometimes distinguished from storage, or the physical medium that holds
the much larger amounts of data that won't fit into RAM and may not be immediately
needed there.

Characteristics of Computer Memory

1. Electrical Characteristics - The voltage and current requirements depend on the
manufacturing technology of the device. The voltage level is not of major concern
because most of the semiconductor memory devices operate at TTL voltage levels.
2. Speed - There is a finite time delay between the application of address and the
availability of stable and accurate data on the data lines. This memory delay depends on
the manufacturing technology and other factors such as size.
3. Capacity representing the global volume of information (in bits) that the memory can
store. Memory is small in size and hence its storage is relatively low

Types of Memories
1. Random access memory, generally called RAM is the system's main memory, i.e. it is a
space that allows you to temporarily store data when a program is running.

Unlike data storage on an auxiliary memory such as a hard drive, RAM is volatile,
meaning that it only stores data as long as it supplied with electricity. Thus, each time
the computer is turned off, all the data in the memory are irremediably erased.
2. Read-only memory, called ROM, is a type of memory that allows you to keep the
information contained on it even when the memory is no longer receiving electricity.
Basically, this type of memory only has read-only access. However, it is possible to save
information in some types of ROM memory.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

3. Flash memory is a compromise between RAM-type memories and ROM memories.

Flash memory possesses the non-volatility of ROM memories while providing both read
and write access However, the access times of flash memories are longer than the
access times of RAM.

TYPES OF MEMORY MODULES PACKAGING

SIMMS
SIMM stands for Single In-Line Memory Module. Like other types of memory modules,
a SIMM consist of memory chips soldered onto a modular printed circuit board (PCB),
which inserts into a socket on the motherboard. 72 pin SIMMs transfer 32 bits of data at
a time, therefore in modern microcomputers with a 64-bit data bus two SIMMs have to
be paired up in order to function.

DIMMS
Dual In-line Memory Modules, or DIMMs, closely resemble SIMMs. Like
SIMMs, most DIMMs install vertically into expansion sockets. The principal difference
between the two is that on a SIMM, pins on opposite sides of the board are "tied
together" to form one electrical contact; on a DIMM, opposing pins rem a in electrically
isolated to form two separate contacts.

168-pin DIMMs transfer 64 bits of data at a time and are typically used in computer
configurations that support a 64-bit or wider memory bus. Some of the physical
differences between 168-pin DIMMs and 72-pin SIMMs include: the length of module,
the number of notches on the module, and the way the module installs in the socket.
Another difference is that many 72-pin SIMMs install at a slight angle, whereas 168-pin
DIMMs install straight into the memory socket and remain completely vertical in
relation to the system motherboard. The illustration below compares a 168-pin DIMM to
a 72-pin SIMM.

SO DIMMS
A type of memory commonly used in notebook computers is called SO DIMM or Small
Outline DIMM. The principal difference between a SO

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

DIMM and a DIMM is that the SO DIMM, because it is intended for use in notebook
computers, is significantly smaller than the standard DIMM. The 72-pin SO DIMM is 32
bits wide and the 144-pin SO DIMM is 64 bits wide.

RIMMS AND SO-RIMMS

RIMM is the trademarked name for a Direct Rambus memory module. RIMMs look
similar to DIMMs, but have a different pin count. RIMMs transfer data in 16-bit chunks.
The faster access and transfer speed generates more heat. An aluminums heath, called a
heat spreader, covers the module to protect the chips from overheating. A 184-pin Direct
Rambus RIMM shown with heat spreaders pulled away.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Memory-Mapping
What Is Memory-Mapping?

Memory-mapping is a mechanism that maps a portion of a file, or an entire file, on disk

to a range of addresses within an application's address space. The application can then
access files on disk in the same way it accesses dynamic memory. This makes file reads
and writes faster in comparison with using functions such as fread and fwrite.

Benefits of Memory-Mapping

The principal benefits of memory-mapping are efficiency, faster file access, the ability to share
memory between applications, and more efficient coding.

Faster File Access

Accessing files via memory map is faster than using I/O functions such as fread and
fwrite. Data are read and written using the virtual memory capabilities that are built in
to the operating system rather than having to allocate, copy into, and then deallocate data
buffers owned by the process.

Efficiency

Mapping a file into memory allows access to data in the file as if that data had been read
into an array in the application's address space. Initially, As a result, memory-mapped files
provide a mechanism by which applications can access data segments in an extremely
large file without having to read the entire file into memory first.

Memory Mapping types

There are a few different kinds of mappings that can be specified in the map attribute. All
use the format described in the previous section.

Device Mapping: The most common kind of mapping. It is used for devices, RAM and ROM
objects. The target field is not set.
Translator Mapping: Sometimes the address has to be modified between memory-spaces,
or the destination memory-space depends on the address or some other aspect of the
access such as the initiating processor. In these cases a translator can be used. A
translator mapping is specified with the translator in the object field, and the default
target as target. The translator has to implement the TRANSLATE interface. When an access
reaches a translator mapping, the translate function in the TRANSLATE interface is called.
The translator can then modify the address if necessary, and specify what destination
memory-space to use. If it doesn't specify any new memory-space, the default one from
the configuration is used. The following fields can be changed by the translator:
physical_address, ignore, block_STC, inverse_endian and user_ptr.
Translate to RAM/ROM Mapping: Used to map RAM and ROM objects with a
translator first. The object field is set to the translator, and target is set to the RAM/ROM object.
Space-to-space Mapping: Map one memory-space in another. Both object and target should
be set to the destination memory-space object.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Bridge Mapping: A bridge mapping is typically used for mappings that are setup by some
kind of bridge device. The purpose of a bridge mapping is to handle accesses where
nothing is mapped, in a way that corresponds to the bus architecture. For a bridge
mapping, the object field is set to the bridge device, implementing the BRIDGE interface.
The target field is set to the destination memory-space.

Selection and upgrading memory

Do you suspect your computer could use more memory? Here's how to tell. Here
are a few simple — but telling — signs that your computer could benefit from a
memory upgrade.
You experience poor or sub-par performance in everyday tasks. For instance, a program doesn't
respond or seems to take forever to open.
You get system notifications that say "low memory" or "out of memory".
You are having display problems. Like when you pull up a page and it either partially
loads or if refuses to load at all. Or you see a blank space where data should be. In
some cases, the PC refuses to operate at all. When you try to open anything, the
system will not respond.

If you are experiencing any of these symptoms, a memory upgrade may be in order.

It's easy to tell how much memory is installed on your system and how much is being used.

Hardware Tips: Choose the Right Kind of Memory for Your System

Adding RAM to your PC usually delivers the most bang for your upgrade buck, but only
if you buy the right kind of memory module for your PC. There are more types of PC
RAM than there are lattes at Starbucks: Do you want SDRAM, PC100, non-parity, or un-
buffered DIMM? Why not enjoy a refreshing DDR SDRAM, PC2700, CL2.5, or
registered DIMM? Here are the ins and outs of PC memory.

Begin by checking your system's user manual to identify the types of RAM your PC's
motherboard supports. If you don't have the manual, visit the manufacturer's Web site and
search for downloadable manuals or other tools that might help you find the information
you need.

Before you buy, ascertain the following:

Maximum module size: Find out the maximum size of memory module that your PC
supports. Don't buy a module larger than what your motherboard's memory slots can
each accommodate.

RAM and connector types: Determine which of the four types of RAM your system
uses: DRAM (EDO or FPM), SDRAM, DDR SDRAM, or RDRAM. All four types are
mounted on one of three module types: SIMM, DIMM, or RIMM.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Most machines support only one type of RAM and have one type of module or connector,
so mixing types isn't an option. The few motherboards that do accept two types of RAM
allow only a single type to be used at any one time.

Memory speed: SDRAM, DDR SDRAM, and RDRAM are rated to match or exceed the
PC's front side bus speed, which is the speed at which data moves between the CPU and
RAM. If your system comes with PC66 SDRAM, you can use PC100 SDRAM to
replace it and get the faster speed, as long as your PC's front side bus supports the higher
rate. But if you mix RAM of different speeds, all RAM will operate at the speed of the
slowest chip.

Memory banks: On some PCs, the memory slot closest to the CPU--usually called bank 0--
must be filled before the motherboard's other memory slots. On other systems, bank 0 must
have the largest RAM module (if you are using modules of different sizes). There's no
fixed rule, so check your PC's documentation.

Non-parity or ECC: If your system supports error-correcting code (ECC) and has more
than 512MB of RAM, buying ECC memory may be worth the added cost. Large
amounts of RAM are more likely to experience occasional, random errors (which may be
caused by cosmic rays, among other sources). However, unless your current RAM is
ECC, forget it; you can use non-parity and ECC modules together, but error correction
will be disabled.

To determine your type of memory, count the number of chips on the memory module. If the
number is divisible by three, you have ECC or parity memory.

Column address strobe: The lower the CAS rating--or the CL rating--is, the better.
SDRAM comes in CL2 or CL3 types, and DDR SDRAM comes in CL2 or CL2.5.
Unless your motherboard requires a specific CAS or CL rating, get the lower (faster)
rated module. Cost differences should be negligible. Again, if you mix modules of
different speeds, they'll all operate at the slowest module's speed.

CHAPTER 6

Disks and Drives

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, is a technology consisting of

computer components and recording media used to retain digital data. It is a core
function and fundamental component of computers. There are two different types of
storage devices:

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Primary Storage Devices: Generally smaller in size, are designed to hold data temporarily
and are internal to the computer. They have the fastest data access speed, and include
RAM and cache memory. Secondary Storage Devices: These usually have large storage
capacity, and they store data permanently. They can be both internal and external to the
computer, and they include the hard disk, compact disk drive and USB storage device.
Note: A disk is a device on which data is stored while a drive is a device used to record/read
from a disk. Some devices incorporate the disk and drive together (i.e. Hard drive/hard disk
drive) but others are in separate (i.e. CD/Floppy disks and drives)

Types of computer storage and Disks

The following are some examples of types of storage devices used with computers.

Magnetic storage/disks devices - Today, magnetic storage is one of the most common
types of storage used with computers and is the technology that many computer hard
drives use. It uses magnetism as its method of reading and writing data.

• Floppy diskette
• Hard drive
• Super Disk
• Tape cassette
• Zip diskette

Optical storage/disks devices - Another common storage is optical storage, which uses
lasers and lights as its method of reading and writing data.

• Blu-Ray disc
• CD-ROM disc
• CD-R and CD-RW disc
• DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD+RW disc

Storage/Disk organization
If data needs to be kept whilst a computer is turned off then it must be stored on
backing store. Any programs or data that are not currently being used by a
computer will be kept on backing store. When programs or data are used they
are copied (loaded) into main memory
(RAM) for faster access.

The purpose of storage in a computer is to hold data and get that data to the
CPU as quickly as possible when it is needed. Computers use disks for storage:
most commonly, hard disks that are located inside the computer (non-
removable), and floppy or compact disks that are used externally (removable).
Three types of Backing Storage media we will overview in this topic are;
Magnetic, Optical and Electronic media.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Storage Media vs Storage Drives

Information stored on backing store is placed on a storage

medium.

The data is read from or written to the storage medium by a

piece of hardware known as a drive or a storage device.
That is, a storage device records and retrieves items to
and from a storage medium.

It takes much longer to access data which is on backing store than data
which is in main memory, typically 100 to 1000 times as long.
This is because most backing storage devices operate mechanically. Computer
systems have much more backing store than main memory for two reasons:

1. Main Memory only needs to store programs and data that are currently
being used whereas the backing store needs to hold all of the programs
and data that can be
used on the computer.
2. Backing store is much cheaper per Mb than Main Memory.

Capacity is the number of bytes a storage medium can hold.

Reading is the process of transferring data, instructions, and information from a

storage medium into memory.

Writing is the process of transferring these items from memory to a storage medium.

Characteristics of Backing store

Data is usually accessed using read/write heads. These transfer the data
while the medium rotates in the drive
Access to backing store is slower that to main memory
They are non-volatile. The data is stored on the medium until it is deleted.

Magnetic Media

Magnetic tape

Magnetic tape is a narrow plastic ribbon

coated with an easily magnetisable material
on which data can be recorded. It is used in

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

sound recording, audiovisual systems (videotape),

and backups.

Tape is still used to make backup copies of important data. Information is

recorded on the tape in binary form, with two different strengths of signal
representing 1 and 0.
The device that reads the tape is the Tape Drive or Tape Unit.

Magnetic tape comes mainly in two different forms:

Reel to Large reels of tape which must be loaded into a reel-to-reel

Reel tape drive. This type of tape is usually used by mainframe
computers.
Cartridges The tape is supplied in a small cartridge rather like a
music tape. This type of tape is used on PCs
(microcomputers) and the device used to read/write the
tapes is called a tape streamer.
Capacities of cartridges vary from 10Gb to 200Gb.

Magnetic Discs - Hard Disks

The hard disk is a magnetic disk, usually fixed in

the drive (internal) although nowadays there also
exist external hard disks. Access to data is far
faster than access to floppy disks. Hard disks
store far more data than floppy disks. They are
more reliable then floppy disks - there is better
protection against dirt. Hard disks are used to
store
the operating system,
application software and
users' files.

