728 |||| CHAPTER 11 INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

; 34. Graph the first several partial sums sn共x兲 of the series 冘n苷0 x ,
⬁ n CAS (c) If your CAS has built-in Airy functions, graph A on the
together with the sum function f 共x兲 苷 1兾共1 ⫺ x兲, on a com- same screen as the partial sums in part (b) and observe
mon screen. On what interval do these partial sums appear to how the partial sums approximate A.
be converging to f 共x兲? 37. A function f is defined by
35. The function J1 defined by
f 共x兲 苷 1 ⫹ 2x ⫹ x 2 ⫹ 2x 3 ⫹ x 4 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈
⬁
共⫺1兲 x
n 2n⫹1
that is, its coefficients are c2n 苷 1 and c2n⫹1 苷 2 for all n 艌 0.
J1共x兲 苷 兺
n苷0 n!共n ⫹ 1兲! 2 2n⫹1 Find the interval of convergence of the series and find an
is called the Bessel function of order 1. explicit formula for f 共x兲.
(a) Find its domain. 38. If f 共x兲 苷 冘⬁n苷0 cn x n, where cn⫹4 苷 cn for all n 艌 0, find the
; (b) Graph the first several partial sums on a common interval of convergence of the series and a formula for f 共x兲.
screen. n
39. Show that if lim n l ⬁ s ⱍ ⱍ
cn 苷 c , where c 苷 0, then the radius
of convergence of the power series 冘 cn x n is R 苷 1兾c.
CAS (c) If your CAS has built-in Bessel functions, graph J1 on the
same screen as the partial sums in part (b) and observe
how the partial sums approximate J1. 40. Suppose that the power series 冘 cn 共 x ⫺ a兲 n satisfies c n 苷 0

36. The function A defined by

ⱍ ⱍ
for all n. Show that if lim n l ⬁ cn 兾cn⫹1 exists, then it is equal
to the radius of convergence of the power series.
x3 x6 x9 41. Suppose the series 冘 cn x n has radius of convergence 2 and the
A共x兲 苷 1 ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈
2⭈3 2⭈3⭈5⭈6 2⭈3⭈5⭈6⭈8⭈9 series 冘 dn x n has radius of convergence 3. What is the radius
of convergence of the series 冘 共cn ⫹ dn兲x n ?
is called the Airy function after the English mathematician
and astronomer Sir George Airy (1801–1892). 42. Suppose that the radius of convergence of the power series
(a) Find the domain of the Airy function. 冘 cn x n is R. What is the radius of convergence of the power
; (b) Graph the first several partial sums on a common screen. series 冘 cn x 2n ?

11.9 REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONS AS POWER SERIES

In this section we learn how to represent certain types of functions as sums of power series
by manipulating geometric series or by differentiating or integrating such a series. You might
wonder why we would ever want to express a known function as a sum of infinitely many
terms. We will see later that this strategy is useful for integrating functions that don’t have
elementary antiderivatives, for solving differential equations, and for approximating func-
tions by polynomials. (Scientists do this to simplify the expressions they deal with; com-
puter scientists do this to represent functions on calculators and computers.)
We start with an equation that we have seen before:
⬁
1
N A geometric illustration of Equation 1 is
shown in Figure 1. Because the sum of a series
1
1⫺x
苷 1 ⫹ x ⫹ x2 ⫹ x3 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 兺 xn
n苷0
ⱍxⱍ ⬍ 1
is the limit of the sequence of partial sums, we
have We first encountered this equation in Example 5 in Section 11.2, where we obtained it by
1
苷 lim sn共x兲 observing that it is a geometric series with a 苷 1 and r 苷 x. But here our point of view is
1⫺x nl⬁
different. We now regard Equation 1 as expressing the function f 共x兲 苷 1兾共1 ⫺ x兲 as a sum
where of a power series.
y s¡¡
sn共x兲 苷 1 ⫹ x ⫹ x 2 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ ⫹ x n sˆ
is the n th partial sum. Notice that as n s∞
increases, sn共x兲 becomes a better approxima- f
tion to f 共x兲 for ⫺1 ⬍ x ⬍ 1.

s™

FIGURE 1 0 x
1 _1 1
ƒ= and some partial sums
1-x
 SECTION 11.9 REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONS AS POWER SERIES |||| 729

