Mathematics

Adopted by the Iowa State Board of Education November 17, 2010

DOKs added December 2012
Table of Contents
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 3
Mathematics | Standards for Mathematical Practice .......................................................... 8
Mathematics | Kindergarten .............................................................................................................. 11
Mathematics | Grade 1....................................................................................................................... 15
Mathematics | Grade 2....................................................................................................................... 19
Mathematics | Grade 3....................................................................................................................... 23
Mathematics | Grade 4....................................................................................................................... 29
Mathematics | Grade 5....................................................................................................................... 35
Mathematics | Grade 6....................................................................................................................... 41
Mathematics | Grade 7....................................................................................................................... 47
Mathematics | Grade 8....................................................................................................................... 53
Mathematics Standards for High School ............................................................................................ 58
Mathematics | High School—Number and Quantity ......................................................................... 59
Mathematics | High School—Algebra ................................................................................................ 63
Mathematics | High School—Functions ............................................................................................. 68
Mathematics | High School—Modeling ............................................................................................. 73
Mathematics | High School—Geometry ............................................................................................ 75
Mathematics | High School— Statistics and Probability★ .................................................................. 82
Glossary ........................................................................................................................... 88
Sample of Works Consulted.............................................................................................. 95
The Role and Importance of Cognitive Complexity ............................................................ 98

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Introduction
Iowa Core Mathematics includes recommendations for curriculum, instruction, and assessment, as well as
standards for mathematical content and mathematical practices. In particular, Iowa Core Mathematics is built
upon:

 Iowa Core’s Characteristics of Effective Instruction

o Teaching for Understanding
o Student-Centered Classrooms
o Teaching for Student Differences
o Rigor and Relevance
o Assessment for Learning
 Common Core State Standards for Mathematics
o Standards for Mathematical Practice
o Standards for Mathematical Content

To faithfully implement Iowa Core Mathematics requires teaching with rich mathematical tasks.

Rich Mathematical Tasks

As stated in Common Core Mathematics, “Mathematical understanding and procedural skill are equally important,
and both are assessable using mathematical tasks of sufficient richness.” (p. 6). By teaching through rich
mathematical tasks, students develop deep conceptual understanding and skill proficiency. Rich mathematical
tasks involve both:

 Teaching through Problem Solving with Problem-Based Instructional Tasks

 Using Distributed Practice that is Meaningful and Purposeful

Problem-Based Instructional Tasks

Problem-based instructional tasks are at the heart of teaching for understanding. A world-class mathematics
curriculum should be built around rich instructional tasks focused on important mathematics.

Problem-based instructional tasks:

 Help students develop a deep understanding of important mathematics
 Emphasize connections, across mathematical content areas, to other disciplines, and especially to the real
world
 Are accessible yet challenging to all
 Can be solved in several ways
 Encourage student engagement and communication
 Encourage the use of connected multiple representations
 Encourage appropriate use of intellectual, physical, and technological tools

Distributed Practice that is Meaningful and Purposeful

Practice is essential to learn mathematics. However, to be effective in improving student achievement, practice
must be meaningful, purposeful, and distributed.

Meaningful Purposeful Distributed Practice:

 Meaningful: Builds on and extends understanding
 Purposeful: Links to curriculum goals and targets an identified need based on multiple data sources
 Distributed: Consists of short periods of systematic practice distributed over a long period of time

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Toward greater focus and coherence

Mathematics experiences in early childhood settings should concentrate on (1) number

(which includes whole number, operations, and relations) and (2) geometry, spatial
relations, and measurement, with more mathematics learning time devoted to number
than to other topics. Mathematical process goals should be integrated in these content
areas.
- Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood, National Research Council, 2009

The composite standards [of Hong Kong, Korea and Singapore] have a number of
features that can inform an international benchmarking process for the development of
K–6 mathematics standards in the U.S. First, the composite standards concentrate the
early learning of mathematics on the number, measurement, and geometry strands with
less emphasis on data analysis and little exposure to algebra. The Hong Kong standards
for grades 1–3 devote approximately half the targeted time to numbers and almost all
the time remaining to geometry and measurement.
- Ginsburg, Leinwand and Decker, 2009

Because the mathematics concepts in [U.S.] textbooks are often weak, the presentation
becomes more mechanical than is ideal. We looked at both traditional and non-
traditional textbooks used in the US and found this conceptual weakness in both.
- Ginsburg, et al., 2005

There are many ways to organize curricula. The challenge, now rarely met, is to avoid
those that distort mathematics and turn off students.
- Steen., 2007

For over a decade, research studies of mathematics education in high-performing countries have pointed to the
conclusion that the mathematics curriculum in the United States must become substantially more focused and
coherent in order to improve mathematics achievement in this country. To deliver on the promise of common
standards, the standards must address the problem of a curriculum that is "a mile wide and an inch deep." These
Standards are a substantial answer to that challenge.

It is important to recognize that “fewer standards” are no substitute for focused standards. Achieving "fewer
standards" would be easy to do by resorting to broad, general statements. Instead, these Standards aim for clarity
and specificity.

Assessing the coherence of a set of standards is more difficult than assessing their focus. William Schmidt and
Richard Houang (2002) have said that content standards and curricula are coherent if they are:

articulated over time as a sequence of topics and performances that are logical and
reflect, where appropriate, the sequential or hierarchical nature of the disciplinary
content from which the subject matter derives. That is, what and how students are
taught should reflect not only the topics that fall within a certain academic discipline,
but also the key ideas that determine how knowledge is organized and generated within
that discipline. This implies that to be coherent, a set of content standards must evolve
from particulars (e.g., the meaning and operations of whole numbers, including simple
math facts and routine computational procedures associated with whole numbers and
fractions) to deeper structures inherent in the discipline. These deeper structures then
serve as a means for connecting the particulars (such as an understanding of the rational
number system and its properties). (emphasis added)

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These Standards endeavor to follow such a design, not only by stressing conceptual understanding of key ideas,
but also by continually returning to organizing principles such as place value or the properties of operations to
structure those ideas.

In addition, the "sequence of topics and performances" that is outlined in a body of mathematics standards must
also respect what is known about how students learn. As Confrey (2007) points out, developing "sequenced
obstacles and challenges for student...absent the insights about meaning that derive from careful study of
learning, would be unfortunate and unwise." In recognition of this, the development of these Standards began
with research-based learning progressions detailing what is known today about how students’ mathematical
knowledge, skill, and understanding develop over time.

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Understanding mathematics
These Standards define what students should understand and be able to do in their study of mathematics. Asking a
student to understand something means asking a teacher to assess whether the student has understood it. But
what does mathematical understanding look like? One hallmark of mathematical understanding is the ability to
justify, in a way appropriate to the student’s mathematical maturity, why a particular mathematical statement is
true or where a mathematical rule comes from. There is a world of difference between a student who can summon
a mnemonic device to expand a product such as (a + b)(x + y) and a student who can explain where the mnemonic
comes from. The student who can explain the rule understands the mathematics, and may have a better chance to
succeed at a less familiar task such as expanding (a + b + c)(x + y). Mathematical understanding and procedural skill
are equally important, and both are assessable using mathematical tasks of sufficient richness.

The Standards set grade-specific standards but do not define the intervention methods or materials necessary to
support students who are well below or well above grade-level expectations. It is also beyond the scope of the
Standards to define the full range of supports appropriate for English language learners and for students with
special needs. At the same time, all students must have the opportunity to learn and meet the same high
standards if they are to access the knowledge and skills necessary in their post-school lives. The Standards should
be read as allowing for the widest possible range of students to participate fully from the outset, along with
appropriate accommodations to ensure maximum participation of students with special education needs. For
example, for students with disabilities reading should allow for use of Braille, screen reader technology, or other
assistive devices, while writing should include the use of a scribe, computer, or speech-to-text technology. In a
similar vein, speaking and listening should be interpreted broadly to include sign language. No set of grade-specific
standards can fully reflect the great variety in abilities, needs, learning rates, and achievement levels of students in
any given classroom. However, the Standards do provide clear signposts along the way to the goal of college and
career readiness for all students.

The Standards begin on page 8 with eight Standards for Mathematical Practice.

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 How to read the grade level standards
Standards define what students should understand and be able to do.

Clusters are groups of related standards. Note that standards from different clusters may sometimes be closely
related, because mathematics is a connected subject.

Domains are larger groups of related standards. Standards from different domains may sometimes be closely
related.

Taxonomy Codes are unique, alpha-numeric identifiers for each standard.

Depth-of-Knowledge Codes are cognitive complexity codes based on Webb’s Depth-of-Knowledge that are
assigned to each standard.
Domain

Number and Operations in Base Ten 3.NBT

Use place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.
1. Use place value understanding to round whole numbers to the nearest 10 or 100.
(3.NBT.1.) (DOK 1)
2. Fluently add and subtract within 1000 using strategies and algorithms based on place value,
Standard properties of operations, and/or the relationship between addition and subtraction. Cluster
(3.NBT.2.) (DOK 1,2)
3. Multiply one-digit whole numbers by multiples of 10 in the range 10-90 (e.g., 9 × 80, 5 × 60)
using strategies based on place value and properties of operations. (3.NBT.3.) (DOK 1,2)

Taxonomy Code Depth-of-Knowledge Code

These Standards do not dictate curriculum or teaching methods. For example, just because topic A appears before
topic B in the standards for a given grade, it does not necessarily mean that topic A must be taught before topic B.
A teacher might prefer to teach topic B before topic A, or might choose to highlight connections by teaching topic
A and topic B at the same time. Or, a teacher might prefer to teach a topic of his or her own choosing that leads, as
a byproduct, to students reaching the standards for topics A and B.

What students can learn at any particular grade level depends upon what they have learned before. Ideally then,
each standard in this document might have been phrased in the form, "Students who already know ... should next
come to learn ...." But at present this approach is unrealistic—not least because existing education research cannot
specify all such learning pathways. Of necessity therefore, grade placements for specific topics have been made on
the basis of state and international comparisons and the collective experience and collective professional
judgment of educators, researchers and mathematicians. One promise of common state standards is that over
time they will allow research on learning progressions to inform and improve the design of standards to a much
greater extent than is possible today. Learning opportunities will continue to vary across schools and school
systems, and educators should make every effort to meet the needs of individual students based on their current
understanding.

These Standards are not intended to be new names for old ways of doing business. They are a call to take the next
step. It is time for states to work together to build on lessons learned from two decades of standards based
reforms. It is time to recognize that standards are not just promises to our children, but promises we intend to
keep.

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Mathematics | Standards for Mathematical Practice
The Standards for Mathematical Practice describe varieties of expertise that mathematics educators at all levels
should seek to develop in their students. These practices rest on important "processes and proficiencies" with
longstanding importance in mathematics education. The first of these are the NCTM process standards of problem
solving, reasoning and proof, communication, representation, and connections. The second are the strands of
mathematical proficiency specified in the National Research Council’s report Adding It Up: adaptive reasoning,
strategic competence, conceptual understanding (comprehension of mathematical concepts, operations and
relations), procedural fluency (skill in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately, efficiently and appropriately),
and productive disposition (habitual inclination to see mathematics as sensible, useful, and worthwhile, coupled
with a belief in diligence and one’s own efficacy).

1. Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Mathematically proficient students start by explaining to themselves the meaning of a problem and
looking for entry points to its solution. They analyze givens, constraints, relationships, and goals. They
make conjectures about the form and meaning of the solution and plan a solution pathway rather than
simply jumping into a solution attempt. They consider analogous problems, and try special cases and
simpler forms of the original problem in order to gain insight into its solution. They monitor and evaluate
their progress and change course if necessary. Older students might, depending on the context of the
problem, transform algebraic expressions or change the viewing window on their graphing calculator to
get the information they need. Mathematically proficient students can explain correspondences between
equations, verbal descriptions, tables, and graphs or draw diagrams of important features and
relationships, graph data, and search for regularity or trends. Younger students might rely on using
concrete objects or pictures to help conceptualize and solve a problem. Mathematically proficient
students check their answers to problems using a different method, and they continually ask themselves,
"Does this make sense?" They can understand the approaches of others to solving complex problems and
identify correspondences between different approaches.

2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

Mathematically proficient students make sense of quantities and their relationships in problem situations.
They bring two complementary abilities to bear on problems involving quantitative relationships: the
ability to decontextualize—to abstract a given situation and represent it symbolically and manipulate the
representing symbols as if they have a life of their own, without necessarily attending to their referents—
and the ability to contextualize, to pause as needed during the manipulation process in order to probe
into the referents for the symbols involved. Quantitative reasoning entails habits of creating a coherent
representation of the problem at hand; considering the units involved; attending to the meaning of
quantities, not just how to compute them; and knowing and flexibly using different properties of
operations and objects.

3. Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, definitions, and previously
established results in constructing arguments. They make conjectures and build a logical progression of
statements to explore the truth of their conjectures. They are able to analyze situations by breaking them
into cases, and can recognize and use counterexamples. They justify their conclusions, communicate them
to others, and respond to the arguments of others. They reason inductively about data, making plausible
arguments that take into account the context from which the data arose. Mathematically proficient
students are also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish correct logic
or reasoning from that which is flawed, and—if there is a flaw in an argument—explain what it is.
Elementary students can construct arguments using concrete referents such as objects, drawings,
diagrams, and actions. Such arguments can make sense and be correct, even though they are not
generalized or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn to determine domains to which an
argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read the arguments of others, decide whether they
make sense, and ask useful questions to clarify or improve the arguments.

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 4. Model with mathematics.
Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve problems arising in
everyday life, society, and the workplace. In early grades, this might be as simple as writing an addition
equation to describe a situation. In middle grades, a student might apply proportional reasoning to plan a
school event or analyze a problem in the community. By high school, a student might use geometry to
solve a design problem or use a function to describe how one quantity of interest depends on another.
Mathematically proficient students who can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions
and approximations to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision later. They
are able to identify important quantities in a practical situation and map their relationships using such
tools as diagrams, two-way tables, graphs, flowcharts and formulas. They can analyze those relationships
mathematically to draw conclusions. They routinely interpret their mathematical results in the context of
the situation and reflect on whether the results make sense, possibly improving the model if it has not
served its purpose.

5. Use appropriate tools strategically.

Mathematically proficient students consider the available tools when solving a mathematical problem.
These tools might include pencil and paper, concrete models, a ruler, a protractor, a calculator, a
spreadsheet, a computer algebra system, a statistical package, or dynamic geometry software. Proficient
students are sufficiently familiar with tools appropriate for their grade or course to make sound decisions
about when each of these tools might be helpful, recognizing both the insight to be gained and their
limitations. For example, mathematically proficient high school students analyze graphs of functions and
solutions generated using a graphing calculator. They detect possible errors by strategically using
estimation and other mathematical knowledge. When making mathematical models, they know that
technology can enable them to visualize the results of varying assumptions, explore consequences, and
compare predictions with data. Mathematically proficient students at various grade levels are able to
identify relevant external mathematical resources, such as digital content located on a website, and use
them to pose or solve problems. They are able to use technological tools to explore and deepen their
understanding of concepts.

6. Attend to precision.
Mathematically proficient students try to communicate precisely to others. They try to use clear
definitions in discussion with others and in their own reasoning. They state the meaning of the symbols
they choose, including using the equal sign consistently and appropriately. They are careful about
specifying units of measure, and labeling axes to clarify the correspondence with quantities in a problem.
They calculate accurately and efficiently, express numerical answers with a degree of precision
appropriate for the problem context. In the elementary grades, students give carefully formulated
explanations to each other. By the time they reach high school they have learned to examine claims and
make explicit use of definitions.

7. Look for and make use of structure.

Mathematically proficient students look closely to discern a pattern or structure. Young students, for
example, might notice that three and seven more is the same amount as seven and three more, or they
may sort a collection of shapes according to how many sides the shapes have. Later, students will see 7 ×
8 equals the well remembered 7 × 5 + 7 × 3, in preparation for learning about the distributive property. In
the expression x2 + 9x + 14, older students can see the 14 as 2 × 7 and the 9 as 2 + 7. They recognize the
significance of an existing line in a geometric figure and can use the strategy of drawing an auxiliary line
for solving problems. They also can step back for an overview and shift perspective. They can see
complicated things, such as some algebraic expressions, as single objects or as being composed of several
objects. For example, they can see 5 – 3(x – y)2 as 5 minus a positive number times a square and use that
to realize that its value cannot be more than 5 for any real numbers x and y.

Students who look for patterns in their environment expect things to make sense and develop a habit of
finding relationships and making predictions. Students should investigate patterns in number, shape,
data, change, and chance. They should be given opportunities to learn how to represent those patterns
numerically, geometrically and/or algebraically.

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 8. Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.
Mathematically proficient students notice if calculations are repeated, and look both for general methods
and for shortcuts. Upper elementary students might notice when dividing 25 by 11 that they are repeating
the same calculations over and over again, and conclude they have a repeating decimal. By paying
attention to the calculation of slope as they repeatedly check whether points are on the line through (1,
2) with slope 3, middle school students might abstract the equation (y – 2)/(x – 1) = 3. Noticing the
regularity in the way terms cancel when expanding (x – 1)(x + 1), (x – 1)(x2 + x + 1), and (x – 1)(x3 + x2 + x +
1) might lead them to the general formula for the sum of a geometric series. As they work to solve a
problem, mathematically proficient students maintain oversight of the process, while attending to the
details. They continually evaluate the reasonableness of their intermediate results.