A hard disk is made

of a rigid disk which is
coated with a magnetisable
material. Hard disks spin
much more quickly than
floppy disks and the disk read/write head is positioned very close to the
disk (thousandths of a millimeter away). Because the disk head is
positioned so close to the disk hard drives can easily be damaged by
dust or vibration. Therefore the disk, the drive head and all the
electronics needed to operate the drive are built together into a sealed
unit. This picture shows a hard disk drive with the case removed.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Usually (as in the picture above) several physical disks are contained in
one hard disk unit. Each disk is known as a platter. Typical hard disk
capacities for a home PC now start at up to 180 Gb.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Floppy Disks

Consists of a plastic case that measures 3 1/2 by 5 inches. Inside

that case is a very thin piece of plastic (see picture at right) that is
coated with microscopic iron particles (magnetic). This disk is much
like the tape inside a video or audio cassette. Never touch the inner
disk - you could damage the data that is stored on it.
Floppy disks are the smallest type of storage, holding only 1.44MB.

Access to data is much slower than for hard disk. The data on the
disk can be protected by sliding a small write-protect tab which
prevents the contents of the disk from being changed.

Some hardware companies now produce storage devices (Zip

disks) which are very similar to floppy disks but can store 100Mb or
even 250Mb of data. These devices are also much faster than
standard floppy disk drives.

How Hard disks and Floppy Disks Work - Magnetic

The process of reading and writing to a hard or floppy disk is done with electricity and
magnetism. The surfaces of both types of disks can be easily magnetized. The
electromagnetic head of the disk drive records information to the disk by creating a
pattern of magnetized and non-magnetized areas on the disk's surface. Do you
remember how the binary code uses on and off commands to represent information?
On the disk, magnetized areas are on and non-magnetized areas are off, so that all
information is stored in binary code. This is how the electronic head can both write to or
read from the disk surface.

It is very important to always keep magnets away from floppy disks and away from your
computer! The magnets can erase information from the disks!

Format of Magnetic Disks

All magnetic disks are similarly formatted, or divided into areas, called
Tracks and Sectors. The formatting process sets up a method of assigning
addresses to the different areas. It also sets up an area for keeping the list
of addresses. Without formatting there would be no way to know what
data went with what.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Tracks - A track is a circular ring on one

side of the disk. Each track has a
number. The diagram shows 3 tracks.

Sectors - A
disk sector
is a
wedgeshap
e piece of
the disk.
Each sector
is
numbered.

Double sided A typical

magnetic disk
has two
surfaces or
sides. Each
surface holds
data in circular
tracks and
each track is
divided into
equal sections
called sectors.
The track
number and
sector number
are used as
an adderss to
find where
data is on the
disk. Data can
be both both
written to or
read from the
disk. Magnetic

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

disk are direct

access i.e.
any data item
can be
accessed
without
reading other
data first.

What happens when a disk is formatted?

1. All data is erased. Don't forget this!!

2. Surfaces are checked for physical and

magnetic defects.

3. A Filing system (with root directory) is

created to list where things are on the disk.

Optical Media

An optical disk is a storage medium in which laser technology is used to record and
read large volumes of digital data.

Compact Disks

CDs use ________ (microscopic indentations) and ____________ (flat surfaces) to

store information much the same way floppies and hard disks use magnetic and non-
magnetic storage. Inside the CDRom is a laser that reflects light off of the surface of the
disk to an electric eye.

Compact disks are exchangeable and easy to

transport. Access to data is faster than access to
floppy disks but slower than hard disks. CDs typically
hold 650 or 700
megabytes of data, and are
used in distributing large
amounts of text and graphics,
such as encyclopedias,
catalogues, and technical manuals.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

As with a hard disk the drive head in an optical drive can

move directly to any file on the disk so optical disks are direct
access.

CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory) - The data is written onto the CD-
ROM disk before it is sold and can not be changed by the user. CD-ROMs are used for
applications such as distributing software, digital videos or multimedia products.

CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable) - A CD-R disk is blank when it is supplied. The
user can write data to it just once. After data has been written to the disk it can not be
changed. CD-Rs are often used for making permanent backups of data and distributing
software when only a small number of copies are required.

CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewriteable) - CD-RW disks can be read from and
written to.

DVDs

DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk - Read Only Memory) - DVD disks are able to store
much more data than CD disks. The DVD standard includes disk capacities up to 30Gb.
DVD-ROM disks can be read from but can not be written to.

DVD-RAM (Digital Versatile Disk - Random Access Memory) - DVD-RAM disks have
all of the benefits of DVD-ROM disks and can be written to as well. These very high
capacity disks are ideal for producing backups.

Because of their high capacity, DVD disks are used to store high quality video such as
complete movies.

Disk management
Disk Management is an extension of the Microsoft Management Console that allows full
management of the disk-based hardware recognized by Windows.
You can use Disk Management in this version of Windows to perform disk-related tasks such as
creating and formatting partitions and volumes, and assigning drive letters.

What is a system utility?

System utilities are programs that are designed to help you fix and enhance your current
computer system. Many operating systems include a range of utility programs to perform
common tasks such as checking disks, backing up information, restoring information and
reorganising information. Many other system utilities are available as third party software – this
means that you purchase and install these utilities separately from the operating system software.
Third party system utilities are designed to perform specific functions that the current operating
system either does not perform or performs at a lesser standard.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

The types of system utilities we’ll look at in this reading will allow you to perform these basic
tasks:
• disk scan
• disk defragment
• file back up
• file recovery
• get system information.

What is a disk scan?

A disk scan is a useful utility to help identify and repair problems on a hard disk or floppy disk; it
is provided with some operating systems. It can perform a thorough check of the disk’s surface to
ensure that it is able to read and write information on all areas of the disk. If the disk scan utility
finds a problem it will usually display a message and offer to fix the problem.
There is a disk scan utility on recent versions of Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh
operating systems, where if you turn off your computer without exiting the system, the Scan
Disk utility will run automatically the next time you start your computer.
There are also third party utilities that you are able to use that will perform similar and
sometimes more thorough scans of the disk.
What is defragment?
To a computer, defragment means that all the files on the computer’s hard disk will be placed in a
neat and tidy order.
Gradually, as a computer hard disk has many files added, updated and deleted, the files can start
to become fragmented. Fragmentation means that portions of the files are scattered all over the
disk. A defragment will ensure that all files are reordered so that their parts are placed adjacent to
one another. This will mean the computer can now read these files much more quickly.
Depending on how many files need to be reorganised, a defragment can take hours. If you use
your computer regularly you should try and do a defragment at least once a month. A good
time to do a defragment may be overnight – when nobody will be using the computer.
Often an operating system will include several system tools, including the defragment utility. If it
is not included with the operating system, a defragment program can be purchased as an external
software program (a third party utility).

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Figure 1: A diagram of a disk before and after a defragment. The picture on the left
displays a disk with lines (representing data) that have been randomly placed on the
disk. The picture on the right displays a disk after defragmentation — the lines (data)
now appear in a consecutive order.

Figure 2: A screenshot of the Disk Defragmenter utility provided with the Microsoft Windows
XP operating system

Backing up
Backing up means making a copy of your files, in case your computer hard disk fails and your
original files become ‘corrupted’. Although for the majority of time the computer’s hard disk
will not have any problems, occasionally a disk may fail unexpectedly. Some reasons why a hard
disk may fail include:  a sudden power failure
• computer virus damaging the hard disk
• damaged caused by knocking or moving the hard disk.
Backups need to be done on a regular basis, so if there is a problem you will still have a recent
copy of your files. It is also a good idea to keep backups in another location away from your
computer. Make sure where you store your backup information is away from sunlight, dust and
magnetic fields.
Choosing a backup media
It is important to choose the most appropriate kind of media to backup data to. When choosing
media, be realistic; it is better to store backups using media that has a large capacity. Some
suggestions include:
• Second hard disk: Some computers may have a second hard disk available that will allow a
fast and easy method of backing up data.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• CD or DVD: Many computers have CD and DVD burners that will allow you to ‘burn’ data
onto a writeable CD or DVD.
• Zip disk: Zip disks are removable disks that hold between 100MB and 250MB of
information.
• Tape drive: A medium that may be used by a business to backup business information.
What should you backup?
Backup anything that you have created yourself — including documents, digital photographs and
video. All of these items will have no other way of being replaced if there are problems later on.
If there is a problem, you can always reinstall the operating system and the application software
using the original software CDs.
How often should you backup?
How often you backup will really depend on how often you use the computer and what is being
stored on the computer. If, for example, your computer contains important business information
that you are using everyday, it is a good idea to try to back up everyday. If, however, you only
use your computer occasionally to play games or write the odd letter, a backup will probably
only need to be done once a month.
How to perform a backup
Some operating systems include special backup utilities that make it easy for you to back up
important files. If you don’t have a backup utility already installed you could install a third party
program that is designed to do backups or manually copy and paste your files from the hard disk
to your backup device.
Backup programs allow you to easily select files that you want to back up, then they copy the
files to the chosen backup device. A backup program may also compress the files before they are
copied so you can fit more files onto the backup device.
Recovery
A recovery utility is used to undelete a file that has been accidentally deleted. Many operating
systems now include special recovery utilities to help you restore files that have accidentally
been removed. Microsoft Windows includes a Recycle Bin and Macintosh operating systems
include Trash. Both of these utilities allow you a second chance to undelete any files on the hard
disk.
There is also a recovery utility in recent version of Microsoft Windows called System Restore.
The System Restore utility keeps a regular log of all current settings so if, for example, a new
installation of a program is causing problems System Restore will be able to reset all settings
back to how they were before the installation.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Figure 3: A screenshot of the System Restore utility in Microsoft Windows XP operating

system

Hard Disk Interface(s)

Hard drives and other devices are connected to a computer motherboard through some type of
cable. These cables use multiple smaller wires in parallel to transmit the proper signals for
reading and writing to and from the drive. There are multiple types of cables, which transmit at
different speeds and use different types of connectors. Here we will look at some of the most
common device cables and the differences between them.

SCSI - SCSI stands for Small Computer System Interface and used a parallel cable to attach both
internal and external devices. One of the benefits of SCSI interfaces is that multiple devices
could be chained together to a single port. Another benefit is that the interface includes features
like error checking and hand shake signals between devices.

IDE - IDE stands for Integrated Drive Electronics and refers more to the standard than the cable
type itself. The technology is also often referred to as ATA or PATA. ATA cables can only be up
to 18 inches in length and are fairly large and flat, which makes them a poor choice for external
devices, so the interface is mainly used for internal devices. The cable uses a combination of 40
or 80 wires in parallel.

SATA - SATA stands for Serial ATA and is an evolution of the original ATA (or IDE) interface.
The SATA interface is faster in speed, at up to 3GB/s. Another major benefit of the interface is

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

that the cables and connectors are much smaller, taking up less space inside a computer case and
not restricting air flow. There is an external version of SATA known as eSATA for connecting
external hard drives and other devices.

Interface cables have improved quite a bit over the years, but the basic concept of input and
output has remained mainly the same. New interfaces such as Thunderbolt have added even
faster transfer speeds and taken some of the benefits from multiple technologies to make an
improved connection.

Formatting and Partitioning a Hard Drive

Definitions
There are a few words we need to define before going any further. Don't
worry, there won't be a test. :-)

• Partition, partitioning: Free space on a hard disk must be

partitioned before it can be used by an operating system. Creating a
partition reserves a physical portion of the hard drive space for use as
a logical drive, or volume, that the operating system can address.
• Volume: A volume is how the operating system 'sees' your free disk
space. Volumes (also called logical drives) are represented in Windows
by drive letters such as C:, E:, etc. Volumes are formed by partitioning
the free space of a hard drive. Volumes must be formatted with a file
system before data can be stored on them.
• Formatting: Formatting is the act of creating a file system on a
volume, so that the operating system can store and retrieve data on
that volume.
• File system: A file system provides a means of organizing and
retrieving information written to a hard disk or any other storage
medium. A file system is created on a volume when it is formatted.
Common Windows file systems include FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32)
and NTFS (New Technology File System).

Partition can be thought of as a division or "part" of a real hard disk drive. When you partition a
hard drive, you make it available to an operating system. Multiple partitions on a singe hard
drive appear as separate drives to the operating system.
A partition also is used to mean the division of certain kinds of secondary storage (such as hard
disk drives (HDDs)), via the creation of multiple sub-divitions. Partitions are logical containers
which are usually used to house file systems, where operating systems, applications, and data are
installed on. A single partition may span the entirety of a physical storage device.
Disk formatting is the process of preparing a data storage device such as a hard disk drive,
solid-state drive, floppy disk or USB flash drive for initial use.
The first part of the formatting process that performs basic medium preparation is often referred
to as "low-level formatting".

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

The second part, Partitioning is the common term for the part in the process in disc preparation,
making the data storage device visible to an operating system.
The third part of the process, usually termed "high-level formatting" most often refers to the
process of generating a new file system. In some operating systems all or parts of these three
processes can be combined or repeated at different levels and the term "format" is understood to
mean an operation in which a new disk medium is fully prepared to store files.

CHAPTER 7
Computer display
A computer monitor or a computer display is an electronic visual display for computers A
display device is an output device for presentation of information in visual or tactile form (the
latter used for example in tactile electronic displays for blind people). When the input
information is supplied has an electrical signal, the display is called an electronic display.
display adapter
A plug-in card in a desktop computer that performs graphics processing. Also commonly called a
"graphics card" or "video card," modern display adapters use the PCI Express interface, while
earlier cards used PCI and AGP. The display adapter determines the maximum resolution, refresh
rate and number of colors that can be displayed, which the monitor must also be able to support.
On many PC motherboards, the graphics circuits are built into the chipset, and a separate plug-in
card is not required.

Types of computer monitors

Most people use computer monitors daily at work and at home. And while these come in a
variety of shapes, designs, and colors, they can also be broadly categorized into three types. If
you are not sure what these are and would like an introduction to the different types of computer
monitors then here we explain the three main types, as well as the pros and cons of each.

CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors

These monitors employ CRT technology, which was used most commonly in the manufacturing
of television screens. With these monitors, a stream of intense high energy electrons is used to
form images on a fluorescent screen. A cathode ray tube is basically a vacuum tube containing an
electron gun at one end and a fluorescent screen at another end.

While CRT monitors can still be found in some organizations, many offices have stopped using
them largely because they are heavy, bulky, and costly to replace should they break. While they
are still in use, it would be a good idea to phase these monitors out for cheaper, lighter, and more
reliable monitors.

LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors

The LCD monitor incorporates one of the most advanced technologies available today.
Typically, it consists of a layer of color or monochrome pixels arranged schematically between a
couple of transparent electrodes and two polarizing filters. Optical effect is made possible by

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

polarizing the light in varied amounts and making it pass through the liquid crystal layer. The
two types of LCD technology available are the active matrix of TFT and a passive matrix
technology. TFT generates better picture quality and is more secure and reliable. Passive matrix,
on the other hand, has a slow response time and is slowly becoming outdated.

The advantages of LCD monitors include their compact size which makes them lightweight.
They also don’t consume much electricity as CRT monitors, and can be run off of batteries which
makes them ideal for laptops.

Images transmitted by these monitors don’t get geometrically distorted and have little flicker.
However, this type of monitor does have disadvantages, such as its relatively high price, an
image quality which is not constant when viewed from different angles, and a monitor resolution
that is not always constant, meaning any alterations can result in reduced performance.

LED (light-emitting diodes) monitors

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors on the market today. These are flat panel, or
slightly curved displays which make use of light-emitting diodes for back-lighting, instead of
cold cathode fluorescent (CCFL) back-lighting used in LCDs. LED monitors are said to use
much lesser power than CRT and LCD and are considered far more environmentally friendly.

The advantages of LED monitors are that they produce images with higher contrast, have less
negative environmental impact when disposed, are more durable than CRT or LCD monitors, and
features a very thin design. They also don’t produce much heat while running. The only
downside is that they can be more expensive, especially for the high-end monitors like the new
curved displays that are being released.

Being aware of the different types of computer monitors available should help you choose one
that’s most suited to your needs. Looking to learn more about hardware in today’s world?
Contact us and see how we can help.

Factors That Affect The Quality Of A Display Device

(Monitor performance measurement)

The quality of a CRT monitor depends largely on its resolution, dot pitch, and refresh rate. The
quality of an LCD monitor or display depends primarily on its resolution.

A CRT monitor’s screen is coated with tiny dots of phosphor material, called pixels, that glow
when electrically charged to produce an image.

Resolution, which describes the sharpness and clearness of that image, is related directly to the
number of pixels a monitor can display. The greater the number of pixels the display uses, the
better the quality of the image.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Dot pitch, a measure of image clarity, is the distance between each pixel on a display. The
smaller the distance between pixels (dot pitch), the sharper the image.

Refresh rate is the speed that a monitor redraws images on the screen. Refresh rate should be fast
enough to maintain a constant, flicker-free image.

The resolution of an LCD monitor or display generally is proportional to the size of the monitor
or display. That is, the resolution increases for larger monitors and devices.

Computer Monitor Troubleshooting

How to Test a Computer Monitor that Isn't Working

1. Check to make sure your monitor is on! Some monitors have more than one power button
or switch - check to make sure they're all switched on.
2. Check for disconnected monitor power cable connections. Your monitor might be
working fine and your only problem may be a loose or unplugged monitor power cable.

Note: A disconnected monitor power cable could be the cause of your problem if your
monitor's power light is completely off.
3. Check for disconnected monitor data cable connections. Again, your monitor might be
turning on without a problem but no information can get to it because the cable that
connects your monitor to your computer is disconnected or loose.

Note: A disconnected monitor data cable could be the cause of your problem if your
monitor's power light is on but is amber or yellow instead of green.
4. Turn the monitor's brightness and contrast settings completely up. Your monitor might be
showing information but you just can't see it because these display settings are too dark.

Note: Most monitors today have a single onscreen interface for all settings, including
brightness and contrast. If it turns out that your monitor isn't working at all then you'll
likely not have access to this interface. An older monitor might have manual knobs for
adjusting these settings.

1. Test that your computer is working correctly by connecting a different monitor that you
are certain is working properly to your PC. Your monitor may be working fine but your
computer might not be sending information to it.

o If the new monitor you connected does not show anything either, proceed to Step
6.
o If the new monitor you connected does show information from your computer, proceed
to Step 7.
Important: When testing with the new monitor, make sure you use the data cable that
came with it and not the one from your original monitor.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

1. Determine why your computer isn't sending information to your monitor. Since neither
monitor works, you now know that the computer is not sending information to the
monitor. In other words, you've proven that your computer is the reason that nothing
shows up on your monitor.
Chances are your original monitor is working fine.
2. Test your original monitor with a monitor data cable that you know is working. It's
possible that the monitor itself is working properly but it can't receive information from
the computer because the cable that connects the monitor to the PC is no longer working.

Note: If possible, test using the data cable from the monitor that you successfully tested
with in Step 5. If not, purchase a replacement monitor data cable to test with.

Note: The data cable on some older monitors are permanently connected to the monitor
and are not replaceable. In these cases, you'll have to skip this step and proceed to Step 8.
3. Replace the monitor.

WARNING: A computer monitor is not a user serviceable device. In other words - do not
open the monitor and attempt to repair it yourself. If you would rather have your dead
monitor serviced instead of replaced then please let a professional do it.

How To Fix a Computer That Turns On But Displays Nothing

Fixing a computer with this problem could take anywhere from minutes to hours depending on
why exactly the computer isn't displaying anything on the monitor, which we'll figure out as we
troubleshoot the issue.

1. Test your monitor. Before you begin more complicated and time-consuming
troubleshooting with the rest of your computer, make sure your monitor is working
properly.

It's possible that your computer is working fine and your monitor is your only problem.
2. Verify that your PC has fully power cycled. In other words, make sure your computer has
completely reset - make sure that it's coming on from a completely powered-off state.

Often times a computer will appear to "not be on" when actually it's just having problems
resuming from either the Standby/Sleep or Hibernate power saving mode in Windows.

Note: You can power off your computer completely while in a power saving mode by
holding the power button down for 3 to 5 seconds. After the power is completely off, turn
on your PC and test to see if it will boot normally.

1. Troubleshoot the cause of the beep code if you're lucky enough to get one. A beep code
will give you a very good idea of exactly where to look for the cause of your computer
turning off.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

If you don't resolve the problem by troubleshooting to the specific beep code, you can
always return here and continue with the steps below.

1. Clear the CMOS. Clearing the BIOS memory on your motherboard will return the BIOS
settings to their factory default levels. A BIOS misconfiguration could be why your PC
won't startup all the way.

Important: If clearing the CMOS does fix your problem, make sure any changes you
make in BIOS are completed one at a time so if the problem returns, you'll know which
change caused your issue.
2. Verify that the power supply voltage switch is set correctly. If the input voltage for the
power supply is not correct (based on your country) then your computer may not turn on
completely.

There's a good possibility that your PC wouldn't power on at all if this switch is wrong
but an incorrect power supply voltage might also prevent your computer from starting
properly in this way too.
3. Reseat everything possible inside your PC. Reseating will reestablish the various
connections inside your computer and is very often a "magic" fix to problems like this
one.

Try reseating the following and then see if your computer begins to display something on
screen: o Reseat all internal data and power cables
o Reseat the memory modules
o Reseat any expansion cards

Note: Unplug and reattach your keyboard and mouse as well. There isn't a great
possibility that the keyboard or mouse is causing your computer to not turn on fully but
we might as well reconnect them while we're reseating everything else.

1. Reseat the CPU only if you suspect that it might have come loose or might not have been
installed properly.

Note: I call this out separately only because the chance of a CPU coming loose is very
slim and because installing one is a sensitive task. This isn't a big concern if you're
careful, so don't worry!
2. Check for causes of electrical shorts inside your computer. This is often the cause of the
problem when the computer powers off by itself but certain shorts can also prevent your
computer from booting fully or showing anything on the monitor.
3. Test your power supply. Just because your computer's fans and lights are working does
not mean that the power supply is functioning properly. The PSU tends to cause more
problems than any other hardware and is often the cause of a computer not coming on all
the way.

Replace your power supply immediately if it fails any test you perform.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Important: I want to make this point very clear - do not skip a test of your power supply
thinking that your problem can't be the PSU because "things are getting power." Power
supplies can work in varying degrees - one that isn't fully functional needs to be replaced.

Tip: After replacing the power supply, assuming you do, keep your PC plugged in for 5
to 10 minutes prior to turning it on. This gives time for some recharging of the CMOS
battery, which may have been drained.

1. Start your computer with essential hardware only. The purpose here is to remove as much
hardware as possible while still maintaining your PC's ability to power on.

o If your computer starts normally with only essential hardware installed, proceed
to Step 11. o If your computer still isn't displaying anything on your monitor,
proceed to Step
12.

Important: This step is easy enough for a novice to complete, takes no special tools, and
could provide you with a lot of valuable information. This isn't a step to skip if, after all
the steps above, your computer is still not turning on completely.

2. Reinstall each piece of hardware that you removed in Step 10, one piece at a time, testing
after each installation.

Since your computer powered on with only the essential hardware installed, those
components must work properly. This means that one of the hardware components you
removed is causing your PC to not turn on properly. By installing each device back into
your PC and testing each time, you'll eventually find the hardware that caused your
problem.

Replace the nonworking hardware once you've identified it. These Hardware Installation
Videos should come in handy as you're reinstalling your hardware.
3. Test your computer's hardware using a Power On Self Test card. If your PC still isn't
displaying information on your monitor with anything but essential computer hardware
installed, a POST card will help identify which piece of remaining hardware is causing
your computer to not come on completely.

If you don't have and are unwilling to purchase a POST card, skip to Step 13.
4. Replace each piece of essential hardware in your computer with an identical or equivalent
spare piece of hardware (that you know is working), one component at a time, to
determine which piece of hardware is causing your computer to not come on all the way.
Test after each hardware replacement to determine which component is faulty.

Note: The average computer user doesn't have a collection of working spare computer

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

parts at home or work. If you don't either, my advice is to revisit Step 12. A POST card is
inexpensive and is a more reasonable approach than stocking spare computer parts.
5. Finally, if all else fails, you'll probably need to seek professional help from a computer
repair service or from your computer manufacturer's technical support.

Unfortunately, if you don't have a POST card or spare parts to swap in and out, you're left
not knowing which piece of your essential PC hardware is faulty. In these cases, you
have little option than to rely on the help of individuals or companies that do have these
resources.

Note: See the last tip below for information on getting more help.

CHAPTER 8

Computer Assembly and Disassembly

When referring to hardware, disassemble is the process of breaking down a device into separate
parts. A device may be disassembled to help determine a problem, to replace a part, or to take the
parts and use them in another device or to sell them individually. For example, if a computer has
a bad processor a user may need to disassemble the computer to get to the bad processor and
replace it with a good processor.

Assemble is the reversal of disassemble (correct togetherall separate parts to a complete unit)

Computer Selection and compatibility

A family of computer models is said to be compatible if certain software that runs on one of the
models can also be run on all other models of the family. The computer models may differ in
performance, reliability or some other characteristic. These differences may affect the outcome
of the running of the software.

Selection of computer upgrade (software and hardware) has to align with compatibility option

Software compatibility
Software compatibility can refer to the compatibility that particular software has running on a
particular CPU architecture such as Intel or PowerPC. Software compatibility can also refer to
ability for the software to run on a particular operating system. Very rarely is a compiled
software compatible with multiple different CPU architectures. Normally, an application is
compiled for different CPU architectures and operating systems to allow it to be compatible with
the different system. Interpreted software, on the other hand, can normally run on many different
CPU architectures and operating systems if the interpreter is available for the architecture or
operating system. Software incompatibility occurs many times for new software released for a
newer version of an operating system which is incompatible with the older version of the
operating system because it may miss some of the features and functionality that the software
depends on.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Hardware compatibility
Hardware compatibility can refer to the compatibility of computer hardware components with a
particular CPU architecture, bus, motherboard or operating system. Hardware that is compatible
may not always run at its highest stated performance, but it can nevertheless work with legacy
components. An example is RAM chips, some of which can run at a lower (or sometimes higher)
clock rate than rated. Hardware that was designed for one operating system may not work for
another, if device or kernel drivers are unavailable. For example, much of the hardware for Mac
OS X is proprietary hardware with drivers unavailable for use in operating systems such as
Linux.

Steps to a Safe and Successful Disassembly and Assembly of a System Unit

To Disassemble
1. Prepare all your tools.
a. Long Philip Screw Driver
b. Rubber Eraser
c. Soft Wide Bristle Brush
d. Paper and Pen for documentation

2. Before opening the system case, be sure to turn off the system unit. Turn off and unplug the
AVR from the wall socket as well. After that, unplug all the cables connecting to the back of
the system unit. After clearing all the connected cables, put the system unit on an empty
working table.

3. Touch the unpainted part of your system unit with your bare hands to remove the ESD of your
body. This is an important part before opening your system case. You might destroy your
RAM, Chipsets and other components of your motherboard.

4. Remove the screws of the side cover opposite to the side where the ports are. By most system
cases, if you are facing the back of the system unit the right side cover is to be removed.
Return the screws back to the screw holes to avoid losing them.

5. Once the side cover is removed, turn your system side down where the opened side of the
system unit should be facing upward where you can comfortably look down on the inside of
your system case.