V EXAMPLE 1 Express 1兾共1 ⫹ x 2 兲 as the sum of a power series and find the interval of
convergence.
SOLUTION Replacing x by ⫺x 2 in Equation 1, we have
⬁
1 1
2 苷 2 苷 兺 共⫺x 兲
2 n
1⫹x 1 ⫺ 共⫺x 兲 n苷0

⬁
苷 兺 共⫺1兲 x
n苷0
n 2n
苷 1 ⫺ x2 ⫹ x4 ⫺ x6 ⫹ x8 ⫺ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈

ⱍ
Because this is a geometric series, it converges when ⫺x 2 ⬍ 1, that is, x 2 ⬍ 1, or ⱍ
ⱍ ⱍ
x ⬍ 1. Therefore the interval of convergence is 共⫺1, 1兲. (Of course, we could have
determined the radius of convergence by applying the Ratio Test, but that much work is
unnecessary here.) M

EXAMPLE 2 Find a power series representation for 1兾共x ⫹ 2兲.

SOLUTION In order to put this function in the form of the left side of Equation 1 we first
factor a 2 from the denominator:
1 1 1

冉 冊 冋 冉 冊册
苷 苷
2⫹x x x
2 1⫹ 2 1⫺ ⫺
2 2

兺冉 冊 兺
⬁ ⬁
1 x n
共⫺1兲n n
苷 ⫺ 苷 x
2 n苷0 2 n苷0 2 n⫹1

ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
This series converges when ⫺x兾2 ⬍ 1, that is, x ⬍ 2. So the interval of convergence
is 共⫺2, 2兲. M

EXAMPLE 3 Find a power series representation of x 3兾共x ⫹ 2兲.

SOLUTION Since this function is just x 3 times the function in Example 2, all we have to do
is to multiply that series by x 3:
3
N It’s legitimate to move x across the ⬁ ⬁
x3 1 共⫺1兲n 共⫺1兲n
sigma sign because it doesn’t depend on n.
苷 x3 ⴢ 苷 x 3 兺 n⫹1 x n 苷 兺 n⫹1 x n⫹3
[Use Theorem 11.2.8(i) with c 苷 x 3.] x⫹2 x⫹2 n苷0 2 n苷0 2

苷 12 x 3 ⫺ 14 x 4 ⫹ 18 x 5 ⫺ 161 x 6 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈

Another way of writing this series is as follows:

⬁
x3 共⫺1兲n⫺1 n
苷 兺 x
x⫹2 n苷3 2 n⫺2

As in Example 2, the interval of convergence is 共⫺2, 2兲. M

DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION OF POWER SERIES

The sum of a power series is a function f 共x兲 苷 冘⬁n苷0 cn共x ⫺ a兲n whose domain is the inter-
val of convergence of the series. We would like to be able to differentiate and integrate
such functions, and the following theorem (which we won’t prove) says that we can do so
by differentiating or integrating each individual term in the series, just as we would for a
polynomial. This is called term-by-term differentiation and integration.
730 |||| CHAPTER 11 INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

2 THEOREM If the power series 冘 cn共x ⫺ a兲n has radius of convergence R ⬎ 0,

then the function f defined by
⬁
f 共x兲 苷 c0 ⫹ c1共x ⫺ a兲 ⫹ c2共x ⫺ a兲2 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 兺 c 共x ⫺ a兲
n苷0
n
n

is differentiable (and therefore continuous) on the interval 共a ⫺ R, a ⫹ R兲 and

⬁
(i) f ⬘共x兲 苷 c1 ⫹ 2c2共x ⫺ a兲 ⫹ 3c3共x ⫺ a兲2 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 兺 nc 共x ⫺ a兲
n苷1
n
n⫺1

共x ⫺ a兲2 共x ⫺ a兲3
N In part (ii), x c0 dx 苷 c0 x ⫹ C1 is written as (ii) y f 共x兲 dx 苷 C ⫹ c 共x ⫺ a兲 ⫹ c
0 1
2
⫹ c2
3
⫹ ⭈⭈⭈
c0共x ⫺ a兲 ⫹ C, where C 苷 C1 ⫹ ac0 , so all
the terms of the series have the same form. ⬁
共x ⫺ a兲n⫹1
苷C⫹ 兺c
n苷0
n
n⫹1
The radii of convergence of the power series in Equations (i) and (ii) are both R.