Connecting the Standards for Mathematical Practice to the Standards for Mathematical Content
The Standards for Mathematical Practice describe ways in which developing student practitioners of the discipline
of mathematics increasingly ought to engage with the subject matter as they grow in mathematical maturity and
expertise throughout the elementary, middle and high school years. Designers of curricula, assessments, and
professional development should all attend to the need to connect the mathematical practices to mathematical
content in mathematics instruction.

The Standards for Mathematical Content are a balanced combination of procedure and understanding.
Expectations that begin with the word "understand" are often especially good opportunities to connect the
practices to the content. Students who lack understanding of a topic may rely on procedures too heavily. Without
a flexible base from which to work, they may be less likely to consider analogous problems, represent problems
coherently, justify conclusions, apply the mathematics to practical situations, use technology mindfully to work
with the mathematics, explain the mathematics accurately to other students, step back for an overview, or deviate
from a known procedure to find a shortcut. In short, a lack of understanding effectively prevents a student from
engaging in the mathematical practices.

In this respect, those content standards which set an expectation of understanding are potential "points of
intersection" between the Standards for Mathematical Content and the Standards for Mathematical Practice.
These points of intersection are intended to be weighted toward central and generative concepts in the school
mathematics curriculum that most merit the time, resources, innovative energies, and focus necessary to
qualitatively improve the curriculum, instruction, assessment, professional development, and student achievement
in mathematics.

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Mathematics | Kindergarten
In Kindergarten, instructional time should focus on two critical areas: (1) representing, relating,
and operating on whole numbers, initially with sets of objects; (2) describing shapes and space.
More learning time in Kindergarten should be devoted to number than to other topics.

(1) Students use numbers, including written numerals, to represent quantities and to solve quantitative
problems, such as counting objects in a set; counting out a given number of objects; comparing sets or
numerals; and modeling simple joining and separating situations with sets of objects, or eventually with
equations such as 5 + 2 = 7 and 7 – 2 = 5. (Kindergarten students should see addition and subtraction
equations, and student writing of equations in kindergarten is encouraged, but it is not required.)
Students choose, combine, and apply effective strategies for answering quantitative questions, including
quickly recognizing the cardinalities of small sets of objects, counting and producing sets of given sizes,
counting the number of objects in combined sets, or counting the number of objects that remain in a set
after some are taken away.

(2) Students describe their physical world using geometric ideas (e.g., shape, orientation, spatial relations)
and vocabulary. They identify, name, and describe basic two-dimensional shapes, such as squares,
triangles, circles, rectangles, and hexagons, presented in a variety of ways (e.g., with different sizes and
orientations), as well as three-dimensional shapes such as cubes, cones, cylinders, and spheres. They use
basic shapes and spatial reasoning to model objects in their environment and to construct more complex
shapes.

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Grade K Overview
Mathematical Practices
Counting and Cardinality
 Know number names and the count sequence. 1. Make sense of problems and
 Count to tell the number of objects. persevere in solving them.
 Compare numbers.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
3. Construct viable arguments and
Operations and Algebraic Thinking critique the reasoning of others.
 Understand addition as putting together and adding to, 4. Model with mathematics.
and understand subtraction as taking apart and taking
from. 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
6. Attend to precision.

Number and Operations in Base Ten 7. Look for and make use of structure.
 Work with numbers 11–19 to gain foundations for place 8. Look for and express regularity in
value. repeated reasoning.

Measurement and Data

 Describe and compare measurable attributes.
 Classify objects and count the number of objects in categories.

Geometry
 Identify and describe shapes.
 Analyze, compare, create, and compose shapes.

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Counting and Cardinality K.CC
Know number names and the count sequence. (K.CC.A)
1. Count to 100 by ones and by tens. (K.CC.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Count forward beginning from a given number within the known sequence (instead of
having to begin at 1). (K.CC.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Write numbers from 0 to 20. Represent a number of objects with a written numeral 0-
20 (with 0 representing a count of no objects). (K.CC.A.3) (DOK 1)

Count to tell the number of object. (K.CC.B)

4. Understand the relationship between numbers and quantities; connect counting to
cardinality.
a. When counting objects, say the number names in the standard order, pairing
each object with one and only one number name and each number name with
one and only one object.
b. Understand that the last number name said tells the number of objects
counted. The number of objects is the same regardless of their arrangement or
the order in which they were counted.
c. Understand that each successive number name refers to a quantity that is one
larger. (K.CC.B.4) (DOK 2)
5. Count to answer "how many?" questions about as many as 20 things arranged in a line,
a rectangular array, or a circle, or as many as 10 things in a scattered configuration;
given a number from 1–20, count out that many objects. (K.CC.B.5) (DOK 2)

Compare numbers (K.CC.C)

6. Identify whether the number of objects in one group is greater than, less than, or equal
to the number of objects in another group, e.g., by using matching and counting
strategies.1 (K.CC.C.6) (DOK 2)
7. Compare two numbers between 1 and 10 presented as written numerals. (K.CC.C.7)
(DOK 1,2)

Operations and Algebraic Thinking K.OA

Understand addition as putting together and adding to, and understand subtraction as taking
apart and taking from. (K.OA.A)
1. Represent addition and subtraction with objects, fingers, mental images, drawings2,
sounds (e.g., claps), acting out situations, verbal explanations, expressions, or
equations. (K.OA.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Solve addition and subtraction word problems, and add and subtract within 10, e.g., by
using objects or drawings to represent the problem. (K.OA.A.2) (DOK 2)
3. Decompose numbers less than or equal to 10 into pairs in more than one way, e.g., by
using objects or drawings, and record each decomposition by a drawing or equation
(e.g., 5 = 2 + 3 and 5 = 4 + 1). (K.OA.A.3) (DOK 2,3)
4. For any number from 1 to 9, find the number that makes 10 when added to the given
number, e.g., by using objects or drawings, and record the answer with a drawing or
equation. (K.OA.A.4) (DOK 2)
5. Fluently add and subtract within 5. (K.OA.A.5) (DOK 1)

1
Include groups with up to ten objects.
2
Drawings need not show details, but should show the mathematics in the problem. (This applies wherever
drawings are mentioned in the Standards.)
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Number and Operations in Base Ten K.NBT
Work with numbers 11–19 to gain foundations for place value. (K.NBT.A)
1. Compose and decompose numbers from 11 to 19 into ten ones and some further ones,
e.g., by using objects or drawings, and record each composition or decomposition by a
drawing or equation (e.g., 18 = 10 + 8); understand that these numbers are composed
of ten ones and one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or nine ones. (K.NBT.A.1)
(DOK 2)

Measurement and Data K.MD

Describe and compare measurable attributes. (K.MD.A)
1. Describe measurable attributes of objects, such as length or weight. Describe several
measurable attributes of a single object. (K.MD.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Directly compare two objects with a measurable attribute in common, to see which
object has "more of"/"less of" the attribute, and describe the difference. For example,
directly compare the heights of two children and describe one child as taller/shorter.
(K.MD.A.2) (DOK 2)

Classify objects and count the number of objects in each category. (K.MD.B)
3. Classify objects into given categories; count the numbers of objects in each category
and sort the categories by count.3 (K.MD.B.3.) (DOK 1,2)

Geometry K.G
Identify and describe shapes (squares, circles, triangles, rectangles, hexagons, cubes, cones,
cylinders, and spheres). (K.G.A)
1. Describe objects in the environment using names of shapes, and describe the relative
positions of these objects using terms such as above, below, beside, in front of, behind,
and next to. (K.G.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Correctly name shapes regardless of their orientations or overall size. (K.G.A.2) (DOK 1)
3. Identify shapes as two-dimensional (lying in a plane, "flat") or three-dimensional
("solid"). (K.G.A.3) (DOK 1)

Analyze, compare, create, and compose shapes. (K.G.B)

4. Analyze and compare two- and three-dimensional shapes, in different sizes and
orientations, using informal language to describe their similarities, differences, parts
(e.g., number of sides and vertices/"corners") and other attributes (e.g., having sides of
equal length). (K.G.B.4) (DOK 2,3)
5. Model shapes in the world by building shapes from components (e.g., sticks and clay
balls) and drawing shapes. (K.G.B.5) (DOK 2,3)
6. Compose simple shapes to form larger shapes. For example, "Can you join these two
triangles with full sides touching to make a rectangle?" (K.G.B.6) (DOK 2,3)

3
Limit category counts to be less than or equal to 10.

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Mathematics | Grade 1
In Grade 1, instructional time should focus on four critical areas: (1) developing understanding
of addition, subtraction, and strategies for addition and subtraction within 20; (2) developing
understanding of whole number relationships and place value, including grouping in tens and
ones; (3) developing understanding of linear measurement and measuring lengths as iterating
length units; and (4) reasoning about attributes of, and composing and decomposing geometric
shapes.

(1) Students develop strategies for adding and subtracting whole numbers based on their prior work with
small numbers. They use a variety of models, including discrete objects and length-based models (e.g.,
cubes connected to form lengths), to model add-to, take-from, put-together, take-apart, and compare
situations to develop meaning for the operations of addition and subtraction, and to develop strategies to
solve arithmetic problems with these operations. Students understand connections between counting
and addition and subtraction (e.g., adding two is the same as counting on two). They use properties of
addition to add whole numbers and to create and use increasingly sophisticated strategies based on these
properties (e.g., "making tens") to solve addition and subtraction problems within 20. By comparing a
variety of solution strategies, children build their understanding of the relationship between addition and
subtraction.

(2) Students develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate, and generalizable methods to add within 100
and subtract multiples of 10. They compare whole numbers (at least to 100) to develop understanding of
and solve problems involving their relative sizes. They think of whole numbers between 10 and 100 in
terms of tens and ones (especially recognizing the numbers 11 to 19 as composed of a ten and some
ones). Through activities that build number sense, they understand the order of the counting numbers
and their relative magnitudes.

(3) Students develop an understanding of the meaning and processes of measurement, including
underlying concepts such as iterating (the mental activity of building up the length of an object with
equal-sized units) and the transitivity principle for indirect measurement. 1

(4) Students compose and decompose plane or solid figures (e.g., put two triangles together to make a
quadrilateral) and build understanding of part-whole relationships as well as the properties of the original
and composite shapes. As they combine shapes, they recognize them from different perspectives and
orientations, describe their geometric attributes, and determine how they are alike and different, to
develop the background for measurement and for initial understandings of properties such as congruence
and symmetry.

1
Students should apply the principle of transitivity of measurement to make indirect comparisons, but they need
not use this technical term.

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Grade 1 Overview
Mathematical Practices
Operations and Algebraic Thinking
 Represent and solve problems involving addition and 1. Make sense of problems and
subtraction. persevere in solving them.
 Understand and apply properties of operations and the
relationship between addition and subtraction. 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
 Add and subtract within 20. 3. Construct viable arguments and
 Work with addition and subtraction equations. critique the reasoning of others.
4. Model with mathematics.

Number and Operations in Base Ten 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.

 Extend the counting sequence. 6. Attend to precision.
 Understand place value.
 Use place value understanding and properties of 7. Look for and make use of structure.
operations to add and subtract. 8. Look for and express regularity in
repeated reasoning.

Measurement and Data

 Measure lengths indirectly and by iterating length units.
 Tell and write time.
 Represent and interpret data.

Geometry
 Reason with shapes and their attributes.

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Operations and Algebraic Thinking 1.OA
Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction. (1.OA.A)
1. Use addition and subtraction within 20 to solve word problems involving situations of
adding to, taking from, putting together, taking apart, and comparing, with unknowns in
all positions, e.g., by using objects, drawings, and equations with a symbol for the
unknown number to represent the problem. 2 (1.OA.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Solve word problems that call for addition of three whole numbers whose sum is less
than or equal to 20, e.g., by using objects, drawings, and equations with a symbol for
the unknown number to represent the problem. (1.OA.A.2) (DOK 2)

Understand and apply properties of operations and the relationship between addition and
subtraction. (1.OA.B)
3. Apply properties of operations as strategies to add and subtract.3 Examples: If 8 + 3 = 11
is known, then 3 + 8 = 11 is also known. (Commutative property of addition.) To add 2 +
6 + 4, the second two numbers can be added to make a ten, so 2 + 6 + 4 = 2 + 10 = 12.
(Associative property of addition.) (1.OA.B.3) (DOK 2)
4. Understand subtraction as an unknown-addend problem. For example, subtract 10 – 8
by finding the number that makes 10 when added to 8. (1.OA.B.4) (DOK 2)

Add and subtract within 20. (1.OA.C)

5. Relate counting to addition and subtraction (e.g., by counting on 2 to add 2). (1.OA.C.5)
(DOK 1,2)
6. Add and subtract within 20, demonstrating fluency for addition and subtraction within
10. Use strategies such as counting on; making ten (e.g., 8 + 6 = 8 + 2 + 4 = 10 + 4 = 14);
decomposing a number leading to a ten (e.g., 13 – 4 = 13 – 3 – 1 = 10 – 1 = 9); using the
relationship between addition and subtraction (e.g., knowing that 8 + 4 = 12, one knows
12 – 8 = 4); and creating equivalent but easier or known sums (e.g., adding 6 + 7 by
creating the known equivalent 6 + 6 + 1 = 12 + 1 = 13). (1.OA.C.6) (DOK 1,2)

Work with addition and subtraction equations. (1.OA.D)

7. Understand the meaning of the equal sign, and determine if equations involving
addition and subtraction are true or false. For example, which of the following equations
are true and which are false? 6 = 6, 7 = 8 – 1, 5 + 2 = 2 + 5, 4 + 1 = 5 + 2. (1.OA.D.7) (DOK
3)
8. Determine the unknown whole number in an addition or subtraction equation relating
three whole numbers. For example, determine the unknown number that makes the
equation true in each of the equations 8 + ? = 11, 5 =  – 3, 6 + 6 = . (1.OA.D.8) (DOK 2)

Number and Operations in Base Ten 1.NBT

Extend the counting sequence. (1.NBT.A)
1. Count to 120, starting at any number less than 120. In this range, read and write
numerals and represent a number of objects with a written numeral. (1.NBT.A.1) (DOK
1,2)
Understand place value. (1.NBT.B)
2. Understand that the two digits of a two-digit number represent amounts of tens and
ones. Understand the following as special cases:
a. 10 can be thought of as a bundle of ten ones — called a "ten."
b. The numbers from 11 to 19 are composed of a ten and one, two, three, four,
five, six, seven, eight, or nine ones.
c. The numbers 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 refer to one, two, three, four,
five, six, seven, eight, or nine tens (and 0 ones). (1.NBT.B.2) (DOK 2)

2
See Glossary, Table 1.
3
Students need not use formal terms for these properties.
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 3. Compare two two-digit numbers based on meanings of the tens and ones digits,
recording the results of comparisons with the symbols >, =, and <. (1.NBT.B.3) (DOK 2)

Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract. (1.NBT.C)
4. Add within 100, including adding a two-digit number and a one-digit number, and
adding a two-digit number and a multiple of 10, using concrete models or drawings and
strategies based on place value, properties of operations, and/or the relationship
between addition and subtraction; relate the strategy to a written method and explain
the reasoning used. Understand that in adding two-digit numbers, one adds tens and
tens, ones and ones; and sometimes it is necessary to compose a ten. (1.NBT.C.4) (DOK
1,2,3)
5. Given a two-digit number, mentally find 10 more or 10 less than the number, without
having to count; explain the reasoning used. (1.NBT.C.5) (DOK 2,3)
6. Subtract multiples of 10 in the range 10-90 from multiples of 10 in the range 10-90
(positive or zero differences), using concrete models or drawings and strategies based
on place value, properties of operations, and/or the relationship between addition and
subtraction; relate the strategy to a written method and explain the reasoning used.
(1.NBT.C.6) (DOK 2,3)

Measurement and Data 1.MD

Measure lengths indirectly and by iterating length units. (1.MD.A)
1. Order three objects by length; compare the lengths of two objects indirectly by using a
third object. (1.MD.A.1) (DOK 2,3)
2. Express the length of an object as a whole number of length units, by laying multiple
copies of a shorter object (the length unit) end to end; understand that the length
measurement of an object is the number of same-size length units that span it with no
gaps or overlaps. Limit to contexts where the object being measured is spanned by a
whole number of length units with no gaps or overlaps. (1.MD.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Tell and write time. (1.MD.B)

3. Tell and write time in hours and half-hours using analog and digital clocks. (1.MD.B.3)
(DOK 1)

Represent and interpret data. (1.MD.C)

4. Organize, represent, and interpret data with up to three categories; ask and answer
questions about the total number of data points, how many in each category, and how
many more or less are in one category than in another. (1.MD.C.4) (DOK 2,3)

Geometry 1.G
Reason with shapes and their attributes. (1.G.A)
1. Distinguish between defining attributes (e.g., triangles are closed and three-sided)
versus non-defining attributes (e.g., color, orientation, overall size); build and draw
shapes to possess defining attributes. (1.G.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Compose two-dimensional shapes (rectangles, squares, trapezoids, triangles, half-
circles, and quarter-circles) or three-dimensional shapes (cubes, right rectangular
prisms, right circular cones, and right circular cylinders) to create a composite shape,
and compose new shapes from the composite shape. 4 (1.G.A.2) (DOK 2,3)
3. Partition circles and rectangles into two and four equal shares, describe the shares using
the words halves, fourths, and quarters, and use the phrases half of, fourth of, and
quarter of. Describe the whole as two of, or four of the shares. Understand for these
examples that decomposing into more equal shares creates smaller shares. (1.G.A.3)
(DOK 1,2)

4
Students do not need to learn formal names such as "right rectangular prism."

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Mathematics | Grade 2
In Grade 2, instructional time should focus on four critical areas: (1) extending understanding of
base-ten notation; (2) building fluency with addition and subtraction; (3) using standard units of
measure; and (4) describing and analyzing shapes.