6. We are now ready to remove the components inside of the computer. The first thing we need
to do is remove the power supply. To be able to remove the power supply, remove first the
molex connectors (the white plastic connector at the tip of the wires of the power supply) or
the motherboard power connector, drive power connectors, the floppy drive power connector,
the sata power connectors and the four pin 12-volt motherboard connector. With all power
connectosr are removed from the motherboard and drives, the power supply is now ok to be
removed as well. Always have the removed components placed in a remote and safe place
away from where you are performing computer disassembly.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

7. With the power supply removed, the data cable should be removed next. This includes IDE,
SATA, and floppy drive cables. Secure the removed data cables.

8. Next to remove are the RAM, Video Card and other card peripheral components. Again have
them secured in a safe place and put the screws back. Clean the connector edges of the card
peripherals by rubbing the gold colored edge moderately with a rubber eraser then brushing
off the shredding. Do not attempt to clean the edge by blowing or brushing it off with your
fingers. Our body is acidic and you might only cause the edges to tarnish faster.

9. Remove all drives. This will include your hard drive, cd/dvd drives, and the floppy drive.

10. Since all peripherals where removed, the next thing to do is to remove the front panel
connectors. This will include the USB, Front Panel (FP) and Audio header. If you are not sure
of which connector is being match to, write down or document the connections and orientation
of the connectors before removing them from the headers. Remember that not all
motherboards have the same header configuration so be careful and watchful while
documenting.

11. After removing the header connectors, we are now ready to remove the motherboard. To
remove the motherboard, locate first all the screws and lightly unscrew all screws alternately.
With this technique, we are reducing the risk of warping or bending our motherboard. It may
not have a large impact on the bending of the motherboard but still it does have even a little.
Upon lightly loosening all screws, remove all screws then. Remove the motherboard by
carefully and lightly pulling it away from the I/O shield. Why? because we need to free the
ports that are fitted from the holes in the I/O shield. After freeing the motherboard ports from
the I/O shield holes, lift up the motherboard and put it on the safe place.

12. Clean the system unit chassis with your brush, also clean your motherboard and the rest
of the peripherals being removed.

To Assemble
1. Provided that all peripherals are clean and ready. We are now going to assemble your
computer. In assembling back your computer, what we have done during disassembling is just
doing the reverse order to assemble it. Since the motherboard was last to be removed, it should
then be the first to put back. Remove the retaining screws from the standoff screws of the
motherboard and let the motherboard seat on it with the ports facing out towards the I/O
shield. Lightly push the motherboard to set its ports to the holes of the I/O shield. Put the
retaining screws on the motherboard screw holes but do not tighten it yet. Now be careful in
doing this one and if this is your first time doing it, it is best if you lend a hand for assistance.
Lightly push the motherboard towards to I/O shield and lightly tighten the motherboard
retaining screws alternately until all screws are tight enough but not too tight. This is to ensure
that your ports are protruding correctly out of the I/O shield.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

2. Once the motherboard is secured, put back the FP, Audio, and USB header connectors as you
will be using your documentation for reference.

3. Put back the drives to the correct drive bays.

4. Connect back the RAM, Video Card and other card peripherals to its proper slot inserting it
properly and some cards will require screws to be secured.

5. The data cables (IDE, SATA, floppy cable) should be connected to its proper headers and
drives. Remember the proper configuration of the placement of the cables specially if you are
dealing with the IDE cables.

6. After the data cables are properly connected, put back the power supply and secure it with the
screws you removed earlier. After securing the PSU to the chassis, connect the power
connectors to the drives and the motherboard.

7. Once all peripherals are connected properly, have a final inspection by visually checking for
loose connection or improper connection. Once the system unit connections are thoroughly
checked and verified, connect the keyboard; the monitor, and the power connector then power
up the computer. This initial powering up of the computer while the side cover is open ensures
us that everything is ok before putting back the side cover. In case something goes wrong, we
can accessibly correct the problem right away. If everything is fine shutdown the computer,
unplugged the AVR and remove the cables connected to the back of your computer. Put the
side cover back.

8. Put the assembled computer back to its place and connect the rest of the cables and
connectors. Power it up and see if there are unusual effects of your disassembling/assembling
procedure done earlier.

Remember SAFETY. Do not neglect it. Neglect can cause catastrophic effects. I will be posting
some videos soon if I can buy a video cam early before December. :-) Enjoy disassembling and
assembling your computer safely and successfully.

What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware, in the computer world, refers to the physical components that make up a computer
system.

There are many different kinds of hardware that can be installed inside, and connected to the
outside, of a computer.

Below is a list of external hardware and internal hardware that may be found with a
computer.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

External hardware examples

• Projector - a projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer
and reproduce them on a large, flat (usually lightly colored) surface. For example,
projectors are used in meetings to help ensure that all participants can view the
information being presented.
• Scanner - a hardware input device that allows a user to take an image or text and convert
it into a digital file, allowing the computer to read or display the scanned object.
• Speakers8
• USB thumb drive - a portable drive that is often the size of your thumb that connects to
the computer USB port.
• Flat-panel, Monitor, and LCD - screen displays o Monitor, alternatively referred to as
a video display terminal (VDT) and video display unit (VDU), comprised of a CRT
(Cathode Ray Tube) and a fluorescent screen as display system.
o Liquid-Crystal Display, LCD is a flat display technology. The LCD is made of
two sheets of a flexible polarizing material with a layer of liquid crystal solution
between the two and available as an active matrix, dual-scan, or passive-matrix
display. i.e. in laptops
o FPD, a flat-panel display is a thin screen display. Flat-panel displays use
Liquidcrystal display (LCD) technology to make them much lighter and thinner
when compared with a traditional monitor. I.e. in TFT displays.
• Keyboard
• Microphone
• Mouse
• Printer

Internal hardware examples

• CPU - Alternatively referred to as the brain of the computer, processor, responsible for
handling all instructions it receives from hardware and software running on the computer.
• Drive (e.g. Blu-Ray, CD-ROM, DVD, floppy drive, and hard drive)
• Fan (heatsink) - A heat sink is an electronic device that incorporates either a fan or a
peltier device to keep a hot component such as a processor cool.
• Modem - Short for MODulator/DEModulator The Modem is a hardware device that
enables a computer to send and receive information over telephone lines by converting
the digital data used by your computer into an analog signal used on phone lines and then
converting it back once received on the other end.
• Motherboard - printed circuit board , located at the bottom of the computer case. It
allocates power to the CPU, RAM, and all other computer hardware components. Most
importantly, the motherboard allows hardware components to communicate with one
another.
• Network card - Short for Network Interface Card, the NIC is also referred to as an
Ethernet card and network adapter. It is an expansion card that enables a computer to
connect to a network; such as a home network, or the Internet using an Ethernet cable
with an RJ-45 connector.
• RAM

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• Sound card - Alternatively referred to as a sound board or audio card, a sound card is
an expansion card or integrated circuit that provides a computer with the ability to
produce sound that can be perceived by the user through a peripheral device like speakers
or headphones.
• Video card - Alternatively referred to as a display adapter, graphics card, video
adapter, video board, or a video controller, a video card is an internal circuit board
that allows a display device such as a monitor to display images from the computer.

What are hardware upgrades?

A hardware upgrade is any new hardware better than that which it replaced or additional
hardware that improves performance. A good example of a common hardware upgrade is a RAM
upgrade, where the user increases the computer's total memory. Another good example is a video
card upgrade, which is the act of removing an old video card and replacing it with a newer, better
one.
Benefits of a hardware upgrade
1. Performance increase, which make the overall computer run faster and more smoothly.
2. Capacity increase. For example, adding a new hard drive allows the computer to store
more information, and more memory increases the computers ability to run more.
3. It may be necessary to upgrade the computer to meet a program or games system
requirements.

Choosing the Right Upgrade

It's important to understand at least the basics about what's going on inside your computer, and
what a hardware upgrade can and cannot do. You can't turn a slow computer into a fast one
simply by increasing the size of a hard drive. Likewise, upgrading the computer's processor
probably won't make a computer that's prone to crashing more reliable.

Here are some guidelines for deciding what to upgrade.

Type of
Guidelines Difficulty
Upgrade
To see the biggest increase in performance, increase the amount of
RAM in an older computer. A good sign you could benefit from
more RAM is if your computer slows down a lot when you try to
RAM use several programs simultaneously. Moderate

Put in as much RAM as the computer will support. Keep in mind

that a 32-bit operating system can only handle 4 GB of RAM.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Because graphics processing uses RAM, a graphics card upgrade

may improve overall performance. If you work with a lot of digital
video, you can probably benefit from adding RAM and/or changing
Graphics from an integrated or "on-board" graphics card to a dedicated
graphics card. Moderate
card

Be sure that your motherboard can support the new card you are
installing.
If you're running out of storage space, you can upgrade to a bigger
hard drive with more storage capacity.

If your computer is slow, upgrading to a faster hard drive may

improve overall performance:
Moderate to
Hard drive
• In traditional drives, the faster the drive spins, the faster data Advanced
can be read and written. So upgrading from a drive that spins
at 5,400 rotations per minute (rpm) to a 7,200-rpm drive may
speed up your computer's performance.
• A solid-state drive (SSD) is another option. SSDs don't spin,
so their speed isn't measured in rpms. But they are
Type of
Guidelines Difficulty
Upgrade
significantly faster and (because they have no moving parts)
less prone to mechanical problems than traditional drives.

If your old drive is still functional, consider adding a drive instead

of removing and replacing the older one. Most desktop computer
motherboards can handle up to four hard drives, including the
optical drive.

Completely replacing a hard drive will involve some additional

steps, since you need to transfer all your files from the old drive to
the new one, as well as reinstalling the operating system and all the
software.
Upgrading from a CD drive to a DVD drive allows you to take
advantage of the increased capacity of DVDs over CDs. The
additional capacity of DVDs makes copying files or backing up
Optical
easier and less time-consuming.
(CD/DVD) Moderate
drive In terms of difficulty, the mechanical part of replacing an optical
drive is similar to replacing a hard drive, but you don't have to
worry about moving files or transferring software.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

A faster processor can help your computer run faster, but this is not
an easy upgrade and should be approached with caution. Keep in
mind that performance improvements with a faster processor may be
Processor negligible without sufficient RAM.
Advanced
(CPU)
When installing a new processor, the key consideration (besides
number of cores and speed) is finding one that will work with your
motherboard.

Electronic Waste management

Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Used

electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal are also
considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse
human health effects and environmental pollution.
Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful components such as
lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste
may involve significant risk to workers and communities in developed countries and great care
must be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials such as
heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes.

"Electronic waste" or "E-Waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic

equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets, and refrigerators.
This includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or
disposal. Others are re-usables (working and repairable electronics) and secondary scrap
(copper, steel, plastic, etc.) to be "commodities", and reserve the term "waste" for residue or
material which is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and
recycling operations, because loads of surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good,
recyclable, and non-recyclable), several public policy advocates apply the term "e-waste"
broadly to all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are considered one of the hardest
types to recycle.

CRTs have relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with
phosphorus), both of which are necessary for the display. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of "hazardous
household waste" but considers CRTs that have been set aside for testing to be commodities if
they are not discarded, speculatively accumulated, or left unprotected from weather and other
damage.

Debate continues over the distinction between "commodity" and "waste" electronics definitions.
Some exporters are accused of deliberately leaving difficult-to-recycle, obsolete, or
nonrepairable equipment mixed in loads of working equipment (though this may also come
through ignorance, or to avoid more costly treatment processes). Protectionists may broaden the

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

definition of "waste" electronics in order to protect domestic markets from working secondary
equipment.

The high value of the computer recycling subset of electronic waste (working and reusable
laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can help pay the cost of transportation for a larger
number of worthless pieces than can be achieved with display devices, which have less (or
negative) scrap value. In A 2011 report, "Ghana E-Waste Country Assessment", found that of
215,000 tons of electronics imported to Ghana, 30% were brand new and 70% were used. Of the
used product, the study concluded that 15% was not reused and was scrapped or discarded. This
contrasts with published but uncredited claims that 80% of the imports into Ghana were being
burned in primitive conditions.

CHAPTER 9
Hardware and Software installation

Computer software installation

Installation (or setup) of a computer program (including device drivers and plugins), is the act
of making the program ready for execution. Because the process varies for each program and
each computer, programs (including operating systems) often come with an installer, a
specialized program responsible for doing whatever is needed for their installation. Installation
may be part of a larger software deployment process.

Install means to put a program on your computer. Setup can mean to configure the program,
including various options

Install the operating system

Step by Step Guide to Installing Windows 7
Windows 7 is perhaps the best Microsoft operating system to date and is very easy to install
compared to windows XP.

Before starting the installation we should make sure that the computer meets all the Hardware
requirements for installing Windows 7.

Minimum Hardware requirements:

1. 1 GHz 32 bit processor.