NOTE 1 Equations (i) and (ii) in Theorem 2 can be rewritten in the form

(iii)
d
dx
冋兺 n苷0
⬁

册
cn共x ⫺ a兲n 苷
⬁

兺
n苷0
d
dx
关cn共x ⫺ a兲n 兴

y 冋兺 册
⬁ ⬁
(iv)
n苷0
cn共x ⫺ a兲n dx 苷 兺 y c 共x ⫺ a兲 dx
n苷0
n
n

We know that, for finite sums, the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives and the
integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals. Equations (iii) and (iv) assert that the same is
true for infinite sums, provided we are dealing with power series. (For other types of series
of functions the situation is not as simple; see Exercise 36.)

NOTE 2 Although Theorem 2 says that the radius of convergence remains the same
when a power series is differentiated or integrated, this does not mean that the interval of
convergence remains the same. It may happen that the original series converges at an end-
point, whereas the differentiated series diverges there. (See Exercise 37.)

NOTE 3 The idea of differentiating a power series term by term is the basis for a power-
ful method for solving differential equations. We will discuss this method in Chapter 17.

EXAMPLE 4 In Example 3 in Section 11.8 we saw that the Bessel function

⬁
共⫺1兲n x 2n
J0共x兲 苷 兺
n苷0 2 2n共n!兲2

is defined for all x. Thus, by Theorem 2, J0 is differentiable for all x and its derivative is
found by term-by-term differentiation as follows:

⬁ ⬁
d 共⫺1兲n x 2n 共⫺1兲n 2nx 2n⫺1
J0⬘共x兲 苷 兺
n苷0 dx 2 共n!兲
2n 2 苷 兺
n苷1 2 2n共n!兲2
M
 SECTION 11.9 REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONS AS POWER SERIES |||| 731

V EXAMPLE 5 Express 1兾共1 ⫺ x兲2 as a power series by differentiating Equation 1. What

is the radius of convergence?
SOLUTION Differentiating each side of the equation
⬁
1
苷 1 ⫹ x ⫹ x2 ⫹ x3 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 兺 xn
1⫺x n苷0

⬁
1
2 苷 1 ⫹ 2x ⫹ 3x ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 兺 nx
2 n⫺1
we get
共1 ⫺ x兲 n苷1

If we wish, we can replace n by n ⫹ 1 and write the answer as

⬁
1
共1 ⫺ x兲2
苷 兺
n苷0
共n ⫹ 1兲x n

According to Theorem 2, the radius of convergence of the differentiated series is the

same as the radius of convergence of the original series, namely, R 苷 1. M

EXAMPLE 6 Find a power series representation for ln共1 ⫺ x兲 and its radius of
convergence.
SOLUTION We notice that, except for a factor of ⫺1, the derivative of this function is
1兾共1 ⫺ x兲. So we integrate both sides of Equation 1:
1
⫺ln共1 ⫺ x兲 苷 y dx 苷 y 共1 ⫹ x ⫹ x 2 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈兲 dx
1⫺x
⬁ ⬁
x2 x3 x n⫹1 xn
苷x⫹
2
⫹
3
⫹ ⭈⭈⭈ ⫹ C 苷 兺
n苷0 n ⫹ 1
⫹C苷 兺
n苷1 n
⫹C ⱍxⱍ ⬍ 1
To determine the value of C we put x 苷 0 in this equation and obtain ⫺ln共1 ⫺ 0兲 苷 C.
Thus C 苷 0 and
⬁
x2 x3 xn
ln共1 ⫺ x兲 苷 ⫺x ⫺
2
⫺
3
⫺ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 ⫺兺
n苷1 n
ⱍxⱍ ⬍ 1
The radius of convergence is the same as for the original series: R 苷 1. M

Notice what happens if we put x 苷 12 in the result of Example 6. Since ln 12 苷 ⫺ln 2,

we see that
⬁
1 1 1 1 1
ln 2 苷 ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈ 苷 兺 n
2 8 24 64 n苷1 n 2

V EXAMPLE 7 Find a power series representation for f 共x兲 苷 tan⫺1x.