(1) Students extend their understanding of the base-ten system. This includes ideas of counting
in fives, tens, and multiples of hundreds, tens, and ones, as well as number relationships
involving these units, including comparing. Students understand multi-digit numbers (up to 1000)
written in base-ten notation, recognizing that the digits in each place represent amounts of
thousands, hundreds, tens, or ones (e.g., 853 is 8 hundreds + 5tens + 3 ones).

(2) Students use their understanding of addition to develop fluency with addition and subtraction within
100. They solve problems within 1000 by applying their understanding of models for addition and
subtraction, and they develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate, and generalizable methods to compute
sums and differences of whole numbers in base-ten notation, using their understanding of place value
and the properties of operations. They select and accurately apply methods that are appropriate for the
context and the numbers involved to mentally calculate sums and differences for numbers with only tens
or only hundreds.

(3) Students recognize the need for standard units of measure (centimeter and inch) and they use rulers
and other measurement tools with the understanding that linear measure involves an iteration of units.
They recognize that the smaller the unit, the more iterations they need to cover a given length.

(4) Students describe and analyze shapes by examining their sides and angles. Students investigate,
describe, and reason about decomposing and combining shapes to make other shapes. Through building,
drawing, and analyzing two- and three-dimensional shapes, students develop a foundation for
understanding area, volume, congruence, similarity, and symmetry in later grades.

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Grade 2 Overview
Operations and Algebraic Thinking Mathematical Practices
 Represent and solve problems involving addition
and subtraction. 1. Make sense of problems and
 Add and subtract within 20. persevere in solving them.
 Work with equal groups of objects to gain 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
foundations for multiplication.
3. Construct viable arguments and
critique the reasoning of others.
Number and Operations in Base Ten 4. Model with mathematics.
 Understand place value. 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
 Use place value understanding and properties of
operations to add and subtract. 6. Attend to precision.
7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in
Measurement and Data
repeated reasoning.
 Measure and estimate lengths in standard units.
 Relate addition and subtraction to length.
 Work with time and money.
 Represent and interpret data.

Geometry
 Reason with shapes and their attributes.

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Operations and Algebraic Thinking 2.OA
Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction. (2.OA.A)
1. Use addition and subtraction within 100 to solve one- and two-step word problems
involving situations of adding to, taking from, putting together, taking apart, and
comparing, with unknowns in all positions, e.g., by using drawings and equations with a
symbol for the unknown number to represent the problem. 5 (2.OA.A.1) (DOK 2)

Add and subtract within 20.

2. Fluently add and subtract within 20 using mental strategies.6 By end of Grade 2, know
from memory all sums of two one-digit numbers. (2.OA.B.2) (DOK 1)

Work with equal groups of objects to gain foundations for multiplication. (2.OA.C)
3. Determine whether a group of objects (up to 20) has an odd or even number of
members, e.g., by pairing objects or counting them by 2s; write an equation to express
an even number as a sum of two equal addends. (2.OA.C.3) (DOK 2)
4. Use addition to find the total number of objects arranged in rectangular arrays with up to
5 rows and up to 5 columns; write an equation to express the total as a sum of equal
addends. (2.OA.C.4) (DOK 2)

Number and Operations in Base Ten 2.NBT

Understand place value. (2.NBT.A)
1. Understand that the three digits of a three-digit number represent amounts of hundreds,
tens, and ones; e.g., 706 equals 7 hundreds, 0 tens, and 6 ones. Understand the following
as special cases:
a. 100 can be thought of as a bundle of ten tens — called a "hundred."
b. The numbers 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 refer to one, two,
three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or nine hundreds (and 0 tens and 0 ones).
(2.NBT.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Count within 1000; skip-count by 5s, 10s, and 100s. (2.NBT.A.2) (DOK 1)
3. Read and write numbers to 1000 using base-ten numerals, number names, and
expanded form. (2.NBT.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Compare two three-digit numbers based on meanings of the hundreds, tens, and ones
digits, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons. (2.NBT.A.4) (DOK
2)

Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract. (2.NBT.B)
5. Fluently add and subtract within 100 using strategies based on place value, properties of
operations, and/or the relationship between addition and subtraction. (2.NBT.B.5) (DOK
1,2)
6. Add up to four two-digit numbers using strategies based on place value and properties of
operations. (2.NBT.B.6) (DOK 2)
7. Add and subtract within 1000, using concrete models or drawings and strategies based
on place value, properties of operations, and/or the relationship between addition and
subtraction; relate the strategy to a written method. Understand that in adding or
subtracting three-digit numbers, one adds or subtracts hundreds and hundreds, tens and
tens, ones and ones; and sometimes it is necessary to compose or decompose tens or
hundreds. (2.NBT.B.7) (DOK 2)
8. Mentally add 10 or 100 to a given number 100–900, and mentally subtract 10 or 100
from a given number 100–900. (2.NBT.B.8) (DOK 2)
9. Explain why addition and subtraction strategies work, using place value and the
properties of operations.7 (2.NBT.B.9) (DOK 3)

5
See Glossary, Table 1.
6
See standard 1.OA.6 for a list of mental strategies.
7
Explanations may be supported by drawings or objects.
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Measurement and Data 2.MD
Measure and estimate lengths in standard units. (2.MD.A)
1. Measure the length of an object by selecting and using appropriate tools such as rulers,
yardsticks, meter sticks, and measuring tapes. (2.MD.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Measure the length of an object twice, using length units of different lengths for the two
measurements; describe how the two measurements relate to the size of the unit
chosen. (2.MD.A.2) (DOK 2,3)
3. Estimate lengths using units of inches, feet, centimeters, and meters. (2.MD.A.3) (DOK 2)
4. Measure to determine how much longer one object is than another, expressing the
length difference in terms of a standard length unit. (2.MD.A.4) (DOK 1,2)

Relate addition and subtraction to length. (2.MD.B)

5. Use addition and subtraction within 100 to solve word problems involving lengths that
are given in the same units, e.g., by using drawings (such as drawings of rulers) and
equations with a symbol for the unknown number to represent the problem. (2.MD.B.5)
(DOK 2)
6. Represent whole numbers as lengths from 0 on a number line diagram with equally
spaced points corresponding to the numbers 0, 1, 2, ..., and represent whole-number
sums and differences within 100 on a number line diagram. (2.MD.B.6) (DOK 1,2)

Work with time and money. (2.MD.C)

7. Tell and write time from analog and digital clocks to the nearest five minutes, using a.m.
and p.m. (2.MD.C.7) (DOK 1)
IA.1.Describe the relationship among standard units of time: minutes, hours, days, weeks,
months and years. (2.MD.C.IA.1) (DOK 2,3)
8. Solve word problems involving dollar bills, quarters, dimes, nickels, and pennies, using $
and ¢ symbols appropriately. Example: If you have 2 dimes and 3 pennies, how many
cents do you have? (2.MD.C.8) (DOK 2)

Represent and interpret data. (2.MD.D)

9. Generate measurement data by measuring lengths of several objects to the nearest
whole unit, or by making repeated measurements of the same object. Show the
measurements by making a line plot, where the horizontal scale is marked off in whole-
number units. (2.MD.D.9) (DOK 2)
IA.2Use interviews, surveys, and observations to collect data that answer questions about
students' interests and/or their environment. (2.MD.D.IA.2) (DOK 2,3)
10. Draw a picture graph and a bar graph (with single-unit scale) to represent a data set with
up to four categories. Solve simple put-together, take-apart, and compare problems8
using information presented in a bar graph. (2.MD.D.10) (DOK 2)

Geometry 2.G
Reason with shapes and their attributes. (2.G.A)
1. Recognize and draw shapes having specified attributes, such as a given number of angles
or a given number of equal faces.9 Identify triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons,
hexagons, and cubes. (2.G.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Partition a rectangle into rows and columns of same-size squares and count to find the
total number of them. (2.G.A.2) (DOK 2)
3. Partition circles and rectangles into two, three, or four equal shares, describe the shares using
the words halves, thirds, half of, a third of, etc., and describe the whole as two halves, three
thirds, four fourths. Recognize that equal shares of identical wholes need not have the same
shape. (2.G.A.3) (DOK 2,3)

8
See Glossary, Table 1.
9
Sizes are compared directly or visually, not compared by measuring.
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Mathematics | Grade 3
In Grade 3, instructional time should focus on four critical areas: (1) developing understanding
of multiplication and division and strategies for multiplication and division within 100; (2)
developing understanding of fractions, especially unit fractions (fractions with numerator 1); (3)
developing understanding of the structure of rectangular arrays and of area; and (4) describing
and analyzing two-dimensional shapes.

(1) Students develop an understanding of the meanings of multiplication and division of whole numbers
through activities and problems involving equal-sized groups, arrays, and area models; multiplication is
finding an unknown product, and division is finding an unknown factor in these situations. For equal-sized
group situations, division can require finding the unknown number of groups or the unknown group size.
Students use properties of operations to calculate products of whole numbers, using increasingly
sophisticated strategies based on these properties to solve multiplication and division problems involving
single-digit factors. By comparing a variety of solution strategies, students learn the relationship between
multiplication and division.

(2) Students develop an understanding of fractions, beginning with unit fractions. Students view fractions
in general as being built out of unit fractions, and they use fractions along with visual fraction models to
represent parts of a whole. Students understand that the size of a fractional part is relative to the size of
the whole. For example, 1/2 of the paint in a small bucket could be less paint than 1/3 of the paint in a
larger bucket, but 1/3 of a ribbon is longer than 1/5 of the same ribbon because when the ribbon is
divided into 3 equal parts, the parts are longer than when the ribbon is divided into 5 equal parts.
Students are able to use fractions to represent numbers equal to, less than, and greater than one. They
solve problems that involve comparing fractions by using visual fraction models and strategies based on
noticing equal numerators or denominators.

(3) Students recognize area as an attribute of two-dimensional regions. They measure the area of a shape
by finding the total number of same-size units of area required to cover the shape without gaps or
overlaps, a square with sides of unit length being the standard unit for measuring area. Students
understand that rectangular arrays can be decomposed into identical rows or into identical columns. By
decomposing rectangles into rectangular arrays of squares, students connect area to multiplication, and
justify using multiplication to determine the area of a rectangle.

(4) Students describe, analyze, and compare properties of two-dimensional shapes. They compare and
classify shapes by their sides and angles, and connect these with definitions of shapes. Students also
relate their fraction work to geometry by expressing the area of part of a shape as a unit fraction of the
whole.

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Grade 3 Overview
Operations and Algebraic Thinking Mathematical Practices
 Represent and solve problems involving
multiplication and division. 1. Make sense of problems and
 Understand properties of multiplication and the persevere in solving them.
relationship between multiplication and division.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
 Multiply and divide within 100.
 Solve problems involving the four operations, and 3. Construct viable arguments and
identify and explain patterns in arithmetic. critique the reasoning of others.
4. Model with mathematics.

Number and Operations in Base Ten 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.

 Use place value understanding and properties of 6. Attend to precision.
operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.
7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in
Number and Operations—Fractions repeated reasoning.
 Develop understanding of fractions as numbers.

Measurement and Data

 Solve problems involving measurement and
estimation of intervals of time, liquid volumes,
and masses of objects.
 Represent and interpret data.
 Geometric measurement: understand concepts
of area and relate area to multiplication and to addition.
 Geometric measurement: recognize perimeter
as an attribute of plane figures and distinguish
between linear and area measures.

Geometry
 Reason with shapes and their attributes.

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Operations and Algebraic Thinking 3.OA
Represent and solve problems involving multiplication and division. (3.OA.A)
1. Interpret products of whole numbers, e.g., interpret 5 × 7 as the total number of objects
in 5 groups of 7 objects each. For example, describe a context in which a total number of
objects can be expressed as 5 × 7. (3.OA.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Interpret whole-number quotients of whole numbers, e.g., interpret 56 ÷ 8 as the
number of objects in each share when 56 objects are partitioned equally into 8 shares,
or as a number of shares when 56 objects are partitioned into equal shares of 8 objects
each. For example, describe a context in which a number of shares or a number of
groups can be expressed as 56 ÷ 8. (3.OA.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Use multiplication and division within 100 to solve word problems in situations involving
equal groups, arrays, and measurement quantities, e.g., by using drawings and
equations with a symbol for the unknown number to represent the problem. 10
(3.OA.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Determine the unknown whole number in a multiplication or division equation relating
three whole numbers. For example, determine the unknown number that makes the
equation true in each of the equations 8 × ? = 48, 5 =  ÷ 3, 6 × 6 = ?. (3.OA.A.4) (DOK
1,2)

Understand properties of multiplication and the relationship between multiplication and

division. (3.OA.B)
5. Apply properties of operations as strategies to multiply and divide.11 Examples: If 6 × 4 =
24 is known, then 4 × 6 = 24 is also known. (Commutative property of multiplication.) 3 ×
5 × 2 can be found by 3 × 5 = 15, then 15 × 2 = 30, or by 5 × 2 = 10, then 3 × 10 = 30.
(Associative property of multiplication.) Knowing that 8 × 5 = 40 and 8 × 2 = 16, one can
find 8 × 7 as 8 × (5 + 2) = (8 × 5) + (8 × 2) = 40 + 16 = 56. (Distributive property.)
(3.OA.B.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. Understand division as an unknown-factor problem. For example, find 32 ÷ 8 by finding
the number that makes 32 when multiplied by 8. (3.OA.B.6) (DOK 1,2)

Multiply and divide within 100 (3.OA.C)

7. Fluently multiply and divide within 100, using strategies such as the relationship
between multiplication and division (e.g., knowing that 8 × 5 = 40, one knows 40 ÷ 5 = 8)
or properties of operations. By the end of Grade 3, know from memory all products of
two one-digit numbers. (3.OA.C.7) (DOK 1,2)

Solve problems involving the four operations, and identify and explain patterns in arithmetic.
(3.OA.D)
8. Solve two-step word problems using the four operations. Represent these problems
using equations with a letter standing for the unknown quantity. Assess the
reasonableness of answers using mental computation and estimation strategies
including rounding.12 (3.OA.D.8) (DOK 1,2,3)
9. Identify arithmetic patterns (including patterns in the addition table or multiplication
table), and explain them using properties of operations. For example, observe that 4
times a number is always even, and explain why 4 times a number can be decomposed
into two equal addends. (3.OA.D.9) (DOK 1,2,3)

10
See Glossary, Table 2.
11
Students need not use formal terms for these properties.
12
This standard is limited to problems posed with whole numbers and having whole-number answers; students
should know how to perform operations in the conventional order when there are no parentheses to specify a
particular order (Order of Operations).
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Number and Operations in Base Ten 3.NBT
Use place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit
arithmetic.13 (3.NBT.A)
1. Use place value understanding to round whole numbers to the nearest 10 or 100.
(3.NBT.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Fluently add and subtract within 1000 using strategies and algorithms based on place
value, properties of operations, and/or the relationship between addition and
subtraction. (3.NBT.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Multiply one-digit whole numbers by multiples of 10 in the range 10–90 (e.g., 9 × 80, 5 ×
60) using strategies based on place value and properties of operations. (3.NBT.A.3)
(DOK 1,2)

Number and Operations—Fractions14 3.NF

Develop understanding of fractions as numbers. (3.NF.A)
1. Understand a fraction 1/b as the quantity formed by 1 part when a whole is partitioned
into b equal parts; understand a fraction a/b as the quantity formed by a parts of size
1/b. (3.NF.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Understand a fraction as a number on the number line; represent fractions on a number
line diagram.
a. Represent a fraction 1/b on a number line diagram by defining the interval
from 0 to 1 as the whole and partitioning it into b equal parts. Recognize that
each part has size 1/b and that the endpoint of the part based at 0 locates the
number 1/b on the number line.
b. Represent a fraction a/b on a number line diagram by marking off a lengths 1/b
from 0. Recognize that the resulting interval has size a/b and that its endpoint
locates the number a/b on the number line. (3.NF.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Explain equivalence of fractions in special cases, and compare fractions by reasoning
about their size.
a. Understand two fractions as equivalent (equal) if they are the same size, or the
same point on a number line.
b. Recognize and generate simple equivalent fractions, e.g., 1/2 = 2/4, 4/6 = 2/3).
Explain why the fractions are equivalent, e.g., by using a visual fraction model.
c. Express whole numbers as fractions, and recognize fractions that are
equivalent to whole numbers. Examples: Express 3 in the form 3 = 3/1;
recognize that 6/1 = 6; locate 4/4 and 1 at the same point of a number line
diagram.
d. Compare two fractions with the same numerator or the same denominator by
reasoning about their size. Recognize that comparisons are valid only when the
two fractions refer to the same whole. Record the results of comparisons with
the symbols >, =, or <, and justify the conclusions, e.g., by using a visual
fraction model. (3.NF.A.3) (DOK 1,2,3)

Measurement and Data 3.MD

Solve problems involving measurement and estimation of intervals of time, liquid volumes,
and masses of objects. (3.MD.A)
1. Tell and write time to the nearest minute and measure time intervals in minutes. Solve
word problems involving addition and subtraction of time intervals in minutes, e.g., by
representing the problem on a number line diagram. (3.MD.A.1) (DOK 1,2)

13
A range of algorithms may be used.
14
Grade 3 expectations in this domain are limited to fractions with denominators 2,3, 4, 6, and 8.
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 2. Measure and estimate liquid volumes and masses of objects using standard units of
grams (g), kilograms (kg), and liters (l).15 Add, subtract, multiply, or divide to solve one-
step word problems involving masses or volumes that are given in the same units, e.g.,
by using drawings (such as a beaker with a measurement scale) to represent the
problem.16 (3.MD.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Represent and interpret data.