2. 1Gb RAM for good performance
3. Graphics adapter that supports Direct x 9 graphics. Minimum 512 Mb of Graphics
memory.
4. 20 GB free Hard disk space.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Different Editions in Windows 7:

1. Windows 7 starter
2. Home basic
3. Home premium
4. Professional
5. Enterprise
6. Ultimate
The steps to install Windows 7 operating system are as follows:

1. Start your computer. Press f2 or delete at start up to enter the bios menu. Select First boot
device as ‘CD ROM’ if you installing from DVD ROM. Second boot device as ‘Hard
Disk’ so that the computer boots from Hard disk if OS is not in DVD ROM. Press f10 to
save your settings and select yes to restart your computer.
2. Insert the installation disc for Windows 7 and start your computer. The computer will ask
you to ‘Press any key to boot from CD/DVD’. Press any key on your keyboard and it will
start loading the operating system from the CD.
3. After loading windows 7 successfully, it opens an install window. Enter the Language
time & currency format and keyboard or input method. Click ‘Next’. The ‘Install
windows 7’ screen will appear.
4. Click ‘Install now’. Setup will start and you will see a message on the screen ‘Set up is
starting…’
5. Now it will show the License agreement screen. Check the ‘I accept the License terms’
and click ‘Next’. The ‘Install windows’ wizard will appear.
6. Select Custom (Advanced) option. The screen will prompt you to select the location to
install windows. Click drive option (Advanced menu). Click on ‘New’, you are then
asked to allot a size on the disk for installation. Enter the appropriate volume size and
then click ‘Apply’ to create partitions for the installation, click ‘Next’. Windows will start
the installation. Now the installation status screen appears. You will have to wait for the
following tasks to get complete.
1. Copying Windows
2. Expanding Windows files
3. Installing features
4. Installing updates
5. Completing Installation
6. The computer will restart several times during this process so do not worry.
7. After successful installation of Windows 7 it will ask you to specify the ‘computer
name’. It will also ask you enter a ‘User account’ and ‘Password’.
Enter the password in the respective field and also the password hint, click ‘Next’.
8. The setup key will open the ‘Product Key’ option. Enter the correct product key,
make sure that ‘Automatically activate windows when I am online’ check box is
selected and click ‘next’.
9. Now a window to set time on your computer will be displayed. Set the correct
‘Time Zone’, date and click ‘Next’ option.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

10. The ‘Computer network location’ option will be displayed if your computer is
already connected to a network. Select ‘Network type’ and click ‘next’.
11. Windows will now finalize the setup and start to prepare your Windows 7
Desktop.

Upgrading to Windows 7

1. To upgrade to Windows 7 you need Windows Vista in your computer.

2. Turn on your computer. Once windows Vista is started open the installation media for
windows 7. If you are using a DVD, insert DVD disc in your computer. Setup will start
automatically. If it does not start, Click on ‘Start’ – Computer—double click the DVD
drive – double click the setup file.
3. Click ‘Install now’ button. ‘Get important updates for installation’ page appears. Select
‘Go online and select the latest updates for installation (recommended).
4. The ‘License agreement ‘page appears. Check ‘I accept the License term’ and click
‘next’.
5. The windows to ‘Install windows’ will appear. Select ‘Upgrade’ option. Now windows
will check for the compatibility with the help of windows upgrade advisor and generate
report if it finds any compatibility problems. If no compatibility issues are found then
Windows 7 starts up gradation process.

All the applications, data, settings and documents existed on the computer running windows vista
will be available in windows 7 after the upgrade. We should run windows upgrade advisor before
we start up gradation. Most of the applications which run in windows vista will run in windows
7. But some significant applications and hardware may not. This is called as compatibility issues.
Windows upgrade advisor will is an application which helps you in determining any applications
which may not run properly on windows 7. If any problem is occurred during the up gradation of
windows 7 it will automatically restore the previous operating system. If you are experiencing
any problem at the time of login then you can roll back you vista operating system manually. You
cannot upgrade a 64 bit version of windows 7 operating system to 32 bit version of windows 7
operating system. Also you cannot upgrade from Windows 7 ultimate edition to Windows 7
home premium.

Note: To install the operating system on the computer, if the operating system software came on a
CD or DVD disc, you need to configure your computer to boot to the CD/DVD disc drive. You
can change the boot sequence by accessing the computer BIOS and setting the CD/DVD drive to
be the first boot device. Some computers may also allow you to access the boot sequence directly
at computer start up, without entering the BIOS, by pressing a specific key on the keyboard. The
key to press differs for each computer, but is often either the Delete key or one of the Function
keys at the top.

If the operating system software came on a USB flash drive, you need to configure the computer
to boot to a USB device as the first boot device.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Once the computer is configured to boot to the proper device, the computer should load the
operating system installation program. The installation program will guide you through the install
process, asking you questions along the way to determine how to configure basic settings, like
date and time, the username for your user account on the computer, and if you want to enable
automatic operating system updates or not. Go through the installation steps, answering questions
and selecting the preferred options along the way.

Running the operating system

After the operating system has been installed, the computer should load into the operating
system. You may then proceed with installing software programs that you want on the computer
and updating any settings you want.

How To Install an Application Software on the Computer

Installation typically involves code being copied/generated from the installation files to new files
on the local computer for easier access by the operating system.

Materials Needed:
- Computer
- CD or DVD drive
- Installation disc
- Internet connection
- Web browser

PROCEDURE
Step 1: The first most important step in software installation is to verify that the target system
meets the general hardware requirements of the application. Beginning the installation in a
computer machine which does not possess the minimum requirements can lead to either an
unsuccessful installation or failure of the program to run after installing it.
Step 2: Since programs in general are written to be Operating System dependent, make sure that
the version of the application you are installing corresponds to the Operating System platform
running on your machine.
Step 3: Aside from the general hardware requirements, some computer programs also have
software requirements prior to installation. Double check if you need to update or upgrade your
Operating System or if there is a need to download other tools or utilities.
Step 4: Once all the initial requirements have been met, make sure that there are no unnecessary
programs running before beginning the installation procedure. In some instances, applications
may require that the antivirus programs be disabled. Make sure that you are installing a
legitimate application before disabling your protection software.
Step 5: Software installation can be done either from the Internet (skip to step 8) or from an
installation disc provided by the software manufacturer. To install from the disc, simply open the
CD or DVD drive and insert the installer.
Step 6: A setup wizard window should be launched. In case there is none, open the Explorer and
navigate to the optical drive. Double click on either the Autorun or Setup file.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Step 7: Once the wizard is running, simply follow the prompts until the installation process is
completed. For novice users, accept the default values to minimize potential problems during the
procedure. Jump to step 10.
Step 8: For installation from the Web, launch your browser application and download the setup
file to your hard drive.
Step 9: After completion of the downloading process, run the setup program to execute the setup
wizard that will handle the automatic installation of the software. Do step 7.
Step 10: After the installation procedure has been completed and the setup wizard has
terminated, reboot your machine before launching the newly installed software.

Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a
computer. It is a type of system software, used to support the computer infrastructure; [2] by
contrast with application software, which is aimed at directly performing tasks that benefit
ordinary users.

Types of utilities

• Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

• Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files.
Archive suites may include compression and encryption capabilities. Some archive
utilities have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.
• Backup software makes copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either the
entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental
deletion).
• Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system .
• Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
• Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a
stream or file.
• Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target
data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
o File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They
may be used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users
carry their digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices.
o Revision control utilities can recreate a coherent structure where multiple users
simultaneously modify the same file.
• Disk checkers scan an operating hard drive and check for logical (filesystem) or physical
errors.
• Disk cleaners find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when
their hard disk is full.
• Disk compression utilities transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
• Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• Disk partition editors divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with
its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
• Disk space analyzers provide a visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for
each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of
the used space.
• File manager provide a convenient method of performing routine data management,
email recovery and management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging,
uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying folders and data sets.
• Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an
actual program.
• Memory testers check for memory failures.
• Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network
settings, check data transfer or log events.
• Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a
computer.
• Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry
keys that are no longer in use.
• Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer
monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the
computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment
or security.
• System monitors monitor resources and performance in a computer system.
• System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware
attached to the computer.

Note: Most of the utility programs come with operating system, in other cases the utilities may
be added as Driver programs or installed as ordinally Application programs

Computer Hardware Installation

Hardware contributes to the proper function of your computer system whether it is the processor
or the RAM. Hardware is required in order to accomplish certain tasks. Each and every
component adds another functionality level to the user’s computing experience. Using the
Windows XP Operating System, it is very simple to install a new hardware into the computer. It
is also quite easy to troubleshoot the installation when something goes wrong.

Materials Needed:
- Windows XP
- Hardware Components
- Tools
- Appropriate cables - Drivers
Step 1: The installation and troubleshooting of hardware into a computer system using the
Windows XP Operating System involves having to turn off the computer and unplugging it in
order to avoid being electrocuted in the process.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Step 2: Upon doing so, open the tower of the desktop computer using the proper tools such as a
screwdriver. Separate the case of the CPU or central processing unit from that of the
motherboard housing. It is also recommended that you have knowledge on properly putting back
the disassembled computer parts after the hardware installation.
Step 3: Having done this, insert the hardware into the appropriate slot located in the
motherboard. For instance, the new graphics card should be placed into the PCI slot and the
RAM would have to be put in one of the assigned RAM slots. Make sure that you press firmly so
that connection is good.
Step 4: Close the computer case upon the finishing the installation. Reconnect all the computer
cables, plug and then restart the computer.
Step 5: Once the computer has finished booting up and Windows XP loads, insert the disc in the
disk drive. Follow the installation disc’s provided instructions.
Step 6: Understand that there are a number of hardware solutions that are equipped with
capabilities for plug and play. They no longer require you to turn off the computer so that they
could be installed. You could just plug them into the computer and the Windows Operating
System automatically detects the hardware and enables it.
Step 7: For the purpose of ensuring that you are making the proper procedures at installing the
hardware, always read the instruction and guidelines of the manufacturer.
Step 8: The setup CD that comes with the hardware has the drivers needed in making your
installed hardware function. Oftentimes, Windows XP is capable of finding drivers in its
database. If you have the setup CD, use it by all means.
Step 9: Lastly, when troubleshooting certain problems that might arise, contact the customer
service department of your hardware manufacturer. When you are not technically proficient, do
not attempt to fix issues by yourself.

CHAPTER 10

Computer system Fault finding and troubleshooting

Fault finding is the investigation of the cause of malfunction in machinery, especially electronic
equipment.
Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or
processes on a machine or a system.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Fault finding methods and Principles

There are literally hundreds of hardware and software tools that have the ability to help diagnose
and solve problems. These tools are somewhat limited unless you can use them in conjunction
with sound fault-finding methods.
The scientific method to fault-finding
Fault-finding is a skill required in just about every industry, not just in IT support. If you do a
search on the Internet looking for fault-finding information, you are likely to encounter massive
amounts of literature for many industries, not just IT. In general, those areas of industry which
demands high-level technical skills have developed well-documented fault-finding methods. It is
not surprising though that all of these methods have similar principles. Enter the scientific
method to fault-finding.
The scientific method is not specific to any technology. The scientific method is an investigative
process that uses logic to test theories or hypotheses through observation and methodical
experimentation. In fact, the scientific method has been around since the beginning of time,
when people began to derive knowledge from the world around them.
The scientific method proposes to use logical and systematic steps (procedures), to analyse
available information, such as symptoms, in the hope to find information that is useful and
relevant whilst discarding what is not. This procedure will enable you to draw conclusions and
hopefully arrive at the source of the problem. Generally, the method is repeated (cyclic), until the
source of the problem has been identified.
The principles of the scientific method are summarised in the following steps:
1. Gather Information
2. State the Problem
3. Form a hypothesis
4. Test the hypothesis
5. Draw conclusions
6. Repeat when necessary
The next part of this reading will introduce fault-finding techniques, based on the scientific
method.
Cyclic fault-finding
Cyclic fault-finding is the preferred method for problem determination used in the IT industry.
The myriad of hardware and software tools available for fault finding will help you gather useful
information, but generally, the tool won’t fix the problem for you. You will need to make your
own decisions in terms of what is the best course of action.
Generally, companies develop their own cyclic methods, or choose to adhere to someone else’s
method i.e. Cisco’s Troubleshooting guidelines (see the Cisco website www.cisco.com and
search for "troubleshooting"). The most important part of troubleshooting any problem is to
divide the tasks of problem resolution into a systematic process of elimination. In general, cyclic

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

fault-finding involves taking a series of steps, varying from 5 to 8 steps, and then repeating these
steps until the problem is solved.
It is important to note that cyclic method rely on technicians formulating a hypothesis (probable
cause – step 3), and then testing the hypothesis (steps 4 and 5). If the desired outcome if not
achieved, the process is repeated (new hypothesis). Take a look at the following steps introduced
below:

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Define Fault

Gather Details

Probable Cause

Create Action Plan

Implement Action
Plan

Observe Result

Solved?
No
Yes

Document

Figure 1: Steps in Cyclic Fault Finding

Strictly speaking, the above process only requires 7 steps for troubleshooting, but best-practice is
to update/create appropriate documentation – good quality documentation will only aid
faultfinding in the future!
Fault-finding decision trees
Quite often, IT support companies will develop fault analysis trees or fault finding decision trees.
Fault finding decision trees are aides for support people to use as guidelines when
troubleshooting.
With time, you will be able to create your own decision trees to help the fault-finding process.
The following is an example of a decision tree aimed at helping someone troubleshoot a network
access fault (i.e. user cannot log in or access her email).