SOLUTION We observe that f ⬘共x兲 苷 1兾共1 ⫹ x 2 兲 and find the required series by integrating
the power series for 1兾共1 ⫹ x 2 兲 found in Example 1.

1
tan⫺1x 苷 y dx 苷 y 共1 ⫺ x 2 ⫹ x 4 ⫺ x 6 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈兲 dx
1 ⫹ x2

x3 x5 x7
苷C⫹x⫺ ⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈
3 5 7
732 |||| CHAPTER 11 INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

N The power series for tan⫺1x obtained in Exam- To find C we put x 苷 0 and obtain C 苷 tan⫺1 0 苷 0. Therefore
ple 7 is called Gregory’s series after the Scottish
mathematician James Gregory (1638–1675), who ⬁
x3 x5 x7 x 2n⫹1
had anticipated some of Newton’s discoveries. tan⫺1x 苷 x ⫺ ⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 兺 共⫺1兲n
We have shown that Gregory’s series is valid 3 5 7 n苷0 2n ⫹ 1
when ⫺1 ⬍ x ⬍ 1, but it turns out (although it
isn’t easy to prove) that it is also valid when
x 苷 ⫾1. Notice that when x 苷 1 the series Since the radius of convergence of the series for 1兾共1 ⫹ x 2 兲 is 1, the radius of conver-
becomes gence of this series for tan⫺1x is also 1. M

␲ 1 1 1
苷1⫺ ⫹ ⫺ ⫹⭈⭈⭈
4 3 5 7 EXAMPLE 8
This beautiful result is known as the Leibniz (a) Evaluate x 关1兾共1 ⫹ x 7 兲兴 dx as a power series.
formula for ␲. (b) Use part (a) to approximate x00.5 关1兾共1 ⫹ x 7 兲兴 dx correct to within 10⫺7.
SOLUTION
(a) The first step is to express the integrand, 1兾共1 ⫹ x 7 兲, as the sum of a power series.
As in Example 1, we start with Equation 1 and replace x by ⫺x 7:
⬁
1 1
1 ⫹ x7
苷
1 ⫺ 共⫺x 7 兲
苷 兺
n苷0
共⫺x 7 兲n

⬁
苷 兺 共⫺1兲 x
n苷0
n 7n
苷 1 ⫺ x 7 ⫹ x 14 ⫺ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈

N This example demonstrates one way in Now we integrate term by term:

which power series representations are useful.
Integrating 1兾共1 ⫹ x 7 兲 by hand is incredibly dif- ⬁ ⬁
1 x 7n⫹1
ficult. Different computer algebra systems return y 1⫹x 7 dx 苷 y 兺 共⫺1兲 x
n苷0
n 7n
dx 苷 C ⫹ 兺 共⫺1兲
n苷0
n
7n ⫹ 1
different forms of the answer, but they are all
extremely complicated. (If you have a CAS, try
x8 x 15 x 22
it yourself.) The infinite series answer that we 苷C⫹x⫺ ⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈
obtain in Example 8(a) is actually much easier to 8 15 22
deal with than the finite answer provided by a
CAS.
ⱍ ⱍ
This series converges for ⫺x 7 ⬍ 1, that is, for x ⬍ 1. ⱍ ⱍ
(b) In applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, it doesn’t matter which anti-
derivative we use, so let’s use the antiderivative from part (a) with C 苷 0:

冋 册
1兾2
0.5 1 x8 x 15 x 22
7 dx 苷
y x⫺ ⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈
0 1⫹x 8 15 22 0

1 1 1 1 共⫺1兲n
苷 ⫺ ⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈ ⫹ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈
2 8⭈2 8
15 ⭈ 2 15
22 ⭈ 2 22
共7n ⫹ 1兲2 7n⫹1

This infinite series is the exact value of the definite integral, but since it is an alternating
series, we can approximate the sum using the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem.
If we stop adding after the term with n 苷 3, the error is smaller than the term with
n 苷 4:
1
⬇ 6.4 ⫻ 10⫺11
29 ⭈ 2 29

So we have
0.5 1 1 1 1 1
7 dx ⬇
y ⫺ 8 ⫹ 15 ⫺ ⬇ 0.49951374 M
0 1⫹x 2 8ⴢ2 15 ⴢ 2 22 ⴢ 2 22