3. Draw a scaled picture graph and a scaled bar graph to represent a data set with several
categories. Solve one- and two-step "how many more" and "how many less" problems
using information presented in scaled bar graphs. For example, draw a bar graph in
which each square in the bar graph might represent 5 pets. (3.MD.B.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Generate measurement data by measuring lengths using rulers marked with halves and
fourths of an inch. Show the data by making a line plot, where the horizontal scale is
marked off in appropriate units—whole numbers, halves, or quarters. (3.MD.B.4) (DOK
2)

Geometric measurement: understand concepts of area and relate area to multiplication and to
addition. (3.MD.C)
5. Recognize area as an attribute of plane figures and understand concepts of area
measurement.
a. A square with side length 1 unit, called "a unit square," is said to have "one
square unit" of area, and can be used to measure area.
b. A plane figure which can be covered without gaps or overlaps by n unit squares
is said to have an area of n square units. (3.MD.C.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. Measure areas by counting unit squares (square cm, square m, square in, square ft, and
improvised units). (3.MD.C.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. Relate area to the operations of multiplication and addition.
a. Find the area of a rectangle with whole-number side lengths by tiling it, and
show that the area is the same as would be found by multiplying the side
lengths.
b. Multiply side lengths to find areas of rectangles with whole-number side
lengths in the context of solving real world and mathematical problems, and
represent whole-number products as rectangular areas in mathematical
reasoning.
c. Use tiling to show in a concrete case that the area of a rectangle with whole-
number side lengths a and b + c is the sum of a × b and a × c. Use area models
to represent the distributive property in mathematical reasoning.
d. Recognize area as additive. Find areas of rectilinear figures by decomposing
them into non-overlapping rectangles and adding the areas of the non-
overlapping parts, applying this technique to solve real world problems.
(3.MD.C.7) (DOK 1,2)

Geometric measurement: recognize perimeter as an attribute of plane figures and distinguish

between linear and area measures. (3.MD.D)
8. Solve real world and mathematical problems involving perimeters of polygons, including
finding the perimeter given the side lengths, finding an unknown side length, and
exhibiting rectangles with the same perimeter and different areas or with the same area
and different perimeters. (3.MD.D.8) (DOK 1,2)

15
Excludes compound units such as cm3 and finding the geometric volume of a container.
16
Excludes multiplicative comparison problems (problems involving notions of "times as much"; see Glossary,
Table 2).
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Geometry 3.G
Reason with shapes and their attributes. (3.G.A)
1. Understand that shapes in different categories (e.g., rhombuses, rectangles, and others)
may share attributes (e.g., having four sides), and that the shared attributes can define
a larger category (e.g., quadrilaterals). Recognize rhombuses, rectangles, and squares as
examples of quadrilaterals, and draw examples of quadrilaterals that do not belong to
any of these subcategories. (3.G.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Partition shapes into parts with equal areas. Express the area of each part as a unit
fraction of the whole. For example, partition a shape into 4 parts with equal area, and
describe the area of each part as 1/4 of the area of the shape. (3.G.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

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Mathematics | Grade 4
In Grade 4, instructional time should focus on three critical areas: (1) developing understanding
and fluency with multi-digit multiplication, and developing understanding of dividing to find
quotients involving multi-digit dividends; (2) developing an understanding of fraction
equivalence, addition and subtraction of fractions with like denominators, and multiplication of
fractions by whole numbers; (3) understanding that geometric figures can be analyzed and
classified based on their properties, such as having parallel sides, perpendicular sides, particular
angle measures, and symmetry.

(1) Students generalize their understanding of place value to 1,000,000, understanding the relative sizes
of numbers in each place. They apply their understanding of models for multiplication (equal-sized
groups, arrays, area models), place value, and properties of operations, in particular the distributive
property, as they develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate, and generalizable methods to compute
products of multi-digit whole numbers. Depending on the numbers and the context, they select and
accurately apply appropriate methods to estimate or mentally calculate products. They develop fluency
with efficient procedures for multiplying whole numbers; understand and explain why the procedures
work based on place value and properties of operations; and use them to solve problems. Students apply
their understanding of models for division, place value, properties of operations, and the relationship of
division to multiplication as they develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate, and generalizable
procedures to find quotients involving multi-digit dividends. They select and accurately apply appropriate
methods to estimate and mentally calculate quotients, and interpret remainders based upon the context.

(2) Students develop understanding of fraction equivalence and operations with fractions. They recognize
that two different fractions can be equal (e.g., 15/9 = 5/3), and they develop methods for generating and
recognizing equivalent fractions. Students extend previous understandings about how fractions are built
from unit fractions, composing fractions from unit fractions, decomposing fractions into unit fractions,
and using the meaning of fractions and the meaning of multiplication to multiply a fraction by a whole
number.

(3) Students describe, analyze, compare, and classify two-dimensional shapes. Through building, drawing,
and analyzing two-dimensional shapes, students deepen their understanding of properties of two-
dimensional objects and the use of them to solve problems involving symmetry.

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Grade 4 Overview
Mathematical Practices
Operations and Algebraic Thinking
 Use the four operations with whole numbers to 1. Make sense of problems and
solve problems. persevere in solving them.
 Gain familiarity with factors and multiples.
 Generate and analyze patterns. 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
3. Construct viable arguments and
critique the reasoning of others.
Number and Operations in Base Ten 4. Model with mathematics.
 Generalize place value understanding for multi-digit
whole numbers. 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
 Use place value understanding and properties of 6. Attend to precision.
operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.
7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in
Number and Operations—Fractions repeated reasoning.
 Extend understanding of fraction equivalence
and ordering.
 Build fractions from unit fractions by applying
and extending previous understandings of
operations on whole numbers.
 Understand decimal notation for fractions, and
compare decimal fractions.

Measurement and Data

 Solve problems involving measurement and
conversion of measurements from a larger unit to
a smaller unit.
 Represent and interpret data.
 Geometric measurement: understand concepts of
angle and measure angles.

Geometry
 Draw and identify lines and angles, and classify
shapes by properties of their lines and angles.

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Operations and Algebraic Thinking 4.OA
Use the four operations with whole numbers to solve problems. (4.OA.A)
1. Interpret a multiplication equation as a comparison, e.g., interpret 35 = 5 × 7 as a
statement that 35 is 5 times as many as 7 and 7 times as many as 5. Represent verbal
statements of multiplicative comparisons as multiplication equations. (4.OA.A.1) (DOK
1,2)
2. Multiply or divide to solve word problems involving multiplicative comparison, e.g., by
using drawings and equations with a symbol for the unknown number to represent the
problem, distinguishing multiplicative comparison from additive comparison.1 (4.OA.A.2)
(DOK 1,2)
3. Solve multistep word problems posed with whole numbers and having whole-number
answers using the four operations, including problems in which remainders must be
interpreted. Represent these problems using equations with a letter standing for the
unknown quantity. Assess the reasonableness of answers using mental computation and
estimation strategies including rounding. (4.OA.A.3) (DOK 1,2,3)
Gain familiarity with factors and multiples. (4.OA.B)
4. Find all factor pairs for a whole number in the range 1–100. Recognize that a whole
number is a multiple of each of its factors. Determine whether a given whole number in
the range 1–100 is a multiple of a given one-digit number. Determine whether a given
whole number in the range 1–100 is prime or composite. (4.OA.B.4) (DOK 1)
Generate and analyze patterns. (4.OA.C)
5. Generate a number or shape pattern that follows a given rule. Identify apparent features
of the pattern that were not explicit in the rule itself. For example, given the rule "Add 3"
and the starting number 1, generate terms in the resulting sequence and observe that the
terms appear to alternate between odd and even numbers. Explain informally why the
numbers will continue to alternate in this way. (4.OA.C.5) (DOK 1,2)

Number and Operations in Base Ten2 4.NBT

Generalize place value understanding for multi-digit whole numbers. (4.NBT.A)
1. Recognize that in a multi-digit whole number, a digit in one place represents ten times
what it represents in the place to its right. For example, recognize that 700 ÷ 70 = 10 by
applying concepts of place value and division. (4.NBT.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Read and write multi-digit whole numbers using base-ten numerals, number names, and
expanded form. Compare two multi-digit numbers based on meanings of the digits in each
place, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons. (4.NBT.A.2) (DOK 1)
3. Use place value understanding to round multi-digit whole numbers to any place.
(4.NBT.A.3) (DOK 1)

Use place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.
(4.NBT.B)
4. Fluently add and subtract multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm.
(4.NBT.B.4) (DOK 1)
5. Multiply a whole number of up to four digits by a one-digit whole number, and multiply
two two-digit numbers, using strategies based on place value and the properties of
operations. Illustrate and explain the calculation by using equations, rectangular arrays,
and/or area models. (4.NBT.B.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. Find whole-number quotients and remainders with up to four-digit dividends and one-
digit divisors, using strategies based on place value, the properties of operations, and/or
the relationship between multiplication and division. Illustrate and explain the calculation
by using equations, rectangular arrays, and/or area models. (4.NBT.B.6) (DOK 1,2)

1
See Glossary, Table 2.
2
Grade 4 expectations in this domain are limited to whole numbers less than or equal to 1,000,000.
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Number and Operations—Fractions3 4.NF
Extend understanding of fraction equivalence and ordering. (4.NF.A)
1. Explain why a fraction a/b is equivalent to a fraction (n × a)/(n × b) by using visual fraction
models, with attention to how the number and size of the parts differ even though the
two fractions themselves are the same size. Use this principle to recognize and generate
equivalent fractions. (4.NF.A.1) (DOK 1,2,3)
2. Compare two fractions with different numerators and different denominators, e.g., by
creating common denominators or numerators, or by comparing to a benchmark fraction
such as 1/2. Recognize that comparisons are valid only when the two fractions refer to the
same whole. Record the results of comparisons with symbols >, =, or <, and justify the
conclusions, e.g., by using a visual fraction model. (4.NF.A.2) (DOK 1,2,3)

Build fractions from unit fractions by applying and extending previous understandings of
operations on whole numbers. (4.NF.B)
3. Understand a fraction a/b with a > 1 as a sum of fractions 1/b.
a. Understand addition and subtraction of fractions as joining and separating parts
referring to the same whole.
b. Decompose a fraction into a sum of fractions with the same denominator in more
than one way, recording each decomposition by an equation. Justify
decompositions, e.g., by using a visual fraction model. Examples: 3/8 = 1/8 + 1/8
+ 1/8 ; 3/8 = 1/8 + 2/8 ; 2 1/8 = 1 + 1 + 1/8 = 8/8 + 8/8 + 1/8.
c. Add and subtract mixed numbers with like denominators, e.g., by replacing each
mixed number with an equivalent fraction, and/or by using properties of
operations and the relationship between addition and subtraction.
d. Solve word problems involving addition and subtraction of fractions referring to
the same whole and having like denominators, e.g., by using visual fraction
models and equations to represent the problem. (4.NF.B.3) (DOK 1,2,3)
4. Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication to multiply a fraction by a
whole number.
a. Understand a fraction a/b as a multiple of 1/b. For example, use a visual fraction
model to represent 5/4 as the product 5 × (1/4), recording the conclusion by the
equation 5/4 = 5 × (1/4).
b. Understand a multiple of a/b as a multiple of 1/b, and use this understanding to
multiply a fraction by a whole number. For example, use a visual fraction model
to express 3 × (2/5) as 6 × (1/5), recognizing this product as 6/5. (In general, n ×
(a/b) = (n × a)/b.)
c. Solve word problems involving multiplication of a fraction by a whole number,
e.g., by using visual fraction models and equations to represent the problem. For
example, if each person at a party will eat 3/8 of a pound of roast beef, and there
will be 5 people at the party, how many pounds of roast beef will be needed?
Between what two whole numbers does your answer lie? (4.NF.B.4) (DOK 1,2)

3
Grade 4 expectations in this domain are limited to fractions with denominators 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 100.

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Understand decimal notation for fractions, and compare decimal fractions. (4.NF.C)
5. Express a fraction with denominator 10 as an equivalent fraction with denominator 100,
and use this technique to add two fractions with respective denominators 10 and 100.4
For example, express 3/10 as 30/100, and add 3/10 + 4/100 = 34/100. (4.NF.C.5) (DOK
1)
6. Use decimal notation for fractions with denominators 10 or 100. For example, rewrite
0.62 as 62/100; describe a length as 0.62 meters; locate 0.62 on a number line diagram.
(4.NF.C.6) (DOK 1)
7. Compare two decimals to hundredths by reasoning about their size. Recognize that
comparisons are valid only when the two decimals refer to the same whole. Record the
results of comparisons with the symbols >, =, or <, and justify the conclusions, e.g., by
using a visual model. (4.NF.C.7) (DOK 1,2,3)

Measurement and Data 4.MD

Solve problems involving measurement and conversion of measurements from a larger unit to
a smaller unit. (4.MD.A)
1. Know relative sizes of measurement units within one system of units including km, m,
cm; kg, g; lb, oz.; l, ml; hr, min, sec. Within a single system of measurement, express
measurements in a larger unit in terms of a smaller unit. Record measurement
equivalents in a two-column table. For example, know that 1 ft is 12 times as long as 1
in. Express the length of a 4 ft snake as 48 in. Generate a conversion table for feet and
inches listing the number pairs (1, 12), (2, 24), (3, 36), ... (4.MD.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Use the four operations to solve word problems involving distances, intervals of time,
liquid volumes, masses of objects, and money, including problems involving simple
fractions or decimals, and problems that require expressing measurements given in a
larger unit in terms of a smaller unit. Represent measurement quantities using diagrams
such as number line diagrams that feature a measurement scale. (4.MD.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Apply the area and perimeter formulas for rectangles in real world and mathematical
problems. For example, find the width of a rectangular room given the area of the
flooring and the length, by viewing the area formula as a multiplication equation with
an unknown factor. (4.MD.A.3) (DOK 1,2)

Represent and interpret data. (4.MD.B)

4. Make a line plot to display a data set of measurements in fractions of a unit (1/2, 1/4,
1/8). Solve problems involving addition and subtraction of fractions by using
information presented in line plots. For example, from a line plot find and interpret the
difference in length between the longest and shortest specimens in an insect collection.
(4.MD.B.4) (DOK 1,2)

Geometric measurement: understand concepts of angle and measure angles. (4.MD.C)

5. Recognize angles as geometric shapes that are formed wherever two rays share a
common endpoint, and understand concepts of angle measurement:
a. An angle is measured with reference to a circle with its center at the common
endpoint of the rays, by considering the fraction of the circular arc between
the points where the two rays intersect the circle. An angle that turns through
1/360 of a circle is called a "one-degree angle," and can be used to measure
angles.
b. An angle that turns through n one-degree angles is said to have an angle
measure of n degrees. (4.MD.C.5) (DOK 1)

4
Students who can generate equivalent fractions can develop strategies for adding fractions with unlike
denominators in general. But addition and subtraction with unlike denominators in general is not a requirement at
this grade.
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 6. Measure angles in whole-number degrees using a protractor. Sketch angles of specified
measure. (4.MD.C.6) (DOK 1)
7. Recognize angle measure as additive. When an angle is decomposed into non-
overlapping parts, the angle measure of the whole is the sum of the angle measures of
the parts. Solve addition and subtraction problems to find unknown angles on a diagram
in real world and mathematical problems, e.g., by using an equation with a symbol for
the unknown angle measure. (4.MD.C.7) (DOK 1,2)

Geometry 4.G
Draw and identify lines and angles, and classify shapes by properties of their lines and angles.
(4.G.A)
1. Draw points, lines, line segments, rays, angles (right, acute, obtuse), and perpendicular
and parallel lines. Identify these in two-dimensional figures. (4.G.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Classify two-dimensional figures based on the presence or absence of parallel or
perpendicular lines, or the presence or absence of angles of a specified size. Recognize
right triangles as a category, and identify right triangles. (4.G.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Recognize a line of symmetry for a two-dimensional figure as a line across the figure
such that the figure can be folded along the line into matching parts. Identify line-
symmetric figures and draw lines of symmetry. (4.G.A.3) (DOK 1)

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Mathematics | Grade 5
In Grade 5, instructional time should focus on three critical areas: (1) developing fluency with
addition and subtraction of fractions, and developing understanding of the multiplication of
fractions and of division of fractions in limited cases (unit fractions divided by whole numbers
and whole numbers divided by unit fractions); (2) extending division to 2-digit divisors,
integrating decimal fractions into the place value system and developing understanding of
operations with decimals to hundredths, and developing fluency with whole number and
decimal operations; and (3) developing understanding of volume.