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Figure 2: Sample decision tree to help someone troubleshoot a network

access fault
The steps in the tree above can be explained as follows:
The tree begins by defining the problem: The user cannot access e-mail. Then a question is asked
(diamond shape). Only two answers are possible: Yes or No. Depending on the response a
process takes place (rectangular shape), which leads on to another question. No matter how
complicated, all decision trees work in the same manner:
1. State Problems (Begin)
2. Ask Questions (Diamond Shape)
3. Analyse Response (Yes or No)
4. Take Action (Rectangular shape)
5. Ask more questions
6. Analyse response
7. Take action
8. And so on until problem is solved or a different course is deemed necessary
It is not unusual for software and hardware manufacturers to include such charts with their
products, as additional support information. The general idea is that people may, with the help of
these trees, perform first-level support, potentially cutting down on the number of support calls
made to companies. Effectively, vendor supplied charts become a form of fault finding tool.
About system problems
Critical problems
Not all problems have the same impact on a business. Some problems have low impact; which
means that the problem does not have the potential to disrupt business operations. Some
problems have a very high impact; which means that the problem has the potential to stop
business operations, incur revenue loss and possibly damage their reputation.
For example, if a part time worker cannot use her computer because the keyboard won’t work;
this would not be regarded as critical to the business. Surely, it is disruptive to this worker’s
routine, but it probably won’t stop business. If the CEO’s (Chief Executive Officer) keyboard
stops functioning, this problem is more significant given the stature of this person in the
business. The criticality of the latter problem is higher than in the former.
If instead of a problem with a keyboard or even a person’s desktop, we find ourselves facing a
problem with the file server; the criticality stakes are raised again. This is the time of problem
that is likely to bring a business to its knees. Business cannot continue when critical components,
software or hardware, go down or become unusable. When critical or indispensable components
are struck by problems, this is regarded as the most critical type of fault.
Classifying problems
Faults need to be classified according to their criticality – this is what sort of impact a specific
problem may have on business operations. The questions that will need to be answered may
include:

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• How critical is this problem?

• What is the impact on the overall operations of a business?
• Should the contingency and disaster recovery plan be enacted?
• Does the business have the expertise to deal with the problem and provide a satisfactory
solution?
Problems that are regarded as non-critical (low criticality), won’t represent a threat to the daily
operations of a business. Operations will continue with some level of disruption. This disruption
may affect a standalone system, a series of systems or an entire network. An example of a
problem regarded as non-critical would be an Internet server going down due to a hardware
failure – this is certainly non-routine, but assuming that the business does not use the Internet for
their core business operations, business operations may continue, but without Internet access.
Problems that are regarded as critical are certainly serious. These problems have the potential to
seriously impair the function of a business. These types of faults will generally require IT
personnel to enact a contingency and disaster recovery plan. Business that are not prepared for
these types of faults and that have not formulated a sound contingency and disaster recovery
strategy will suffer serious consequences, including a total halt of business operations and loss of
revenue. An example of this type of fault would be an inaccessible database server holding
inventory, ordering and sales data, without which business cannot proceed.
Quite often, IT support managers and supervisors are responsible for assessing the criticality of
faults. Many companies have different scales for representing criticality. The following is a
suggestion of how this could be implemented:

Table 1: Sample scale for representing criticality of faults

Criticality Level or Definition Disaster Recovery
Risk
1 High potential impact to Enact Disaster Recovery
large number of users Plan
It involves network/system
down time
2 High potential impact to May require enacting
large number of users or Disaster Recovery Plan
business critical service.
May result in some down
time
3 Medium potential impact Disaster Recovery Plan
to smaller number of users enactment not warranted.
or business service Remedial action required.
Resolution may require
some down time.
4 Lower potential service or Disaster Recovery Plan

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

user impact. enactment not warranted.

Change may require some Remedial action required.
down time.
5 No user or service Disaster Recovery Plan
impact. No down time. enactment not warranted.
Remedial action optional.

Common Faults
Hardware faults
Apart from faults being classified as critical and non-critical, you will need to use other
classifications in order to aid the troubleshooting process. One of the typical classifications of
faults is whether the source of the fault is a hardware device or component, or whether the source
of the fault is found on software – system or application.
Hardware faults are reasonably easy to troubleshoot, as the symptoms of the fault are fairly
obvious. For example, if the power supply unit of a computer fails, the computer will not power
up. Sometimes though, hardware faults can be difficult if the fault and symptoms only appear
intermittently – that is, the fault is not present all the times. For example, some hardware
components only develop faults under certain conditions, such as when the temperature of the
device reaches a certain threshold.
Hardware faults sometimes can be rectified fairly quickly, by replacing the failed component.
Usually, technicians will have common Field-Replaceable-Units (FRU) available. FRUs are
simply common components that can be replaced on the field with reasonable ease. Examples of
FRU may include:
• Hard Disk Drives
• Floppy Disk Drives
• Optical Drives (CD, CDR, DVD etc)
• Memory (RAM)
• Sound Cards,
• Video Cards,
• Keyboard & Mouse
• Network Interface Cards
• Network Patch Leads

Software faults
As you might have guessed, software faults are those faults that are caused by a software
component. The software component may be part of the system’s software or may be
applications software.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Software faults sometimes can be tricky to troubleshoot. Even though the source of the problem
is found to be software, not always it is crystal clear which software component is actually
causing the fault.
System Software Faults – are those faults that are caused by system software. Generally
speaking, the operating system is regarded as system software. However, some application
software might also install some system components it needs to run, which could become [and
quite frequently are] the source of faults. The source of software faults can be caused by:
• Software components corruption
• System incorrect configuration
• Documented and undocumented bugs
• Compatibility issues (hardware and software)
System software faults can have system-wide implications, which might hinder the operations of
the whole system.
Application Software Faults – these types of faults are rooted in application software
components. Generally, these types of faults only affect the application software in question – the
rest of the system operates normally. Similar to system software faults the source of these faults
can be tracked down to one or more of the following reasons:
• Software components corruption
• Application incorrect configuration
• Documented and undocumented bugs
• Compatibility issues (hardware and software)
Security-related faults
These faults are faults that develop in systems, and might have their source in hardware,
software, configuration or design.
More often than not, security related faults are the consequence of:
• Other faults (for instance, a hardware fault with a firewall device might expose systems
that would normally be protected by the firewall device)
• improper configuration,
• un-patched software bugs
• system design flaws
• undiscovered security holes/backdoors
Generally, the occurrence of any of the above issues, will result in security being compromised,
possibly exposing confidential and private information. Generally, to rectify this type of fault
requires engaging personnel with expertise in the area.
Security faults are sometimes referred to as ‘exploits’ since, the security fault does not in itself
represent a real threat unless someone malicious discovers and chooses to exploit the fault. It is
imperative that proactive action be taken to minimise the effect of security compromises.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Boot time faults

Boot time faults are faults that occur during the start-up sequence of a computer system. Boot
time faults are critical in that they can potentially halt the boot sequence possibly halting the
system altogether, rendering it unusable.
Boot time faults can have their source in software – usually due to improper configuration,
missing system files or incompatibilities (usually after new software has been deployed), or
hardware – usually due to boot device (typically hard disk drive) failure, or other major
component failure such as RAM, Video etc. Failed hardware peripherals might have an impact
on booting up, but not necessarily halt the system or make it unbootable.

Computer diagnosis

1. A message output by a computer diagnosing an error in a computer program, computer

system, or component device.
2. A program or subroutine that produces such messages.

Using troubleshooting tools to gather diagnostic information

The fault-finding process is a constant process for gathering data (or feedback) and making
decisions based on this data. Hence, it is critical to understand how to use tools to gather data, or
access data which may already be available from logs, data trails, databases etc.

Using utilities
There is a range of utilities which produce an output or feedback that are commonly used for
troubleshooting purposes. Many fault-finding tools, particularly command-line utilities, do not
generally produce exhaustive reports for analyse. Instead they produce a small message to
confirm the success [or otherwise] of an action.
For example the ping command simply sends a series of requests to a network destination and
reports whether the requests were successful or not. It may report on data such as response-time
(how long it took our request to be answered), but the tool will not produce an exhaustive report.
Please analyse the following sample of using the Ping tool from the command line.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Figure 4: Screen shot of use of Ping tool

The following is another example of a utility that performs a task and generates incidental
information, which although not comprehensive, is certainly very useful. The utility presented
here is the ‘Format’ command.

Figure 5: Screen shot of use of Format command

Debug/auditing features
Many computer operating systems and applications feature a ‘Debugging’ facility. If you are not
familiar with debugging, it is a concept borrowed from programmers aimed at getting the
systems to produce as much information as possible, in a stepped-through way, with the aim of
capturing lots of information which might help get rid of ‘bugs’ or design/flaws. The concept of
debugging has filtered through many areas of IT and today many systems feature debugging as a
standard troubleshooting tool which can be turned on as needed.
Additionally, many network hardware components such as high-end switches and routers, feature
debugging. They are able to debug since many managed network devices run an actual operating

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

system. For example, Cisco routers and switches run an operating system called the IOS which,
allows full debugging support.
Debugging usually is a fairly intense process which generates lots of information (sometimes
more than one can handle!), putting additional processing demands on the systems; therefore,
debugging is usually only enabled when troubleshooting is required. Data/Information produced
by debugging can either be output to the screen (which means you have to be in front the actual
screen), or more commonly redirected to a database system, where data can be stored for later
viewing and analysis.
Another feature that can be useful for gathering and collecting useful system information is
auditing. Auditing is usually is not turn on by default, because as in with debugging, the amount
of information being generated is great; hence, auditing is usually only enabled for specific data
gathering requirements - i.e. when a technician is trying to get to the bottom of an elusive fault.
Windows 2000/XP/2003 allow you enable auditing by turning on a policy (usually called a
Group Policy Object (GPO). A GPO gives you control of certain aspects of the system which you
may audit. The following image is a sample of a GPO in Windows XP.

Figure 6: Screen shot of GPO in Windows XP

The resulting event audit information can be viewed in an event log, accessible via the Windows
Event Viewer. See example below.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Figure 7: Screen shot of Windows Event Viewer

Using diagnostic and troubleshooting tools to gather data

Usually diagnostic and troubleshooting tools are particularly effective in generating oodles of
information. Most diagnostic tools are capable of generating reports that can be used as a way of
documenting the configuration of a system.
Third party tools also can be very useful, especially if they are non-operating system dependant.
The Belarc Adviser is one such tool that can run on just about any version of windows
(generally, you will need a separate tool to audit across platforms i.e. Windows, Linux, and Mac).
Belarc Adviser will profile a computer system and output its report as a HTML file, which can be
viewed on any web browser, and possibly be uploaded to a central location. This program is
available for free for personal use at www.belarc.com.
Summary
This learning pack has introduced you to a variety of faults and problems that you are likely to
encounter at some point in your career. You have learnt to gather data, assess the status of a
computer system, identify different types of faults, classify them, and choose the most
appropriate course of action and tools. You have also learnt how to document the fault-finding
process.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

CHAPTER 11
Computer support
Technical support (often shortened to tech support) refers to a plethora of services by which
enterprises provide assistance to users of technology products such as mobile phones, televisions,
computers, software products or other informatic, electronic or mechanical goods. In general,
technical support services address specific problems with a product or service rather than the
provision of training, customization, or other support services.

Most companies offer technical support for the products they sell, either freely available or for a
fee. Technical support may be delivered over by e-mail, live support software on a website, or a
tool where users can log a call or incident. Larger organizations frequently have internal
technical support available to their staff for computer-related problems. The Internet can also be
a good source for freely available tech support, where experienced users help users find solutions
to their problems. In addition, some fee-based service companies charge for premium technical
support services.

Safe computer use (Good working practices)

There are some "good housekeeping" procedures that you should carry out regularly:

• Keep your anti-virus software up to date.

• Keep regular backups of all your important documents.
• Make sure your "In" mailbox doesn't get too large - delete messages or transfer them to
other mailboxes.
• If you have web pages, make sure they are up to date and that the hyperlinks still work.
• Do not allow out of date information about students to accumulate on your hard disk: get
the latest version of student-related information from the Data Warehouse.

These are guidelines and advice on good working practices, some of which are practical and
some legal or standards-based; most are liable to change over time.

Support offered by IT Services

IT Services does not have the resources to support everything computer-related: you must use the
hardware, software and network services supported by us whenever possible.

If you install hardware or software other than that recommended by IT Services on your own
equipment you must be prepared to manage and support this yourself.
Network(ed) services

For security and efficiency, our network infrastructure and servers require central management,
provided by IT Services: you must not set up unauthorized servers or connect unauthorized
equipment.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Keeping your computer safe

Physical security

If you leave your computer unattended you should try to secure it from unauthorised access. If
possible lock your room when away from it. If you share a computer you should always log out
of your account before your colleague uses the computer.

Electronic security

You should keep always keep your system up to date by downloading security patches from
Microsoft or Apple. IT Services holds a site license for F-Secure anti-virus software. If you
have no anti-virus software on your PC, you should download and install a copy of FSecure.
Virus definition databases are regularly updated and must be downloaded frequently (every
one or two days).

Mac users should obtain a copy of Norton anti-virus from Symantec.

• Never open an attachment you do not recognize.

• Always be vigilant when downloading files.
• Never visit disreputable web sites.
• Set a secure password on the administrator account on your computer.

Passwords

Your University username and password allow you to access your email, home directory disk
space, and protected University web pages and systems. You must keep your password secret;
never share it with anyone. If you need shared access to email (for example, if you are in a
research or administrative group) create a shared email account with a shared password; don't
give anyone your own personal password.

If you forget your password or have problems logging in, consult the IT Service Desk. If you
think someone else has discovered your password, change it immediately using the 'password
changing page'. You are responsible for the use and security of this account.

Make your passwords as difficult as possible to crack: do not use real names, car registration
numbers, etc.
Never use your University account password for your personal or administrator-level computer
logins and, wherever possible, do not set administrator privileges on your own computer account.

Saving and backing up

While working on a document save your changes frequently. Unless you are saving the
document in your home directory you must make a backup copy at the end of each day's editing
session. Avoid overwriting the previous day's version by giving each day's version a different
filename.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Develop a staff training program

Businesses with a culture of training are seen as quality organizations. Having a 'training
champion' in senior management is essential for successfully implementing your training
initiatives. To develop a strong training culture, you must understand the benefits of training.
This knowledge will help you make informed decisions, and will support members of staff who
will be responsible for managing the training.