(1) Students apply their understanding of fractions and fraction models to represent the addition and
subtraction of fractions with unlike denominators as equivalent calculations with like denominators. They
develop fluency in calculating sums and differences of fractions, and make reasonable estimates of them.
Students also use the meaning of fractions, of multiplication and division, and the relationship between
multiplication and division to understand and explain why the procedures for multiplying and dividing
fractions make sense. (Note: this is limited to the case of dividing unit fractions by whole numbers and
whole numbers by unit fractions.)

(2) Students develop understanding of why division procedures work based on the meaning of base-ten
numerals and properties of operations. They finalize fluency with multi-digit addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. They apply their understandings of models for decimals, decimal notation,
and properties of operations to add and subtract decimals to hundredths. They develop fluency in these
computations, and make reasonable estimates of their results. Students use the relationship between
decimals and fractions, as well as the relationship between finite decimals and whole numbers (i.e., a
finite decimal multiplied by an appropriate power of 10 is a whole number), to understand and explain
why the procedures for multiplying and dividing finite decimals make sense. They compute products and
quotients of decimals to hundredths efficiently and accurately.

(3) Students recognize volume as an attribute of three-dimensional space. They understand that volume
can be measured by finding the total number of same-size units of volume required to fill the space
without gaps or overlaps. They understand that a 1-unit by 1-unit by 1-unit cube is the standard unit for
measuring volume. They select appropriate units, strategies, and tools for solving problems that involve
estimating and measuring volume. They decompose three-dimensional shapes and find volumes of right
rectangular prisms by viewing them as decomposed into layers of arrays of cubes. They measure
necessary attributes of shapes in order to determine volumes to solve real world and mathematical
problems.

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Grade 5 Overview
Operations and Algebraic Thinking Mathematical Practices
 Write and interpret numerical expressions.
 Analyze patterns and relationships. 1. Make sense of problems and
persevere in solving them.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
Number and Operations in Base Ten
 Understand the place value system. 3. Construct viable arguments and
critique the reasoning of others.
 Perform operations with multi-digit whole
numbers and with decimals to hundredths. 4. Model with mathematics.
5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
Number and Operations—Fractions 6. Attend to precision.
 Use equivalent fractions as a strategy to add and 7. Look for and make use of structure.
subtract fractions.
 Apply and extend previous understandings of 8. Look for and express regularity in
multiplication and division to multiply and divide repeated reasoning.
fractions.

Measurement and Data

 Convert like measurement units within a given
measurement system.
 Represent and interpret data.
 Geometric measurement: understand concepts
of volume and relate volume to multiplication
and to addition.

Geometry
 Graph points on the coordinate plane to solve
real-world and mathematical problems.
 Classify two-dimensional figures into categories
based on their properties.

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Operations and Algebraic Thinking 5.OA
Write and interpret numerical expressions. (5.OA.A)
1. Use parentheses, brackets, or braces in numerical expressions, and evaluate expressions
with these symbols. (5.OA.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Write simple expressions that record calculations with numbers, and interpret
numerical expressions without evaluating them. For example, express the calculation
"add 8 and 7, then multiply by 2" as 2 × (8 + 7). Recognize that 3 × (18932 + 921) is three
times as large as 18932 + 921, without having to calculate the indicated sum or product.
(5.OA.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Analyze patterns and relationships. (5.OA.B)

3. Generate two numerical patterns using two given rules. Identify apparent relationships
between corresponding terms. Form ordered pairs consisting of corresponding terms
from the two patterns, and graph the ordered pairs on a coordinate plane. For example,
given the rule "Add 3" and the starting number 0, and given the rule "Add 6" and the
starting number 0, generate terms in the resulting sequences, and observe that the
terms in one sequence are twice the corresponding terms in the other sequence. Explain
informally why this is so. (5.OA.B.3) (DOK 1,2)

Number and Operations in Base Ten 5.NBT

Understand the place value system. (5.NBT.A)
1. Recognize that in a multi-digit number, a digit in one place represents 10 times as much
as it represents in the place to its right and 1/10 of what it represents in the place to its
left. (5.NBT.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Explain patterns in the number of zeros of the product when multiplying a number by
powers of 10, and explain patterns in the placement of the decimal point when a
decimal is multiplied or divided by a power of 10. Use whole-number exponents to
denote powers of 10. (5.NBT.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Read, write, and compare decimals to thousandths.
a. Read and write decimals to thousandths using base-ten numerals, number
names, and expanded form, e.g., 347.392 = 3 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 7 × 1 + 3 × (1/10)
+ 9 × (1/100) + 2 × (1/1000).
b. Compare two decimals to thousandths based on meanings of the digits in each
place, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons.
(5.NBT.A.3) (DOK 1)
4. Use place value understanding to round decimals to any place. (5.NBT.A.4) (DOK 1)

Perform operations with multi-digit whole numbers and with decimals to hundredths.
(5.NBT.B)
5. Fluently multiply multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm. (5.NBT.B.5)
(DOK 1)
6. Find whole-number quotients of whole numbers with up to four-digit dividends and
two-digit divisors, using strategies based on place value, the properties of operations,
and/or the relationship between multiplication and division. Illustrate and explain the
calculation by using equations, rectangular arrays, and/or area models. (5.NBT.B.6)
(DOK 1,2)
7. Add, subtract, multiply, and divide decimals to hundredths, using concrete models or
drawings and strategies based on place value, properties of operations, and/or the
relationship between addition and subtraction; relate the strategy to a written method
and explain the reasoning used. (5.NBT.B.7) (DOK 1,2,3)

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Number and Operations—Fractions 5.NF
Use equivalent fractions as a strategy to add and subtract fractions. (5.NF.A)
1. Add and subtract fractions with unlike denominators (including mixed numbers) by
replacing given fractions with equivalent fractions in such a way as to produce an
equivalent sum or difference of fractions with like denominators. For example, 2/3 + 5/4
= 8/12 + 15/12 = 23/12. (In general, a/b + c/d = (ad + bc)/bd.) (5.NF.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Solve word problems involving addition and subtraction of fractions referring to the
same whole, including cases of unlike denominators, e.g., by using visual fraction
models or equations to represent the problem. Use benchmark fractions and number
sense of fractions to estimate mentally and assess the reasonableness of answers. For
example, recognize an incorrect result 2/5 + 1/2 = 3/7, by observing that 3/7 < 1/2.
(5.NF.A.2) (DOK 1,2,3)

Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division to multiply and divide
fractions. (5.NF.B)
3. Interpret a fraction as division of the numerator by the denominator (a/b = a ÷ b). Solve
word problems involving division of whole numbers leading to answers in the form of
fractions or mixed numbers, e.g., by using visual fraction models or equations to
represent the problem. For example, interpret 3/4 as the result of dividing 3 by 4, noting
that 3/4 multiplied by 4 equals 3, and that when 3 wholes are shared equally among 4
people each person has a share of size 3/4. If 9 people want to share a 50-pound sack of
rice equally by weight, how many pounds of rice should each person get? Between what
two whole numbers does your answer lie? (5.NF.B.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication to multiply a fraction or
whole number by a fraction.
a. Interpret the product (a/b) × q as a parts of a partition of q into b equal parts;
equivalently, as the result of a sequence of operations a × q ÷ b. For example,
use a visual fraction model to show (2/3) × 4 = 8/3, and create a story context
for this equation. Do the same with (2/3) × (4/5) = 8/15. (In general, (a/b) ×
(c/d) = ac/bd.)
b. Find the area of a rectangle with fractional side lengths by tiling it with unit
squares of the appropriate unit fraction side lengths, and show that the area is
the same as would be found by multiplying the side lengths. Multiply fractional
side lengths to find areas of rectangles, and represent fraction products as
rectangular areas. (5.NF.B.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. Interpret multiplication as scaling (resizing), by:
a. Comparing the size of a product to the size of one factor on the basis of the
size of the other factor, without performing the indicated multiplication.
b. Explaining why multiplying a given number by a fraction greater than 1 results
in a product greater than the given number (recognizing multiplication by
whole numbers greater than 1 as a familiar case); explaining why multiplying a
given number by a fraction less than 1 results in a product smaller than the
given number; and relating the principle of fraction equivalence a/b =
(n×a)/(n×b) to the effect of multiplying a/b by 1. (5.NF.B.5) (DOK 1,2,3)
6. Solve real world problems involving multiplication of fractions and mixed numbers, e.g.,
by using visual fraction models or equations to represent the problem. (5.NF.B.6) (DOK
1,2)

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 7. Apply and extend previous understandings of division to divide unit fractions by whole
numbers and whole numbers by unit fractions.1
a. Interpret division of a unit fraction by a non-zero whole number, and compute
such quotients. For example, create a story context for (1/3) ÷ 4, and use a visual
fraction model to show the quotient. Use the relationship between multiplication
and division to explain that (1/3) ÷ 4 = 1/12 because (1/12) × 4 = 1/3.
b. Interpret division of a whole number by a unit fraction, and compute such
quotients. For example, create a story context for 4 ÷ (1/5), and use a visual
fraction model to show the quotient. Use the relationship between multiplication
and division to explain that 4 ÷ (1/5) = 20 because 20 × (1/5) = 4.
c. Solve real world problems involving division of unit fractions by non-zero whole
numbers and division of whole numbers by unit fractions, e.g., by using visual
fraction models and equations to represent the problem. For example, how much
chocolate will each person get if 3 people share 1/2 lb of chocolate equally? How
many 1/3-cup servings are in 2 cups of raisins? (5.NF.B.7) (DOK 1,2)

Measurement and Data 5.MD

Convert like measurement units within a given measurement system. (5.MD.A)
1. Convert among different-sized standard measurement units within a given measurement
system (e.g., convert 5 cm to 0.05 m), and use these conversions in solving multi-step, real
world problems. (5.MD.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
Represent and interpret data. (5.MD.B)
2. Make a line plot to display a data set of measurements in fractions of a unit (1/2, 1/4, 1/8).
Use operations on fractions for this grade to solve problems involving information
presented in line plots. For example, given different measurements of liquid in identical
beakers, find the amount of liquid each beaker would contain if the total amount in all the
beakers were redistributed equally. (5.MD.B.2) (DOK 1,2)
Geometric measurement: understand concepts of volume and relate volume to multiplication and
to addition. (5.MD.C)
3. Recognize volume as an attribute of solid figures and understand concepts of volume
measurement.
a. A cube with side length 1 unit, called a "unit cube," is said to have "one cubic unit"
of volume, and can be used to measure volume.
b. A solid figure which can be packed without gaps or overlaps using n unit cubes is
said to have a volume of n cubic units. (5.MD.C.3) (DOK 1)
4. Measure volumes by counting unit cubes, using cubic cm, cubic in, cubic ft, and improvised
units. (5.MD.C.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. Relate volume to the operations of multiplication and addition and solve real world and
mathematical problems involving volume.
a. Find the volume of a right rectangular prism with whole-number side lengths by
packing it with unit cubes, and show that the volume is the same as would be
found by multiplying the edge lengths, equivalently by multiplying the height by
the area of the base. Represent threefold whole-number products as volumes,
e.g., to represent the associative property of multiplication.
b. Apply the formulas V = l × w × h and V = b × h for rectangular prisms to find
volumes of right rectangular prisms with whole-number edge lengths in the
context of solving real world and mathematical problems.
c. Recognize volume as additive. Find volumes of solid figures composed of two non-
overlapping right rectangular prisms by adding the volumes of the non-
overlapping parts, applying this technique to solve real world problems.
(5.MD.C.5) (DOK 1,2)

1
Students able to multiply fractions in general can develop strategies to divide fractions in general, by reasoning
about the relationship between multiplication and division. But division of a fraction by a fraction is not a
requirement at this grade.
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Geometry 5.G
Graph points on the coordinate plane to solve real-world and mathematical problems. (5.G.A)
1. Use a pair of perpendicular number lines, called axes, to define a coordinate system,
with the intersection of the lines (the origin) arranged to coincide with the 0 on each
line and a given point in the plane located by using an ordered pair of numbers, called
its coordinates. Understand that the first number indicates how far to travel from the
origin in the direction of one axis, and the second number indicates how far to travel in
the direction of the second axis, with the convention that the names of the two axes
and the coordinates correspond (e.g., x-axis and x-coordinate, y-axis and y-coordinate).
(5.G.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Represent real world and mathematical problems by graphing points in the first
quadrant of the coordinate plane, and interpret coordinate values of points in the
context of the situation. (5.G.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
Classify two-dimensional figures into categories based on their properties. (5.G.B)
3. Understand that attributes belonging to a category of two-dimensional figures also
belong to all subcategories of that category. For example, all rectangles have four right
angles and squares are rectangles, so all squares have four right angles. (5.G.B.3) (DOK
1,2)
4. Classify two-dimensional figures in a hierarchy based on properties. (5.G.B.4) (DOK 1,2)

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Mathematics | Grade 6
In Grade 6, instructional time should focus on four critical areas: (1) connecting ratio and rate to
whole number multiplication and division and using concepts of ratio and rate to solve problems;
(2) completing understanding of division of fractions and extending the notion of number to the
system of rational numbers, which includes negative numbers; (3) writing, interpreting, and using
expressions and equations; and (4) developing understanding of statistical thinking.

(1) Students use reasoning about multiplication and division to solve ratio and rate problems about
quantities. By viewing equivalent ratios and rates as deriving from, and extending, pairs of rows (or
columns) in the multiplication table, and by analyzing simple drawings that indicate the relative size of
quantities, students connect their understanding of multiplication and division with ratios and rates. Thus
students expand the scope of problems for which they can use multiplication and division to solve
problems, and they connect ratios and fractions. Students solve a wide variety of problems involving
ratios and rates.

(2) Students use the meaning of fractions, the meanings of multiplication and division, and the
relationship between multiplication and division to understand and explain why the procedures for
dividing fractions make sense. Students use these operations to solve problems. Students extend their
previous understandings of number and the ordering of numbers to the full system of rational numbers,
which includes negative rational numbers, and in particular negative integers. They reason about the
order and absolute value of rational numbers and about the location of points in all four quadrants of the
coordinate plane.

(3) Students understand the use of variables in mathematical expressions. They write expressions and
equations that correspond to given situations, evaluate expressions, and use expressions and formulas to
solve problems. Students understand that expressions in different forms can be equivalent, and they use
the properties of operations to rewrite expressions in equivalent forms. Students know that the solutions
of an equation are the values of the variables that make the equation true. Students use properties of
operations and the idea of maintaining the equality of both sides of an equation to solve simple one-step
equations. Students construct and analyze tables, such as tables of quantities that are in equivalent ratios,
and they use equations (such as 3x = y) to describe relationships between quantities.

(4) Building on and reinforcing their understanding of number, students begin to develop their ability to
think statistically. Students recognize that a data distribution may not have a definite center and that
different ways to measure center yield different values. The median measures center in the sense that it
is roughly the middle value. The mean measures center in the sense that it is the value that each data
point would take on if the total of the data values were redistributed equally, and also in the sense that it
is a balance point. Students recognize that a measure of variability (interquartile range or mean absolute
deviation) can also be useful for summarizing data because two very different sets of data can have the
same mean and median yet be distinguished by their variability. Students learn to describe and
summarize numerical data sets, identifying clusters, peaks, gaps, and symmetry, considering the context
in which the data were collected.

Students in Grade 6 also build on their work with area in elementary school by reasoning about
relationships among shapes to determine area, surface area, and volume. They find areas of right
triangles, other triangles, and special quadrilaterals by decomposing these shapes, rearranging or
removing pieces, and relating the shapes to rectangles. Using these methods, students discuss, develop,
and justify formulas for areas of triangles and parallelograms. Students find areas of polygons and surface
areas of prisms and pyramids by decomposing them into pieces whose area they can determine. They
reason about right rectangular prisms with fractional side lengths to extend formulas for the volume of a
right rectangular prism to fractional side lengths. They prepare for work on scale drawings and
constructions in Grade 7 by drawing polygons in the coordinate plane.

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Grade 6 Overview
Ratios and Proportional Relationships Mathematical Practices
 Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to
solve problems. 1. Make sense of problems and
persevere in solving them.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
The Number System
3. Construct viable arguments and
 Apply and extend previous understandings of
critique the reasoning of others.
multiplication and division to divide fractions by
fractions. 4. Model with mathematics.
 Compute fluently with multi-digit numbers and find
5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
common factors and multiples.
 Apply and extend previous understandings of numbers 6. Attend to precision.
to the system of rational numbers. 7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in
Expressions and Equations repeated reasoning.
 Apply and extend previous understandings of
arithmetic to algebraic expressions.
 Reason about and solve one-variable equations
and inequalities.
 Represent and analyze quantitative relationships
between dependent and independent variables.

Geometry
 Solve real-world and mathematical problems
involving area, surface area, and volume.

Statistics and Probability

 Develop understanding of statistical variability.
 Summarize and describe distributions.

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Ratios and Proportional Relationships 6.RP
Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to solve problems. (6.RP.A)
1. Understand the concept of a ratio and use ratio language to describe a ratio relationship
between two quantities. For example, "The ratio of wings to beaks in the bird house at
the zoo was 2:1, because for every 2 wings there was 1 beak." "For every vote candidate
A received, candidate C received nearly three votes." (6.RP.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Understand the concept of a unit rate a/b associated with a ratio a:b with b ≠ 0, and use
rate language in the context of a ratio relationship. For example, "This recipe has a ratio
of 3 cups of flour to 4 cups of sugar, so there is 3/4 cup of flour for each cup of sugar."
"We paid $75 for 15 hamburgers, which is a rate of $5 per hamburger."1 (6.RP.A.2)
(DOK 1,2)
3. Use ratio and rate reasoning to solve real-world and mathematical problems, e.g., by
reasoning about tables of equivalent ratios, tape diagrams, double number line
diagrams, or equations.
a. Make tables of equivalent ratios relating quantities with whole-number
measurements, find missing values in the tables, and plot the pairs of values on
the coordinate plane. Use tables to compare ratios.
b. Solve unit rate problems including those involving unit pricing and constant
speed. For example, if it took 7 hours to mow 4 lawns, then at that rate, how
many lawns could be mowed in 35 hours? At what rate were lawns being
mowed?
c. Find a percent of a quantity as a rate per 100 (e.g., 30% of a quantity means
30/100 times the quantity); solve problems involving finding the whole, given a
part and the percent.
d. Use ratio reasoning to convert measurement units; manipulate and transform
units appropriately when multiplying or dividing quantities. (6.RP.A.3) (DOK
1,2)

The Number System 6.NS

Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division to divide fractions by
fractions. (6.NS.A)
1. Interpret and compute quotients of fractions, and solve word problems involving
division of fractions by fractions, e.g., by using visual fraction models and equations to
represent the problem. For example, create a story context for (2/3) ÷ (3/4) and use a
visual fraction model to show the quotient; use the relationship between multiplication
and division to explain that (2/3) ÷ (3/4) = 8/9 because 3/4 of 8/9 is 2/3. (In general,
(a/b) ÷ (c/d) = ad/bc.) How much chocolate will each person get if 3 people share 1/2 lb
of chocolate equally? How many 3/4-cup servings are in 2/3 of a cup of yogurt? How
wide is a rectangular strip of land with length 3/4 mi and area 1/2 square mi? (6.NS.A.1)
(DOK 1,2)

Compute fluently with multi-digit numbers and find common factors and multiples. (6.NS.B)
2. Fluently divide multi-digit numbers using the standard algorithm. (6.NS.B.2) (DOK 1)
3. Fluently add, subtract, multiply, and divide multi-digit decimals using the standard
algorithm for each operation. (6.NS.B.3) (DOK 1)
4. Find the greatest common factor of two whole numbers less than or equal to 100 and
the least common multiple of two whole numbers less than or equal to 12. Use the
distributive property to express a sum of two whole numbers 1–100 with a common
factor as a multiple of a sum of two whole numbers with no common factor. For
example, express 36 + 8 as 4 (9 + 2). (6.NS.B.4) (DOK 1)

1
Expectations for unit rates in this grade are limited to non-complex fractions.

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Apply and extend previous understandings of numbers to the system of rational numbers.
(6.NS.C)
5. Understand that positive and negative numbers are used together to describe
quantities having opposite directions or values (e.g., temperature above/below zero,
elevation above/below sea level, credits/debits, positive/negative electric charge); use
positive and negative numbers to represent quantities in real-world contexts, explaining
the meaning of 0 in each situation. (6.NS.C.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. Understand a rational number as a point on the number line. Extend number line
diagrams and coordinate axes familiar from previous grades to represent points on the
line and in the plane with negative number coordinates.
a. Recognize opposite signs of numbers as indicating locations on opposite sides
of 0 on the number line; recognize that the opposite of the opposite of a
number is the number itself, e.g., –(–3) = 3, and that 0 is its own opposite.
b. Understand signs of numbers in ordered pairs as indicating locations in
quadrants of the coordinate plane; recognize that when two ordered pairs
differ only by signs, the locations of the points are related by reflections across
one or both axes.
c. Find and position integers and other rational numbers on a horizontal or
vertical number line diagram; find and position pairs of integers and other
rational numbers on a coordinate plane. (6.NS.C.6) (DOK 1)
7. Understand ordering and absolute value of rational numbers.
a. Interpret statements of inequality as statements about the relative position of
two numbers on a number line diagram. For example, interpret –3 > –7 as a
statement that –3 is located to the right of –7 on a number line oriented from
left to right.
b. Write, interpret, and explain statements of order for rational numbers in real-
world contexts. For example, write –3 oC > –7 oC to express the fact that –3 oC is
warmer than –7 oC.
c. Understand the absolute value of a rational number as its distance from 0 on
the number line; interpret absolute value as magnitude for a positive or
negative quantity in a real-world situation. For example, for an account balance
of –30 dollars, write |–30| = 30 to describe the size of the debt in dollars.
d. Distinguish comparisons of absolute value from statements about order. For
example, recognize that an account balance less than –30 dollars represents a
debt greater than 30 dollars. (6.NS.C.7) (DOK 1,2)
8. Solve real-world and mathematical problems by graphing points in all four quadrants of
the coordinate plane. Include use of coordinates and absolute value to find distances
between points with the same first coordinate or the same second coordinate.
(6.NS.C.8) (DOK 1,2)

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Expressions and Equations 6.EE
Apply and extend previous understandings of arithmetic to algebraic expressions. (6.EE.A)
1. Write and evaluate numerical expressions involving whole-number exponents. (6.EE.A.1)
(DOK 1)
2. Write, read, and evaluate expressions in which letters stand for numbers.
a. Write expressions that record operations with numbers and with letters standing
for numbers. For example, express the calculation "Subtract y from 5" as 5 – y.
b. Identify parts of an expression using mathematical terms (sum, term, product,
factor, quotient, coefficient); view one or more parts of an expression as a single
entity. For example, describe the expression 2 (8 + 7) as a product of two factors;
view (8 + 7) as both a single entity and a sum of two terms.
c. Evaluate expressions at specific values of their variables. Include expressions that
arise from formulas used in real-world problems. Perform arithmetic operations,
including those involving whole-number exponents, in the conventional order
when there are no parentheses to specify a particular order (Order of
Operations). For example, use the formulas V = s3 and A = 6 s2 to find the volume
and surface area of a cube with sides of length s = 1/2. (6.EE.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Apply the properties of operations to generate equivalent expressions. For example, apply
the distributive property to the expression 3 (2 + x) to produce the equivalent expression 6
+ 3x; apply the distributive property to the expression 24x + 18y to produce the equivalent
expression 6 (4x + 3y); apply properties of operations to y + y + y to produce the equivalent
expression 3y. (6.EE.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Identify when two expressions are equivalent (i.e., when the two expressions name the
same number regardless of which value is substituted into them). For example, the
expressions y + y + y and 3y are equivalent because they name the same number
regardless of which number y stands for. (6.EE.A.4) (DOK 1)

Reason about and solve one-variable equations and inequalities. (6.EE.B)

5. Understand solving an equation or inequality as a process of answering a question: which
values from a specified set, if any, make the equation or inequality true? Use substitution
to determine whether a given number in a specified set makes an equation or inequality
true. (6.EE.B.5) (DOK 1)
6. Use variables to represent numbers and write expressions when solving a real-world or
mathematical problem; understand that a variable can represent an unknown number, or,
depending on the purpose at hand, any number in a specified set. (6.EE.B.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. Solve real-world and mathematical problems by writing and solving equations of the form
x + p = q and px = q for cases in which p, q and x are all nonnegative rational numbers.
(6.EE.B.7) (DOK 1,2)
8. Write an inequality of the form x > c or x < c to represent a constraint or condition in a
real-world or mathematical problem. Recognize that inequalities of the form x > c or x < c
have infinitely many solutions; represent solutions of such inequalities on number line
diagrams. (6.EE.B.8) (DOK 1,2)

Represent and analyze quantitative relationships between dependent and independent

variables. (6.EE.C)
9. Use variables to represent two quantities in a real-world problem that change in
relationship to one another; write an equation to express one quantity, thought of as the
dependent variable, in terms of the other quantity, thought of as the independent
variable. Analyze the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
using graphs and tables, and relate these to the equation. For example, in a problem
involving motion at constant speed, list and graph ordered pairs of distances and times,
and write the equation d = 65t to represent the relationship between distance and time.
(6.EE.C.9) (DOK 1,2,3)

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Geometry 6.G
Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving area, surface area, and volume. (6.G.A)
1. Find the area of right triangles, other triangles, special quadrilaterals, and polygons by
composing into rectangles or decomposing into triangles and other shapes; apply these
techniques in the context of solving real-world and mathematical problems. (6.G.A.1)
(DOK 1,2)
2. Find the volume of a right rectangular prism with fractional edge lengths by packing it
with unit cubes of the appropriate unit fraction edge lengths, and show that the volume
is the same as would be found by multiplying the edge lengths of the prism. Apply the
formulas V = l w h and V = b h to find volumes of right rectangular prisms with fractional
edge lengths in the context of solving real-world and mathematical problems. (6.G.A.2)
(DOK 1,2)
3. Draw polygons in the coordinate plane given coordinates for the vertices; use
coordinates to find the length of a side joining points with the same first coordinate or
the same second coordinate. Apply these techniques in the context of solving real-world
and mathematical problems. (6.G.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Represent three-dimensional figures using nets made up of rectangles and triangles,
and use the nets to find the surface area of these figures. Apply these techniques in the
context of solving real-world and mathematical problems. (6.G.A.4) (DOK 1,2)

Statistics and Probability 6.SP

Develop understanding of statistical variability. (6.SP.A)
1. Recognize a statistical question as one that anticipates variability in the data related to
the question and accounts for it in the answers. For example, "How old am I?" is not a
statistical question, but "How old are the students in my school?" is a statistical question
because one anticipates variability in students’ ages. (6.SP.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Understand that a set of data collected to answer a statistical question has a
distribution which can be described by its center, spread, and overall shape. (6.SP.A.2)
(DOK 1,2)
3. Recognize that a measure of center for a numerical data set summarizes all of its values
with a single number, while a measure of variation describes how its values vary with a
single number. (6.SP.A.3) (DOK 1)

Summarize and describe distributions. (6.SP.B)

4. Display numerical data in plots on a number line, including dot plots, histograms, and
box plots. (6.SP.B.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. Summarize numerical data sets in relation to their context, such as by:
a. Reporting the number of observations.
b. Describing the nature of the attribute under investigation, including how it was
measured and its units of measurement.
c. Giving quantitative measures of center (median and/or mean) and variability
(interquartile range and/or mean absolute deviation), as well as describing any
overall pattern and any striking deviations from the overall pattern with
reference to the context in which the data were gathered.
d. Relating the choice of measures of center and variability to the shape of the
data distribution and the context in which the data were gathered. (6.SP.B.5)
(DOK 1,2,3)

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Mathematics | Grade 7
In Grade 7, instructional time should focus on four critical areas: (1) developing understanding
of and applying proportional relationships; (2) developing understanding of operations with
rational numbers and working with expressions and linear equations; (3) solving problems
involving scale drawings and informal geometric constructions, and working with two- and
three-dimensional shapes to solve problems involving area, surface area, and volume; and (4)
drawing inferences about populations based on samples.

(1) Students extend their understanding of ratios and develop understanding of proportionality to solve
single- and multi-step problems. Students use their understanding of ratios and proportionality to solve a
wide variety of percent problems, including those involving discounts, interest, taxes, tips, and percent
increase or decrease. Students solve problems about scale drawings by relating corresponding lengths
between the objects or by using the fact that relationships of lengths within an object are preserved in
similar objects. Students graph proportional relationships and understand the unit rate informally as a
measure of the steepness of the related line, called the slope. They distinguish proportional relationships
from other relationships.

(2) Students develop a unified understanding of number, recognizing fractions, decimals (that have a
finite or a repeating decimal representation), and percents as different representations of rational
numbers. Students extend addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division to all rational numbers,
maintaining the properties of operations and the relationships between addition and subtraction, and
multiplication and division. By applying these properties, and by viewing negative numbers in terms of
everyday contexts (e.g., amounts owed or temperatures below zero), students explain and interpret the
rules for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing with negative numbers. They use the arithmetic of
rational numbers as they formulate expressions and equations in one variable and use these equations to
solve problems.

(3) Students continue their work with area from Grade 6, solving problems involving the area and
circumference of a circle and surface area of three-dimensional objects. In preparation for work on
congruence and similarity in Grade 8 they reason about relationships among two-dimensional figures
using scale drawings and informal geometric constructions, and they gain familiarity with the
relationships between angles formed by intersecting lines. Students work with three-dimensional figures,
relating them to two-dimensional figures by examining cross-sections. They solve real-world and
mathematical problems involving area, surface area, and volume of two- and three-dimensional objects
composed of triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, cubes and right prisms.

(4) Students build on their previous work with single data distributions to compare two data distributions
and address questions about differences between populations. They begin informal work with random
sampling to generate data sets and learn about the importance of representative samples for drawing
inferences.

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Grade 7 Overview
Mathematical Practices
Ratios and Proportional Relationships
 Analyze proportional relationships and use them to 1. Make sense of problems and
solve real-world and mathematical problems. persevere in solving them.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

The Number System 3. Construct viable arguments and

 Apply and extend previous understandings of critique the reasoning of others.
operations with fractions to add, subtract, multiply, 4. Model with mathematics.
and divide rational numbers.
5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
6. Attend to precision.
Expressions and Equations
7. Look for and make use of structure.
 Use properties of operations to generate equivalent
expressions. 8. Look for and express regularity in
 Solve real-life and mathematical problems using repeated reasoning.
numerical and algebraic expressions and equations.

Geometry
 Draw, construct and describe geometrical
figures and describe the relationships between them.
 Solve real-life and mathematical problems
involving angle measure, area, surface area, and volume.

Statistics and Probability

 Use random sampling to draw inferences about
a population.
 Draw informal comparative inferences about
two populations.
 Investigate chance processes and develop, use,
and evaluate probability models.

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Ratios and Proportional Relationships 7.RP
Analyze proportional relationships and use them to solve real-world and mathematical
problems. (7.RP.A)
1. Compute unit rates associated with ratios of fractions, including ratios of lengths, areas
and other quantities measured in like or different units. For example, if a person walks
1/2 mile in each 1/4 hour, compute the unit rate as the complex fraction 1/2/1/4 miles per
hour, equivalently 2 miles per hour. (7.RP.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Recognize and represent proportional relationships between quantities.
a. Decide whether two quantities are in a proportional relationship, e.g., by
testing for equivalent ratios in a table or graphing on a coordinate plane and
observing whether the graph is a straight line through the origin.
b. Identify the constant of proportionality (unit rate) in tables, graphs, equations,
diagrams, and verbal descriptions of proportional relationships.
c. Represent proportional relationships by equations. For example, if total cost t
is proportional to the number n of items purchased at a constant price p, the
relationship between the total cost and the number of items can be expressed
as t = pn.
d. Explain what a point (x, y) on the graph of a proportional relationship means in
terms of the situation, with special attention to the points (0, 0) and (1, r)
where r is the unit rate. (7.RP.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Use proportional relationships to solve multistep ratio and percent problems. Examples:
simple interest, tax, markups and markdowns, gratuities and commissions, fees, percent
increase and decrease, percent error. (7.RP.A.3) (DOK 1,2)

The Number System 7.NS

Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide rational numbers. (7.NS.A)
1. Apply and extend previous understandings of addition and subtraction to add and
subtract rational numbers; represent addition and subtraction on a horizontal or
vertical number line diagram.
a. Describe situations in which opposite quantities combine to make 0. For
example, a hydrogen atom has 0 charge because its two constituents are
oppositely charged.
b. Understand p + q as the number located a distance |q| from p, in the positive
or negative direction depending on whether q is positive or negative. Show
that a number and its opposite have a sum of 0 (are additive inverses).
Interpret sums of rational numbers by describing real-world contexts.
c. Understand subtraction of rational numbers as adding the additive inverse, p –
q = p + (–q). Show that the distance between two rational numbers on the
number line is the absolute value of their difference, and apply this principle in
real-world contexts.
d. Apply properties of operations as strategies to add and subtract rational
numbers. (7.NS.A.1) (DOK 1,2)

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 2. Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division and of fractions to
multiply and divide rational numbers.
a. Understand that multiplication is extended from fractions to rational numbers by
requiring that operations continue to satisfy the properties of operations,
particularly the distributive property, leading to products such as (–1)(–1) = 1 and
the rules for multiplying signed numbers. Interpret products of rational numbers by
describing real-world contexts.
b. Understand that integers can be divided, provided that the divisor is not zero, and
every quotient of integers (with non-zero divisor) is a rational number. If p and q are
integers, then –(p/q) = (–p)/q = p/(–q). Interpret quotients of rational numbers by
describing real-world contexts.
c. Apply properties of operations as strategies to multiply and divide rational numbers.
d. Convert a rational number to a decimal using long division; know that the decimal
form of a rational number terminates in 0s or eventually repeats. (7.NS.A.2) (DOK
1,2)
3. Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving the four operations with rational
numbers.1 (7.NS.A.3) (DOK 1,2)