Check your legal obligations

As an employer, you have certain obligations in relation to training your staff. You need to ensure
that staff are trained to do their jobs safely and, in certain industries, you may be legally obliged
to provide staff with specific training.

Assess your staff training needs

To implement the right training for your business, you need to identify your business and
employee training needs. You can do this yourself, or you can recruit a human resources (HR)
consultant or training organization to help you assess your training needs and advise on training
options.

Review your business plan

Your staff training program should be described in your business plan. You need to make sure
you know what training your staff need, how much it will cost you and how frequently you will
offer it. You should also decide how often you will undertake staff performance reviews.

If you decide to exit your business or hand it over to a family member, training may be an
important part of your succession planning. In your business plan, you should:

• assess your business goals and the skills you need to meet them
• work out if you are on track to achieve your goals, and identify any gaps
• think about whether your staff are happy in their jobs, and if your customers are happy
with your products and services
• consider how you are doing compared to your competitors
• review any existing training
• Identify areas that need improvement and find out who may benefit from training (e.g.
staff may need more knowledge of your products and services or your business
processes).

Talk to your staff

Close collaboration and open communication between management and staff on training issues
improves working relationships and, in most cases, productivity.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

When you are assessing your training needs, you should ask your staff what sort of training they
want or need. You can talk to them in one-on-one interviews or in a group meeting.

Engaging your staff in the process will help you make sure the training is suitable and that staff
are likely to want to participate. This will help both you and your staff get the most out of
training. You may also consider undertaking a staff skills assessment as part of performance
planning, to work out what training individual staff members need.

Consider your training options

Once you have reviewed your business plan and discussed training with your staff, you should
update your business plan with a new training program. Make sure you consider whether any
imminent changes in your business will make training necessary for any of your staff.

Record your staff feedback, taking note of any training needs or requests. Work out how each
type of training would be delivered, such as on-the-job, internally, or with an external training
provider. Include details of all of the courses scheduled and the staff who are participating, as
well as the dates, venues and times.

Communicate your training program

Let staff know what training you have booked for them. Communicate the training program to all
staff so they are aware of what is happening in your business. Make sure you offer all staff equal
opportunities for training and that you are not breaching anti-discrimination laws by excluding
any staff. You should also take the opportunity to identify training opportunities during staff
performance reviews.

CHAPTER 12
System selection and acquisition

Procedure for hardware software selection

The systems come with hardware, software and support. Today, selecting a system is a serious
and time-consuming business.
There are several factors to consider prior to system selection :

1. Define the system capabilities that make sense for business. Computers have proven valuable to
business in the following areas:

• Cost reduction includes reduction of the inventory, savings on space and improved ability
to predict business trends

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• Cost avoidance includes early detection of problems and ability to expand operations
without adding clerical help.
• Improved service emphasizes quick availability of information to customers, improved
accuracy and fast turnaround
• Improved profit reflects the bottom line of the business and its ability to keep receivables
within reason.

2. Specify the magnitude of the problem, that is, clarify whether selections consist of a few

Peripherals or major decision concerning the mainframes.

3. Assess the competence of the in-house staff. This involves determining the expertise needed in
areas such as telecommunications and data base design. Acquiring a computer often results in
securing temporary help for conversion. Planning for this help is extremely important.
4. Consider hardware and software as a package. This approach ensures compatibility. In fact,
software should be considered first, because often the user secures the hardware and then
wonders what software is available for it.

5. Develop a schedule for the selection process. Maintaining a schedule helps keeps the project
under control.
6. Provide user indoctrination. This is crucial, especially for first-time users. Selling the system to
the user staff, providing adequate training, and preparing an environment a conductive to
implementation are pre- requisites for system acquisition.

Major phases in selection

The selection process should be viewed as a project, and a project team should be organized with
management support. In larger projects, the team includes one or more user representatives, an
analyst and EDP auditor, and a consultant. Several steps make up the selection process:
1. Requirement Analysis 2. System Specification

3. Request for proposals (RFP) 4. Evaluation and validation

5. Vendor Selection 6. Post Installation Review

1. Requirement Analysis: The first step in selection understands the user’s requirements within the
framework of the organization’s objectives and the environment in which the system is being
installed. Consideration is given to the user’s resources as well as to finances.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

In selecting software, the user must decide whether to develop it in house, hire a software
company or contract programmer to create it, or simply acquire it from a software house. The
choice is logically made after the user has clearly defined the requirements expected of the
software. Therefore, requirements analysis sets the tone for software selection.

2. System Specifications: Failure to specify system requirements before the final selection almost
always results in a faulty acquisition. The specifications should delineate the user’s requirements
and allow room for bids from various vendors. They must reflect the actual applications to be
handled by the system and include system objectives, flowcharts, input-output requirements, file
structure and cost. The specifications must also describe each aspect of the system clearly,
consistently and completely.

3. Request for Proposal: After the requirements analysis and system specifications have been
determined, a request for proposal is drafted and sent to selected vendors for bidding. Bids
submitted are based on discussions with vendors. At a minimum, the RFP should include the
following :

1. Complete statement of the system specifications, programming language, price range, terms
and time frame.

2. Request for vendor's responsibilities for conversion, training and maintenance

3. Warranties and terms of license or contractual limitation.

4. Request for financial statement of vendor

5. Size of staff for system support

4. Evaluation and validation: The evaluation phase ranks vendor proposals and determines the
best suited to the user’s needs. It looks into items such as price, availability and technical
support. System validation ensures that the vendor can match his/her claims, system

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

performance. True validation is obtained verified by having each system demonstrated. An

outside consultant can be employed for consulting purpose

5. Vendor selection: This step determines the winner – the vendor with the best combination of
reputation, reliability, service record, training, delivery time, lease finance terms and conversion
schedule. Initially a decision is made which vendor to contact. The sources available to check on
vendor includes the following:

1. Users 2. Software Houses 3. Trade Associations.

4. Universities 5. Publications and Journals 6. Vendor Software Lists

7. Vendor Referral Directories 8. Published Directories

9. Consultants 10. Industry Contacts

6. Post- installation Review: Sometime after the package is installed, a system evaluation is

made to determine how closely the new system conforms to plan. System specifications and user

requirements are audited to pinpoint and correct any differences Software selection:

Software selection is a critical aspect for system development. There are 2 ways of acquiring the
software.

• Custom -made
• Packages

Criteria for Software selection:

Reliability – It is the probability that the software will executed in a specific period of time
without any failures. It is important to the professional user. It brings up the concept of
modularity, or the ease which a package can be modified.

Functionality – It is the definition of the facilities, performance and other factors that the user
requires in the finished product.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Capacity – Capacity refers to the capability of the software package to handle the users
requirements for size of files, number of data elements, and reports. All limitations should be
checked.
Flexibility – It is a measure of effort required to modify an operational program. One feature of
flexibility is adaptability.

Usability – This criteria refers to the effort required to operate, prepare the input, and interpret
the output of a program. Additional points considered here are portability and understandability.
Portability refers to the ability of the software to be used. Understandability is the purpose of the
product.

Security – It is a measure of the likelihood that a system’s user can accidentally or intentionally
access or destroy unauthorized data.
Performance – It is a measure of the capacity of the software package to do what it is expected
to do. This criteria focuses on throughput or how effectively a package performs under peak load.
Serviceability –This criteria focuses on documentation and vendor support.
Ownership – Who owns the software ,and to consider whether he has the right to access the
software, or he can sell or modify the software.
Minimal costs – Cost is a major consideration in deciding between in-house and vendor
software.

Evaluation process:
There are three process for evaluating hardware and software.
1. Benchmark programs: It is a sample program for evaluating different computers and their
software. It is necessary because computers often uses the same instructions, words of memory
or machine cycle to solve a problem. Benchmarking includes the following

• Determination of the minimum hardware.

• An acceptance test
• Testing in an ideal environment to determine the timings and in the normal environment
to determine its influence on other programs.

2. Experience of other users: Benchmarking only validates vendors’ claims. Experience of other
users with the same system software is essential.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

3. Product reference manuals: These evaluate a system’s capability. These reports elaborate on
computer products, services and prices.
Evaluation of proposals:

After all proposals are evaluated, the final vendor is selected using any of the 3 methods

1. adhoc refers to the user’s inclination to favour one vendor over others.

2. Scoring. In this method the characteristics of each system are listed and score is given in
relation to the maximum point rating. Then each proposal is rated according to its
characteristics.

3. Cost value approach. In this method a dollar credit method is applied to the proposal that
meets the user’s desirable characteristics. This credit is subtracted from the vendor’s quoted
price. The proposal with the lowest price is selected.

Performance Evaluation

Hardware selection requires an analysis on the following criteria:

1. System Availability 2. Compatibility 3. Cost

4. Performance 5. Uptime 6. Support

7. Usability

For the software evaluation, the following are considered

1. The programming language and its suitability to the applications

2. Ease of Installation and training

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

3. Extent of enhancements to be made prior to installation.

In addition to hardware and software evaluation, the quality of the vendor’s should be examined.
Considerations to ensure vendor quality are as follows:

1. Backup 2. Conversion 3. Maintenance 4. System Development

Financial consideration in selection (Cost benefit Analysis):

There are three methods of acquisition:

1. The rental option: Rent is a form of lease directly by the manufacturer. The user agrees to a
monthly payment, usually for one year or less. Rental option is one of the most opted option for
acquisition as insurance, maintenance and other expenses are included in the rental charge, there
is financial leverage for the user and rental makes it easier to change to other system thereby
reducing the risk of technological obsolescence.

2. The Lease option: A leased system is acquired through a third party or from the vendor. A third
party purchase ranges from six months with month to month renewals to seven years. However,
lease charges are lesser than rental charges for the same period. Leases may not include
maintenance or installation costs or providing a replacement system in an emergency.

3.The purchase option: Purchasing means assuming all the risks of ownership including taxes,
insurance and technological obsolescence. However, the owner obtains all the services and
supports that are available under the lease or rental agreement.

The Art of Negotiation:

Negotiating is an art. Timing is critical. Strategies must be planned and rehearsed. The
leverage enjoyed by both the parties can change during the course of negotiations.

Strategies and tactics for negotiation:

Various strategies and tactics are used to control the negotiation process. Some of them are:

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

1. Use the "good guy" and "bad guy" approach. The consultant is often perceived as the bad guy,
the user as the good guy. The consultant is the "shrewd" negotiator and the user is the
compromiser.

2. Be prepared with alternatives at all times. It is a give - and - take approach.

3. Use trade -offs. Rank less important objectives high early in the negotiation.

4. Be prepared to drop some issues.

Contract checklist

Responsibilities and Remedies:

1. Hardware: A good hardware contract is goal oriented. It stipulates the result to be achieved
with the system. The greater importance should be given to the definition of the system's
performance in terms of expected functions.
2. Software: A software package is the license to use a proprietary process. It is not truly "sold",
since a title is not transferred, so it is more or less a "license for use". The user has the right to
use the package but does not have title of ownership.

3. Delivery and Acceptance: A major problem in contracting is the failure of the vendor to
deliver on schedule. A contract should specify the remedies provided for failure to meet the
agreed- upon delivery schedule. The section governing acceptance describes the tests that must
be met for the equipment to be accepted by the user.

4. Warranties: Article 2 of the UCC provides three implied warranties by the vendor for the
goods sold and many lease transactions as well. Because warranties are desirable for the
customers, vendors include provisions relating to them in agreements, thus suggesting that
some warranty is made.

5. Finances: Contract negotiations for finances can be summarized by "Let the buyer beware".
One of the most important contract items to negotiate is the time when payments begin. Most
standard contracts specify that payments commences upon installation

6. Guarantee and reliability: This is a statement by the vendor specify the following:

1. Minimum hours of usable time per day- that is, the amount of time of computer operation
before a shutdown.

2. Mean time between failures (MTBF): the length of the time the system will run without
breaking down.

3. Maximum time to repair- response time to repairing the system.

CHAPTER 13

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

Computer security

What is Computer Security?

Computer Security is the protection of computing systems and the data that they store or access.

Why is Computer Security Important?

Computer Security allows the University to carry out its mission by:

• Enabling people to carry out their jobs, education, and research

• Supporting critical business process
• Protecting personal and sensitive information

Computer Security - Threats & Solutions

Once the realm of IT security professionals, computer security is now an issue and concern for
all business people. Recent high profile security breaches such as those at eBay which exposed
over 140 million users’ details, the Target retail chain in the US which resulted in 100 million
credit card details of customers being stolen by criminals, and a US bank which lost over US $45
million within 24 hours. Nearer to home we have seen the Clare based Loyaltybuild company
suffer a security breach late last year which exposed credit card details of customers and earlier
this month the news headlines highlighted how police disrupted a criminal gang’s virus network
which they used to steal over $100 million.

Cyber-crime is now big business and criminals are looking to steal information such as financial
details, credit card information, personal details, or any other information which they can sell or
trade. These criminals are becoming more and more sophisticated and employ many different
methods of attacking companies’ computer networks.

One of the primary weapons in their arsenal is the computer virus. While email has been the
main method for the spread of these recent computer viruses, it is not the only method. A
computer virus can enter a network by USB device, Internet download, visiting an infected
website, instant messaging or messaging in social media platforms, file transfer and file sharing
programs, or by remote users connecting directly to the corporate network with an infected PC.
Once a computer virus gets into a network it can spread from computer to computer in multiple
ways.

Given the numerous ways a computer virus can spread, how can a company ensure that its
network is protected?
• Install Anti-Virus Software.
Ensure that reputable anti-virus software is installed on all computers. This should include
all servers, PCs and laptops. If employees use computers at home for business use or to
remotely access the network, these PCs should also have anti-virus software installed.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• Ensure that the anti-virus software is up to date.