Expressions and Equations 7.EE

Use properties of operations to generate equivalent expressions. (7.EE.A)
1. Apply properties of operations as strategies to add, subtract, factor, and expand linear
expressions with rational coefficients. (7.EE.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Understand that rewriting an expression in different forms in a problem context can shed
light on the problem and how the quantities in it are related. For example, a + 0.05a = 1.05a
means that "increase by 5%" is the same as "multiply by 1.05." (7.EE.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Solve real-life and mathematical problems using numerical and algebraic expressions and equations.
(7.EE.B)
3. Solve multi-step real-life and mathematical problems posed with positive and negative
rational numbers in any form (whole numbers, fractions, and decimals), using tools
strategically. Apply properties of operations to calculate with numbers in any form; convert
between forms as appropriate; and assess the reasonableness of answers using mental
computation and estimation strategies. For example: If a woman making $25 an hour gets a
10% raise, she will make an additional 1/10 of her salary an hour, or $2.50, for a new salary of
$27.50. If you want to place a towel bar 9 3/4 inches long in the center of a door that is 27 1/2
inches wide, you will need to place the bar about 9 inches from each edge; this estimate can
be used as a check on the exact computation. (7.EE.B.3) (DOK 1,2,3)
4. Use variables to represent quantities in a real-world or mathematical problem, and construct
simple equations and inequalities to solve problems by reasoning about the quantities.
a. Solve word problems leading to equations of the form px + q = r and p(x + q) = r,
where p, q, and r are specific rational numbers. Solve equations of these forms
fluently. Compare an algebraic solution to an arithmetic solution, identifying the
sequence of the operations used in each approach. For example, the perimeter of a
rectangle is 54 cm. Its length is 6 cm. What is its width?
b. Solve word problems leading to inequalities of the form px + q > r or px + q < r,
where p, q, and r are specific rational numbers. Graph the solution set of the
inequality and interpret it in the context of the problem. For example: As a
salesperson, you are paid $50 per week plus $3 per sale. This week you want your
pay to be at least $100. Write an inequality for the number of sales you need to
make, and describe the solutions. (7.EE.B.4) (DOK 1,2,3)

1
Computations with rational numbers extend the rules for manipulating fractions to complex fractions.

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Geometry 7.G
Draw, construct, and describe geometrical figures and describe the relationships between
them. (7.G.A)
1. Solve problems involving scale drawings of geometric figures, including computing
actual lengths and areas from a scale drawing and reproducing a scale drawing at a
different scale. (7.G.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Draw (freehand, with ruler and protractor, and with technology) geometric shapes with
given conditions. Focus on constructing triangles from three measures of angles or
sides, noticing when the conditions determine a unique triangle, more than one
triangle, or no triangle. (7.G.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Describe the two-dimensional figures that result from slicing three-dimensional figures,
as in plane sections of right rectangular prisms and right rectangular pyramids. (7.G.A.3)
(DOK 1,2)

Solve real-life and mathematical problems involving angle measure, area, surface area, and
volume. (7.G.B)
4. Know the formulas for the area and circumference of a circle and use them to solve
problems; give an informal derivation of the relationship between the circumference
and area of a circle. (7.G.B.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. Use facts about supplementary, complementary, vertical, and adjacent angles in a
multi-step problem to write and solve simple equations for an unknown angle in a
figure. (7.G.B.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving area, volume and surface area of
two- and three-dimensional objects composed of triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons,
cubes, and right prisms. (7.G.B.6) (DOK 1,2)

Statistics and Probability 7.SP

Use random sampling to draw inferences about a population. (7.SP.A)
1. Understand that statistics can be used to gain information about a population by
examining a sample of the population; generalizations about a population from a
sample are valid only if the sample is representative of that population. Understand that
random sampling tends to produce representative samples and support valid
inferences. (7.SP.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Use data from a random sample to draw inferences about a population with an
unknown characteristic of interest. Generate multiple samples (or simulated samples) of
the same size to gauge the variation in estimates or predictions. For example, estimate
the mean word length in a book by randomly sampling words from the book; predict the
winner of a school election based on randomly sampled survey data. Gauge how far off
the estimate or prediction might be. (7.SP.A.2) (DOK 2,3)

Draw informal comparative inferences about two populations. (7.SP.B)

3. Informally assess the degree of visual overlap of two numerical data distributions with
similar variability’s, measuring the difference between the centers by expressing it as a
multiple of a measure of variability. For example, the mean height of players on the
basketball team is 10 cm greater than the mean height of players on the soccer team,
about twice the variability (mean absolute deviation) on either team; on a dot plot, the
separation between the two distributions of heights is noticeable. (7.SP.B.3) (DOK 2,3)
4. Use measures of center and measures of variability for numerical data from random
samples to draw informal comparative inferences about two populations. For example,
decide whether the words in a chapter of a seventh-grade science book are generally
longer than the words in a chapter of a fourth-grade science book. (7.SP.B.4) (DOK 2,3)

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Investigate chance processes and develop, use, and evaluate probability models. (7.SP.C)
5. Understand that the probability of a chance event is a number between 0 and 1 that
expresses the likelihood of the event occurring. Larger numbers indicate greater
likelihood. A probability near 0 indicates an unlikely event, a probability around 1/2
indicates an event that is neither unlikely nor likely, and a probability near 1 indicates a
likely event. (7.SP.C.5) (DOK 1)
6. Approximate the probability of a chance event by collecting data on the chance process
that produces it and observing its long-run relative frequency, and predict the
approximate relative frequency given the probability. For example, when rolling a
number cube 600 times, predict that a 3 or 6 would be rolled roughly 200 times, but
probably not exactly 200 times. (7.SP.C.6) (DOK 2,3)
7. Develop a probability model and use it to find probabilities of events. Compare
probabilities from a model to observed frequencies; if the agreement is not good,
explain possible sources of the discrepancy.
a. Develop a uniform probability model by assigning equal probability to all
outcomes, and use the model to determine probabilities of events. For
example, if a student is selected at random from a class, find the probability
that Jane will be selected and the probability that a girl will be selected.
b. Develop a probability model (which may not be uniform) by observing
frequencies in data generated from a chance process. For example, find the
approximate probability that a spinning penny will land heads up or that a
tossed paper cup will land open-end down. Do the outcomes for the spinning
penny appear to be equally likely based on the observed frequencies? (7.SP.C.7)
(DOK 2,3)
8. Find probabilities of compound events using organized lists, tables, tree diagrams, and
simulation.
a. Understand that, just as with simple events, the probability of a compound
event is the fraction of outcomes in the sample space for which the compound
event occurs.
b. Represent sample spaces for compound events using methods such as
organized lists, tables and tree diagrams. For an event described in everyday
language (e.g., "rolling double sixes"), identify the outcomes in the sample
space which compose the event.
c. Design and use a simulation to generate frequencies for compound events. For
example, use random digits as a simulation tool to approximate the answer to
the question: If 40% of donors have type A blood, what is the probability that it
will take at least 4 donors to find one with type A blood? (7.SP.C.8) (DOK 1,2,3)

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Mathematics | Grade 8
In Grade 8, instructional time should focus on three critical areas: (1) formulating and reasoning
about expressions and equations, including modeling an association in bivariate data with a
linear equation, and solving linear equations and systems of linear equations; (2) grasping the
concept of a function and using functions to describe quantitative relationships; (3) analyzing
two- and three-dimensional space and figures using distance, angle, similarity, and congruence,
and understanding and applying the Pythagorean Theorem.

(1) Students use linear equations and systems of linear equations to represent, analyze, and solve a
variety of problems. Students recognize equations for proportions (y/x = m or y = mx) as special linear
equations (y = mx + b), understanding that the constant of proportionality (m) is the slope, and the graphs
are lines through the origin. They understand that the slope (m) of a line is a constant rate of change, so
that if the input or x-coordinate changes by an amount A, the output or y-coordinate changes by the
amount m·A. Students also use a linear equation to describe the association between two quantities in
bivariate data (such as arm span vs. height for students in a classroom). At this grade, fitting the model,
and assessing its fit to the data are done informally. Interpreting the model in the context of the data
requires students to express a relationship between the two quantities in question and to interpret
components of the relationship (such as slope and y-intercept) in terms of the situation.

Students strategically choose and efficiently implement procedures to solve linear equations in one
variable, understanding that when they use the properties of equality and the concept of logical
equivalence, they maintain the solutions of the original equation. Students solve systems of two linear
equations in two variables and relate the systems to pairs of lines in the plane; these intersect, are
parallel, or are the same line. Students use linear equations, systems of linear equations, linear functions,
and their understanding of slope of a line to analyze situations and solve problems.

(2) Students grasp the concept of a function as a rule that assigns to each input exactly one output. They
understand that functions describe situations where one quantity determines another. They can translate
among representations and partial representations of functions (noting that tabular and graphical
representations may be partial representations), and they describe how aspects of the function are
reflected in the different representations.

(3) Students use ideas about distance and angles, how they behave under translations, rotations,
reflections, and dilations, and ideas about congruence and similarity to describe and analyze two-
dimensional figures and to solve problems. Students show that the sum of the angles in a triangle is the
angle formed by a straight line, and that various configurations of lines give rise to similar triangles
because of the angles created when a transversal cuts parallel lines. Students understand the statement
of the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse, and can explain why the Pythagorean Theorem holds, for
example, by decomposing a square in two different ways. They apply the Pythagorean Theorem to find
distances between points on the coordinate plane, to find lengths, and to analyze polygons. Students
complete their work on volume by solving problems involving cones, cylinders, and spheres.

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Grade 8 Overview
Mathematical Practices
The Number System
1. Make sense of problems and
 Know that there are numbers that are not rational, persevere in solving them.
and approximate them by rational numbers.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
3. Construct viable arguments and
Expressions and Equations critique the reasoning of others.
 Work with radicals and integer exponents.
 Understand the connections between proportional 4. Model with mathematics.
relationships, lines, and linear equations. 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
 Analyze and solve linear equations and pairs of
6. Attend to precision.
simultaneous linear equations.
7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in
Functions repeated reasoning.
 Define, evaluate, and compare functions.
 Use functions to model relationships between
quantities.

Geometry
 Understand congruence and similarity using
physical models, transparencies, or geometry
software.
 Understand and apply the Pythagorean Theorem.
 Solve real-world and mathematical problems
involving volume of cylinders, cones and spheres.

Statistics and Probability

 Investigate patterns of association in bivariate data.

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The Number System 8.NS
Know that there are numbers that are not rational, and approximate them by rational
numbers. (8.NS.A)
1. Know that numbers that are not rational are called irrational. Understand informally
that every number has a decimal expansion; for rational numbers show that the decimal
expansion repeats eventually, and convert a decimal expansion which repeats
eventually into a rational number. (8.NS.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Use rational approximations of irrational numbers to compare the size of irrational
numbers, locate them approximately on a number line diagram, and estimate the value
of expressions (e.g., π2). For example, by truncating the decimal expansion of √2, show
that √2 is between 1 and 2, then between 1.4 and 1.5, and explain how to continue on to
get better approximations. (8.NS.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Expressions and Equations 8.EE

Work with radicals and integer exponents. (8.EE.A)
1. Know and apply the properties of integer exponents to generate equivalent numerical
expressions. For example, 32 × 3–5 = 3–3 = 1/33 = 1/27. (8.EE.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Use square root and cube root symbols to represent solutions to equations of the form
x2 = p and x3 = p, where p is a positive rational number. Evaluate square roots of small
perfect squares and cube roots of small perfect cubes. Know that √2 is irrational.
(8.EE.A.2) (DOK 1)
3. Use numbers expressed in the form of a single digit times an integer power of 10 to
estimate very large or very small quantities, and to express how many times as much
one is than the other. For example, estimate the population of the United States as 3 ×
108 and the population of the world as 7 × 109, and determine that the world population
is more than 20 times larger. (8.EE.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Perform operations with numbers expressed in scientific notation, including problems
where both decimal and scientific notation are used. Use scientific notation and choose
units of appropriate size for measurements of very large or very small quantities (e.g.,
use millimeters per year for seafloor spreading). Interpret scientific notation that has
been generated by technology. (8.EE.A.4) (DOK 1,2)

Understand the connections between proportional relationships, lines, and linear equations.
(8.EE.B)
5. Graph proportional relationships, interpreting the unit rate as the slope of the graph.
Compare two different proportional relationships represented in different ways. For
example, compare a distance-time graph to a distance-time equation to determine
which of two moving objects has greater speed. (8.EE.B.5) (DOK 1,2,3)
6. Use similar triangles to explain why the slope m is the same between any two distinct
points on a non-vertical line in the coordinate plane; derive the equation y = mx for a
line through the origin and the equation y = mx + b for a line intercepting the vertical
axis at b. (8.EE.B.6) (DOK 1,2,3)

Analyze and solve linear equations and pairs of simultaneous linear equations. (8.EE.C)
7. Solve linear equations in one variable.
a. Give examples of linear equations in one variable with one solution, infinitely
many solutions, or no solutions. Show which of these possibilities is the case by
successively transforming the given equation into simpler forms, until an
equivalent equation of the form x = a, a = a, or a = b results (where a and b are
different numbers).
b. Solve linear equations with rational number coefficients, including equations
whose solutions require expanding expressions using the distributive property
and collecting like terms. (8.EE.C.7) (DOK 1,2)

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 8. Analyze and solve pairs of simultaneous linear equations.
a. Understand that solutions to a system of two linear equations in two variables
correspond to points of intersection of their graphs, because points of
intersection satisfy both equations simultaneously.
b. Solve systems of two linear equations in two variables algebraically, and estimate
solutions by graphing the equations. Solve simple cases by inspection. For
example, 3x + 2y = 5 and 3x + 2y = 6 have no solution because 3x + 2y cannot
simultaneously be 5 and 6.
c. Solve real-world and mathematical problems leading to two linear equations in
two variables. For example, given coordinates for two pairs of points, determine
whether the line through the first pair of points intersects the line through the
second pair. (8.EE.C.8) (DOK 1,2,3)

Functions 8.F
Define, evaluate, and compare functions. (8.F.A)
1. Understand that a function is a rule that assigns to each input exactly one output. The
graph of a function is the set of ordered pairs consisting of an input and the corresponding
output.1 (8.F.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Compare properties of two functions each represented in a different way (algebraically,
graphically, numerically in tables, or by verbal descriptions). For example, given a linear
function represented by a table of values and a linear function represented by an algebraic
expression, determine which function has the greater rate of change. (8.F.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Interpret the equation y = mx + b as defining a linear function, whose graph is a straight
line; give examples of functions that are not linear. For example, the function A = s2 giving
the area of a square as a function of its side length is not linear because its graph contains
the points (1,1), (2,4) and (3,9), which are not on a straight line. (8.F.A.3) (DOK 1,2)

Use functions to model relationships between quantities. (8.F.B)

4. Construct a function to model a linear relationship between two quantities. Determine the
rate of change and initial value of the function from a description of a relationship or from
two (x, y) values, including reading these from a table or from a graph. Interpret the rate
of change and initial value of a linear function in terms of the situation it models, and in
terms of its graph or a table of values. (8.F.B.4) (DOK 1,2,3)
5. Describe qualitatively the functional relationship between two quantities by analyzing a
graph (e.g., where the function is increasing or decreasing, linear or nonlinear). Sketch a
graph that exhibits the qualitative features of a function that has been described verbally.
(8.F.B.5) (DOK 1,2,3)

Geometry 8.G
Understand congruence and similarity using physical models, transparencies, or geometry
software. (8.G.A)
1. Verify experimentally the properties of rotations, reflections, and translations:
a. Lines are taken to lines, and line segments to line segments of the same length.
b. Angles are taken to angles of the same measure.
c. Parallel lines are taken to parallel lines. (8.G.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Understand that a two-dimensional figure is congruent to another if the second can be
obtained from the first by a sequence of rotations, reflections, and translations; given two
congruent figures, describe a sequence that exhibits the congruence between them.
(8.G.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

1
Function notation is not required in Grade 8.

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 3. Describe the effect of dilations, translations, rotations, and reflections on two-
dimensional figures using coordinates. (8.G.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Understand that a two-dimensional figure is similar to another if the second can be
obtained from the first by a sequence of rotations, reflections, translations, and
dilations; given two similar two-dimensional figures, describe a sequence that exhibits
the similarity between them. (8.G.A.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. Use informal arguments to establish facts about the angle sum and exterior angle of
triangles, about the angles created when parallel lines are cut by a transversal, and the
angle-angle criterion for similarity of triangles. For example, arrange three copies of the
same triangle so that the sum of the three angles appears to form a line, and give an
argument in terms of transversals why this is so. (8.G.A.5) (DOK 1,2,3)

Understand and apply the Pythagorean Theorem. (8.G.B)

6. Explain a proof of the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse. (8.G.B.6) (DOK 2,3)
7. Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine unknown side lengths in right triangles in
real-world and mathematical problems in two and three dimensions. (8.G.B.7) (DOK
1,2)
8. Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to find the distance between two points in a
coordinate system. (8.G.B.8) (DOK 1,2)

Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving volume of cylinders, cones, and
spheres. (8.G.C)
9. Know the formulas for the volumes of cones, cylinders, and spheres and use them to
solve real-world and mathematical problems. (8.G.C.9) (DOK 1,2)

Statistics and Probability 8.SP

Investigate patterns of association in bivariate data. (8.SP.A)
1. Construct and interpret scatter plots for bivariate measurement data to investigate
patterns of association between two quantities. Describe patterns such as clustering,
outliers, positive or negative association, linear association, and nonlinear association.
(8.SP.A.1) (DOK 1,2,3)
2. Know that straight lines are widely used to model relationships between two
quantitative variables. For scatter plots that suggest a linear association, informally fit a
straight line, and informally assess the model fit by judging the closeness of the data
points to the line. (8.SP.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Use the equation of a linear model to solve problems in the context of bivariate
measurement data, interpreting the slope and intercept. For example, in a linear model
for a biology experiment, interpret a slope of 1.5 cm/hr as meaning that an additional
hour of sunlight each day is associated with an additional 1.5 cm in mature plant height.
(8.SP.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Understand that patterns of association can also be seen in bivariate categorical data by
displaying frequencies and relative frequencies in a two-way table. Construct and
interpret a two-way table summarizing data on two categorical variables collected from
the same subjects. Use relative frequencies calculated for rows or columns to describe
possible association between the two variables. For example, collect data from students
in your class on whether or not they have a curfew on school nights and whether or not
they have assigned chores at home. Is there evidence that those who have a curfew also
tend to have chores? (8.SP.A.4) (DOK 1,2,3)

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Mathematics Standards for High School
The high school standards specify the mathematics that all students should study in order to be college and career
ready. Additional mathematics that students should learn in order to take advanced courses such as calculus,
advanced statistics, or discrete mathematics is indicated by (+), as in this example:

(+) Represent complex numbers on the complex plane in rectangular and polar form
(including real and imaginary numbers).