Everyday new computer viruses are being released and it is essential that businesses are
protected from these viruses by keeping the anti-virus software up to date. If possible,
companies should look at policies whereby computers that do not have the most up to date
anti-virus software installed are not allowed to connect to the network.

• Employ a firewall to protect networks.

As computer viruses can spread by means other than email, it is important that unwanted
traffic is blocked from entering the network by using a firewall. For users that use
computers for business away from the protection of the company's network, such as home
PCs or laptops, a personal firewall should be installed to ensure the computer is protected.

• Filter all email traffic.

All incoming and outgoing email should be filtered for computer viruses. This filter should
ideally be at the perimeter of the network to prevent computer viruses. Emails with certain
file attachments commonly used by computer viruses to spread themselves, such as
.EXE, .COM and .SCR files, should also be prevented from entering the network.

• Educate all users to be careful of suspicious e-mails.

Ensure that all users know to never open an attachment or to click on a link in an email they
are not expecting. Even when the email is from a known source, caution should be exercised
when opening attachments or clicking on links in emails. Criminals use the trust placed in
an email contact you know to trick you into clicking on a link or attachment.

• Scan Internet Downloads.

Ensure that all files downloaded from the Internet are scanned for computer viruses before
being used. Ideally this scanning should be done from one central point on the network to
ensure that all files are properly scanned.

• Don't run programs of unknown origin.

It is important that you use a trusted source for your software requirements. This is to ensure
that all software installed can be accounted for and that its sources can be confirmed to be
legitimate. Apart from ensuring that the correct licensing agreements are in place, using a
trusted supplier can help reduce the risk of software infected with a virus compromising
your business. All users should be educated to never run a computer program unless the
source is known or has originated from a person or company that is trusted.

• Implement a vulnerability management program.

Most computer viruses and worms try to exploit bugs and vulnerabilities within the
operating system and applications that companies use. New vulnerabilities are introduced
into networks every day, be that from installing new software and services, making changes
to existing systems or simply from previously undiscovered vulnerabilities coming to light.
It is important to regularly review your network and the applications running on it for new
vulnerabilities. Any discovered vulnerabilities should be rated and prioritised regarding their
criticality and the potential business impact they could have. Once this has been done, a
plan on how to manage those vulnerabilities, either by patching, upgrading, or managing the

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

vulnerability using tools such as firewalls or Intrusion Detection Systems should be put into
place.

• Make regular backups of critical data.

It is important to ensure that regular copies of important files are kept either on removable
media such as portable drives or tape to ensure you have a trusted source for data in the
event that the network is infected with a computer virus. Not only will this ensure that
important data is available in the event of a computer virus infecting the company’s
network, backups will also enable the company to restore systems to software that is known
to be free from computer virus infection. For added security you should store these backups
securely offsite. That way should a major disaster happen to the business, e.g. the building
goes on fire, the data will remain safe in the secure offsite location and can be restored
quickly in a new facility

• Develop an Information Security Policy.

The creation and publication of an Information Security Policy is key to ensuring that
information security receives the profile it requires in the organisation and is the first critical
step in securing the company’s systems and data. It is important that senior management
support the Information Security Policy and that all users are made aware of their roles and
responsibilities under this policy.

• Monitor logs and systems.

Regular monitoring of network and system logs can assist in the early identification of a
computer virus infecting the network or other attacks by criminals. Unusual traffic patterns
or log entries could indicate that the network has been infected or that its security has been
compromised. As well as monitoring for suspicious traffic and events, it is important that
logs for other devices are checked regularly to ensure that the network remains protected.
Log files for the backups should be checked regularly to ensure that the backups succeeded,
likewise the log files for anti-virus software deployed should be regularly checked to ensure
that all PCs are running the latest version of the anti-virus software.

• Develop an Incident Response Plan.

Knowing what to do when a computer virus enters the network or when you suffer a
security breach is critical to minimise the damage they may cause, both to the business and
also to customers and suppliers. The incident response plan should outline the roles and
responsibilities that people have in the event of a computer virus infecting the network or
indeed any other type of security breach. This plan should be drawn up and agreed between
all relevant parties before an incident occurs. Remember, the worst time to develop a
security incident response plan is in the middle of such an incident.

• Restrict end user access to systems

Where possible, end users should not be given administrative privileges to their
workstations. Most computer viruses can only run in the context of the user that is logged
into the system, i.e. they only have the same permissions as the user running the program. If
that user has their access restricted, then the virus will be similarly restricted. Unfortunately

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

many applications designed for the Windows platform require the end user to have such
privileges; however these users should be the exception rather than the rule.

Cyber criminals poses a very real and constant threat to every business. It is important that
businesses recognise this threat and take the appropriate steps, such as those outlined above, to
reduce the likelihood and minimise

CHAPTER 14
Emerging issues and trends

1. Best Practices 2. Help Desk 3. IT 4. Operations

5. Productivity

Introduction

Today’s enterprise IT support organizations and help desks are experiencing a dramatic shift in
the way technologies are developed, deployed and consumed. Applications are evolving faster
than ever, with new cloud-based solutions emerging almost weekly to replace the stodgy
onpremise solutions of generations past. User expectations arent far behind; a new generation of
tech-savvy users increasingly expects the latest and greatest, including mobile compatibility. The
result is a constantly evolving portfolio of applications and technologies that IT organizations
must support, while being more responsive and empathetic than ever beforeall without increasing
costs.

As always, progress is a double-edged sword for IT support. Because IT is responsible for

enabling company-wide productivity, it sits squarely under the collective corporate microscope.
User satisfaction is now at the forefront as new technologies enable more efficient
communication, which is both boon and bane to IT support. Seeking comments and anticipating
issues are the keys to effective support, and new technologies are also simplifying the feedback
process.

This paper presents five interrelated trends impacting the way IT support organizations operate:

Productivity pressures Cloud computing Consumerization of IT Corporate social media

Raising the bar on service

The intended audience for this paper includes executives, IT management, software
development/QA leadership, and anyone else interested in delivering unsurpassed support.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

1. Productivity Pressures

Perhaps no single organization is as vital to company-wide productivity as IT. While most

organizations are responsible for their own efficiency, IT ultimately owns that of the entire
enterprise. Driving efficiency across an entire organization comes down to two key areas: tools
and procedures. IT must effectively select and employ both to keep everyone happy and
productive.

Choosing the right software

Ideal applications combine usability and consistency with brisk implementation and low
maintenance. The former, usability and consistency, are vital to managing the IT help desk's
workload. Ensuring that users are quickly able to understand the interface and that it works
consistently will minimize the number of end-user issues. By keeping implementation times
short and maintenance low, IT technicians have more time to focus on resolving existing issues
and implementing new productivity-enhancing systems.

Stringent vs. fluid procedures

Many IT support organizations looking to increase efficiency are turning to best practice
frameworks, such as ITIL, that provide guidance on how IT should deploy and support software.
However, there's a significant risk of getting bogged down in endless processes, paperwork, and
heavyweight technology deployments aimed at optimizing the support experience. The IT help
desk must balance the desire to comply with rigid standards and best practices with the
reality of needing to provide excellent service to their customers (end users) right now.
Ultimately, successful organizations will use ITIL and related methodologies as a blueprint and
let procedures evolve as feedback dictates.

The right support platform

The last piece of the IT help desk puzzle is using a support platform that makes life easier for
agents and end users alike. For end users, this means a simple interface for submitting issues and
knowledge bases where users can quickly locate answers or discuss issues with the community.
For agents, this means a system that increases end-user visibility into ticket status, is able to
automate repetitive tasks and helps process feedback. Finding the right blend is vital, since all
customer interactions are routed through the customer support platform. (More on this in trend
five: Raising the Bar on Customer Service.)

2. Cloud Computing

The C-suite mantra for IT has always been faster, better, cheaper — doing more with less.
Software as a service (SaaS or cloud-based software) is now delivering on this promise.
Improvements in underlying infrastructure have solved the uptime and scaling issues that
plagued SaaS solutions in the early 2000s, turning them into the go-to delivery method for
customer relationship management (CRM), marketing automation and customer support.
Cloudbased solutions have several benefits over on-premise solutions:

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

• Simple and inexpensive deployment

• Access to data from anywhere, including mobile devices
• No hardware or maintenance costs
• Fewer data security issues
• Seamless product updates
• Affordable, pay-as-you go pricing

Many large providers are now planning to migrate legacy on-premise solutions to the cloud
knowing that IT departments are increasingly willing to outsource data security, upgrades and
maintenance to software providers. As cloud becomes the industry standard, help desk staff must
be ready to support a diverse set of applications that need less technical day-to-day involvement,
but change more often and require them to support these changes.

When things go wrong, the IT help desk is the first line of support, whether these resources
and applications reside in the cloud, behind the firewall, or a mixture of both. In fact, there's a
good chance most users won't know (or care) who owns the resource: all they know is that they
need help — right now, and they're unsympathetic to gaps between data that lives in the cloud
and data that resides on-premise.

3. Consumerization of IT

Today's users are reaping the rewards of two rapidly evolving fields, mobile device
manufacturing and consumer website development, which are increasing IT expectations in
today's user base.

As mobile devices continue to expand their power, sophistication and reach, users are
acclimating to streamlined native application experiences, intuitive interfaces and constant data
availability. Further, phones are becoming the center of many peoples' online lives thanks to
robust social apps like Path® and Foursquare®, leaving them unwilling to adopt separate work
devices. These high expectations are creating a bring-your-own-device (BYOD) culture where
support for multiple platforms is expected.

A recent CIO.com article showed that 60% of respondents are seeing increased support demand
for Apple®'s Mac® OS X®10. This is partly due to the rising popularity of iOS through the
iPhone and iPad, but also a sign that Macs are gaining market share at home where employees
are skewing the traditional work/life balance. At home, consumer websites, such as Facebook®
and Twitter®, are gaining mobile-like elegance and interactivity thanks to advancements in
front-end languages, and many of these popular consumer sites also have accompanying mobile
apps that allow on-the-go access, which many now desire from their work applications. Even the
most progressive IT departments are struggling to adapt responsibly.

These expectations are helping fuel cloud popularity thanks to browser-delivered flexibility.
Many cloud apps support multiple operating systems and mobile devices, whereas on-premise
solutions have limited compatibility. Cloud applications also benefit from the same front-end
programming developments as consumer applications, meaning they have better interfaces that

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

are more easily updated than their on-premise counterparts. Further, some cloud solutions have
companion mobile apps that provide secure access to the native experience users crave. From a
support perspective, native apps help IT cope with today's BYOD climate by offloading
compatibility and data security to providers.
4. Corporate Social Media

For many employees, social-networking platforms (e.g. Facebook and Twitter) are at the heart of
their personal online experiences. Given their reliance on these tools, companies are turning to
analogous corporate social media tools, such as Yammer®, to help fuel collaboration across
divisions.

Unsurprisingly, employees are using these channels to seek assistance and/or vent about
ITrelated issues, making it an important channel for harnessing feedback and even deflecting
issues. The help desk should monitor these channels for relevant conversations and interject
when necessary by pointing users to relevant knowledge base articles or asking them to submit
tickets for further help. By participating in the conversation, support looks proactive and can
raise awareness about self-service resources — the latter of which may help deflect issues that
would otherwise result in issues.

Further, corporate social media enables faster feedback and collaboration through polls and
groups. What once took weeks of coordination can now be accomplished in a matter of hours by
polling users or setting up a small task force to discuss an issue. In short, corporate social media
can fuel productivity for IT departments the same way it does across the rest of the organization.

5. Raising the Bar on Service

IT is and always will be a service organization that's goal is to create a safe, productive
environment for employees. For too long, IT organizations have focused on technology rather
than users, but the tide is turning. Today's IT organizations are being encouraged to adopt a
customer service view of IT support where customer satisfaction is the new measuring stick.

This is partly driven by IT's desire for continual process improvement, and partly driven by more
demanding users. In an effort to align operations with the business and provide better service to
this customer base, many IT teams are actively implementing industry standard best practices,
including IT service management (ITSM) process-improvement methodologies.

Regardless of the exact name, these IT best practices recommend visualizing the interaction
experience from the perspective of the customer (i.e. the user). This treats the delivery of all IT
benefits as services, which is very different than traditional technology-centric viewpoints of IT
and its offerings.

User requirements for the speed and quality of IT support are now much higher than ever before.
IT organizations must adjust their focus towards their primary mission: delivering speedy,
highquality services that will be consumed by people, rather than spending excessive time
tending to the underlying support technology that helps deliver these services. To ensure that

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|16005142

they're on the right track and delivering the best possible service, it's essential for the IT team to
continually seek feedback from their customers using surveys and other quantitative methods.

Self-service

Support organizations are learning that it's no longer possible to dictate how users will receive
service. Self-service has become an increasingly common part of daily life, and users expect
resources that help them answer their own questions. Providing online communities, FAQs and
knowledge bases are simple ways to provide the 24-hour support users crave, and many
customer support solutions include this functionality.

Conclusion

Coping with today's rapidly changing IT environment requires an agile team that's willing to
adopt new technologies and take measured risks to better serve their internal customers.
Cloudbased software is one of the best ways to cope with increased productivity pressures and
device compatibility issues, making it a must on every CIO's list for future upgrades. As the
cloud lessens maintenance concerns, support organizations must be ready to stay vigilant and
improve documentation in order to better serve users at scale, while simultaneously harnessing
feedback to adapt and improve processes and foresee issues. Lastly, progressive IT organizations
will need to balance adherence to strict procedures with the need to keep internal customers
happy.

Downloaded by rebeca awino ([email protected])