All standards without a (+) symbol should be in the common mathematics curriculum for all college and career
ready students. Standards with a (+) symbol may also appear in courses intended for all students.

The high school standards are listed in conceptual categories:

 Number and Quantity
 Algebra
 Functions
 Modeling
 Geometry
 Statistics and Probability

Conceptual categories portray a coherent view of high school mathematics; a student’s work with functions, for
example, crosses a number of traditional course boundaries, potentially up through and including calculus.

Modeling is best interpreted not as a collection of isolated topics but in relation to other standards. Making
mathematical models is a Standard for Mathematical Practice, and specific modeling standards appear throughout
the high school standards indicated by a star symbol (★). The star symbol sometimes appears on the heading for a
group of standards; in that case, it should be understood to apply to all standards in that group.

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Mathematics | High School—Number and Quantity
Numbers and Number Systems. During the years from kindergarten to eighth grade, students must repeatedly
extend their conception of number. At first, "number" means "counting number": 1, 2,3... Soon after that, 0 is used
to represent "none" and the whole numbers are formed by the counting numbers together with zero. The next
extension is fractions. At first, fractions are barely numbers and tied strongly to pictorial representations. Yet by
the time students understand division of fractions, they have a strong concept of fractions as numbers and have
connected them, via their decimal representations, with the base-ten system used to represent the whole
numbers. During middle school, fractions are augmented by negative fractions to form the rational numbers. In
Grade 8, students extend this system once more, augmenting the rational numbers with the irrational numbers to
form the real numbers. In high school, students will be exposed to yet another extension of number, when the real
numbers are augmented by the imaginary numbers to form the complex numbers.

With each extension of number, the meanings of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are extended.
In each new number system—integers, rational numbers, real numbers, and complex numbers—the four
operations stay the same in two important ways: They have the commutative, associative, and distributive
properties and their new meanings are consistent with their previous meanings.

Extending the properties of whole-number exponents leads to new and productive notation. For example,
properties of whole-number exponents suggest that (51/3)3 should be 5(1/3)3 = 51 = 5 and that 51/3 should be the
cube root of 5.

Calculators, spreadsheets, and computer algebra systems can provide ways for students to become better
acquainted with these new number systems and their notation. They can be used to generate data for numerical
experiments, to help understand the workings of matrix, vector, and complex number algebra, and to experiment
with non-integer exponents.

Quantities. In real world problems, the answers are usually not numbers but quantities: numbers with units, which
involves measurement. In their work in measurement up through Grade 8, students primarily measure commonly
used attributes such as length, area, and volume. In high school, students encounter a wider variety of units in
modeling, e.g., acceleration, currency conversions, derived quantities such as person-hours and heating degree
days, social science rates such as per-capita income, and rates in everyday life such as points scored per game or
batting averages. They also encounter novel situations in which they themselves must conceive the attributes of
interest. For example, to find a good measure of overall highway safety, they might propose measures such as
fatalities per year, fatalities per year per driver, or fatalities per vehicle-mile traveled. Such a conceptual process is
sometimes called quantification. Quantification is important for science, as when surface area suddenly “stands
out” as an important variable in evaporation. Quantification is also important for companies, which must
conceptualize relevant attributes and create or choose suitable measures for them.

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Number and Quantity Overview
The Real Number System Mathematical Practices
 Extend the properties of exponents to rational exponents
 Use properties of rational and irrational numbers. 1. Make sense of problems and
persevere in solving them.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
Quantities
 Reason quantitatively and use units to solve problems 3. Construct viable arguments and
 (IA) Understand and apply the mathematics of voting. critique the reasoning of others.
 (IA) Understand and apply some basic mathematics of 4. Model with mathematics.
information processing and the Internet.
5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
6. Attend to precision.
The Complex Number System
7. Look for and make use of structure.
 Perform arithmetic operations with complex numbers
 Represent complex numbers and their operations on 8. Look for and express regularity in
the complex plane repeated reasoning.
 Use complex numbers in polynomial identities and
equations

Vector and Matrix Quantities

 Represent and model with vector quantities.
 Perform operations on vectors.
 Perform operations on matrices and use
matrices in applications.

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The Real Number System N-RN
Extend the properties of exponents to rational exponents. (N-RN.A)
1. Explain how the definition of the meaning of rational exponents follows from extending the
properties of integer exponents to those values, allowing for a notation for radicals in terms
of rational exponents. For example, we define 51/3 to be the cube root of 5 because we want
(51/3)3 = 5(1/3)3 to hold, so (51/3)3 must equal 5. (N-RN.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Rewrite expressions involving radicals and rational exponents using the properties of
exponents. (N-RN.A.2) (DOK 1)
Use properties of rational and irrational numbers. (N-RN.B)
3. Explain why the sum or product of two rational numbers is rational; that the sum of a
rational number and an irrational number is irrational; and that the product of a nonzero
rational number and an irrational number is irrational. (N-RN.B.3) (DOK 1,2)

Quantities★ N-Q
Reason quantitatively and use units to solve problems. (N-Q.A)
1. Use units as a way to understand problems and to guide the solution of multi-step
problems; choose and interpret units consistently in formulas; choose and interpret the
scale and the origin in graphs and data displays. (N-Q.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Define appropriate quantities for the purpose of descriptive modeling. (N-Q.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Choose a level of accuracy appropriate to limitations on measurement when reporting
quantities. (N-Q.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
(IA) Understand and apply the mathematics of voting.
IA.3.Understand, analyze, apply, and evaluate some common voting and analysis methods in
addition to majority and plurality, such as runoff, approval, the so-called instant-runoff
voting (IRV) method, the Borda method and the Condorcet method. (N-Q.B.IA.3) (DOK
1,2,3)
(IA) Understand and apply some basic mathematics of information processing and the Internet.
IA.4.(+) Describe the role of mathematics in information processing, particularly with respect to
the Internet. (N-Q.C.IA.4) (DOK 1)
IA.5.(+) Understand and apply elementary set theory and logic as used in simple Internet
searches. (N-Q.C.IA.5) (DOK 1,2)
IA. 6.(+) Understand and apply basic number theory, including modular arithmetic, for example,
as used in keeping information secure through public-key cryptography. (N-Q.C.IA.6) (DOK
1,2)

The Complex Number System N-CN

Perform arithmetic operations with complex numbers. (N-CN.A)
1. Know there is a complex number i such that i2 = –1, and every complex number has the form
a + bi with a and b real. (N-CN.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Use the relation i2 = –1 and the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to add,
subtract, and multiply complex numbers. (N-CN.A.2) (DOK 1)
3. (+) Find the conjugate of a complex number; use conjugates to find moduli and quotients of
complex numbers. (N-CN.A.3) (DOK 1)
Represent complex numbers and their operations on the complex plane. (N-CN.B)
4. (+) Represent complex numbers on the complex plane in rectangular and polar form
(including real and imaginary numbers), and explain why the rectangular and polar forms of
a given complex number represent the same number. (N-CN.B.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. (+) Represent addition, subtraction, multiplication, and conjugation of complex numbers
geometrically on the complex plane; use properties of this representation for computation.
For example, (–1 + √3 i)3 = 8 because (–1 + √3 i) has modulus 2 and argument 120°. (N-
CN.B.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. (+) Calculate the distance between numbers in the complex plane as the modulus of the
difference, and the midpoint of a segment as the average of the numbers at its endpoints.
(N-CN.B.6) (DOK 1)

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Use complex numbers in polynomial identities and equations. (N-CN.C)
7. Solve quadratic equations with real coefficients that have complex solutions. (N-CN.C.7)
(DOK 1)
8. (+) Extend polynomial identities to the complex numbers. For example, rewrite x2 + 4 as (x +
2i)(x – 2i). (N-CN.C.8) (DOK 1,2)
9. (+) Know the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra; show that it is true for quadratic
polynomials. (N-CN.C.9) (DOK 1,2)

Vector and Matrix Quantities N-VM

Represent and model with vector quantities. (N-VM.A)
1. (+) Recognize vector quantities as having both magnitude and direction. Represent vector
quantities by directed line segments, and use appropriate symbols for vectors and their
magnitudes (e.g., v, |v|, ||v||, v). (N-VM.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. (+) Find the components of a vector by subtracting the coordinates of an initial point from
the coordinates of a terminal point. (N-VM.A.2) (DOK 1)
3. (+) Solve problems involving velocity and other quantities that can be represented by
vectors. (N-VM.A.3) (DOK 1,2)

Perform operations on vectors. (N-VM.B)

4. (+) Add and subtract vectors.
a. a. Add vectors end-to-end, component-wise, and by the parallelogram rule.
Understand that the magnitude of a sum of two vectors is typically not the sum of
the magnitudes.
b. b. Given two vectors in magnitude and direction form, determine the magnitude
and direction of their sum.
c. c. Understand vector subtraction v – w as v + (–w), where –w is the additive inverse
of w, with the same magnitude as w and pointing in the opposite direction.
Represent vector subtraction graphically by connecting the tips in the appropriate
order, and perform vector subtraction component-wise. (N-VM.B.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. (+) Multiply a vector by a scalar.
a. Represent scalar multiplication graphically by scaling vectors and possibly reversing
their direction; perform scalar multiplication component-wise, e.g., as c(vx, vy) =
(cvx, cvy).
b. Compute the magnitude of a scalar multiple cv using ||cv|| = |c|v. Compute the
direction of cv knowing that when |c|v ≠ 0, the direction of cv is either along v (for
c > 0) or against v (for c < 0). (N-VM.B.5) (DOK 1,2)

Perform operations on matrices and use matrices in applications. (N-VM.C)

6. (+) Use matrices to represent and manipulate data, e.g., to represent payoffs or incidence
relationships in a network. (N-VM.C.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. (+) Multiply matrices by scalars to produce new matrices, e.g., as when all of the payoffs in a
game are doubled. (N-VM.C.7) (DOK 1)
8. (+) Add, subtract, and multiply matrices of appropriate dimensions. (N-VM.C.8) (DOK 1)
9. (+) Understand that, unlike multiplication of numbers, matrix multiplication for square
matrices is not a commutative operation, but still satisfies the associative and distributive
properties. (N-VM.C.9) (DOK 1)
10. (+) Understand that the zero and identity matrices play a role in matrix addition and
multiplication similar to the role of 0 and 1 in the real numbers. The determinant of a square
matrix is nonzero if and only if the matrix has a multiplicative inverse. (N-VM.C.10) (DOK 1)
11. (+) Multiply a vector (regarded as a matrix with one column) by a matrix of suitable
dimensions to produce another vector. Work with matrices as transformations of vectors.
(N-VM.C.11) (DOK 1,2)
12. (+) Work with 2 × 2 matrices as transformations of the plane, and interpret the absolute
value of the determinant in terms of area. (N-VM.C.12) (DOK 1,2)

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Mathematics | High School—Algebra
Expressions. An expression is a record of a computation with numbers, symbols that represent numbers,
arithmetic operations, exponentiation, and, at more advanced levels, the operation of evaluating a function.
Conventions about the use of parentheses and the order of operations assure that each expression is
unambiguous. Creating an expression that describes a computation involving a general quantity requires the ability
to express the computation in general terms, abstracting from specific instances.

Reading an expression with comprehension involves analysis of its underlying structure. This may suggest a
different but equivalent way of writing the expression that exhibits some different aspect of its meaning. For
example, p + 0.05p can be interpreted as the addition of a 5% tax to a price p. Rewriting p + 0.05p as 1.05p shows
that adding a tax is the same as multiplying the price by a constant factor.

Algebraic manipulations are governed by the properties of operations and exponents, and the conventions of
algebraic notation. At times, an expression is the result of applying operations to simpler expressions. For example,
p + 0.05p is the sum of the simpler expressions p and 0.05p. Viewing an expression as the result of operation on
simpler expressions can sometimes clarify its underlying structure.

A spreadsheet or a computer algebra system (CAS) can be used to experiment with algebraic expressions, perform
complicated algebraic manipulations, and understand how algebraic manipulations behave.

Equations and inequalities. An equation is a statement of equality between two expressions, often viewed as a
question asking for which values of the variables the expressions on either side are in fact equal. These values are
the solutions to the equation. An identity, in contrast, is true for all values of the variables; identities are often
developed by rewriting an expression in an equivalent form.

The solutions of an equation in one variable form a set of numbers; the solutions of an equation in two variables
form a set of ordered pairs of numbers, which can be plotted in the coordinate plane. Two or more equations
and/or inequalities form a system. A solution for such a system must satisfy every equation and inequality in the
system.

An equation can often be solved by successively deducing from it one or more simpler equations. For example, one
can add the same constant to both sides without changing the solutions, but squaring both sides might lead to
extraneous solutions. Strategic competence in solving includes looking ahead for productive manipulations and
anticipating the nature and number of solutions.

Some equations have no solutions in a given number system, but have a solution in a larger system. For example,
the solution of x + 1 = 0 is an integer, not a whole number; the solution of 2x + 1 = 0 is a rational number, not an
integer; the solutions of x2 – 2 = 0 are real numbers, not rational numbers; and the solutions of x2 + 2 = 0 are
complex numbers, not real numbers.

The same solution techniques used to solve equations can be used to rearrange formulas. For example, the
formula for the area of a trapezoid, A = ((b1+b2)/2)h, can be solved for h using the same deductive process.

Inequalities can be solved by reasoning about the properties of inequality. Many, but not all, of the properties of
equality continue to hold for inequalities and can be useful in solving them.

Connections to Functions and Modeling. Expressions can define functions, and equivalent expressions define the
same function. Asking when two functions have the same value for the same input leads to an equation; graphing
the two functions allows for finding approximate solutions of the equation. Converting a verbal description to an
equation, inequality, or system of these is an essential skill in modeling.

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Algebra Overview
Mathematical Practices
Seeing Structure in Expressions
 Interpret the structure of expressions 1. Make sense of problems and
 Write expressions in equivalent forms to persevere in solving them.
solve problems 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
3. Construct viable arguments and
Arithmetic with Polynomials and Rational critique the reasoning of others.
Expressions 4. Model with mathematics.
 Perform arithmetic operations on polynomials 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
 Understand the relationship between zeros and
factors of polynomials 6. Attend to precision.
 Use polynomial identities to solve problems 7. Look for and make use of structure.
 Rewrite rational expressions
8. Look for and express regularity in
repeated reasoning.
Creating Equations
 Create equations that describe numbers or
relationships

Reasoning with Equations and Inequalities

 Understand solving equations as a process of
reasoning and explain the reasoning
 Solve equations and inequalities in one variable
 Solve systems of equations
 Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically

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Seeing Structure in Expressions A-SSE
Interpret the structure of expressions (A-SSE.A)
1. Interpret expressions that represent a quantity in terms of its context. ★
a. Interpret parts of an expression, such as terms, factors, and coefficients.
b. Interpret complicated expressions by viewing one or more of their parts as a
single entity. For example, interpret P(1+r)n as the product of P and a factor not
depending on P. (A-SSE.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Use the structure of an expression to identify ways to rewrite it. For example, see x4 – y4
as (x2)2 – (y2)2, thus recognizing it as a difference of squares that can be factored as (x 2 –
y2)(x2 + y2). (A-SSE.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Write expressions in equivalent forms to solve problems (A-SSE.B)

3. Choose and produce an equivalent form of an expression to reveal and explain
properties of the quantity represented by the expression.★
a. Factor a quadratic expression to reveal the zeros of the function it defines.
b. Complete the square in a quadratic expression to reveal the maximum or
minimum value of the function it defines.
c. Use the properties of exponents to transform expressions for exponential
functions. For example the expression 1.15t can be rewritten as (1.151/12)12t ≈
1.01212t to reveal the approximate equivalent monthly interest rate if the
annual rate is 15%. (A-SSE.B.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Derive the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series (when the common ratio is
not 1), and use the formula to solve problems. For example, calculate mortgage
payments.★ (A-SSE.B.4) (DOK 1,2,3)

Arithmetic with Polynomials and Rational Expressions A-APR

Perform arithmetic operations on polynomials (A-APR.A)
1. Understand that polynomials form a system analogous to the integers, namely, they are
closed under the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication; add, subtract,
and multiply polynomials. (A-APR.A.1) (DOK 1)

Understand the relationship between zeros and factors of polynomials (A-APR.B)

2. Know and apply the Remainder Theorem: For a polynomial p(x) and a number a, the
remainder on division by x – a is p(a), so p(a) = 0 if and only if (x – a) is a factor of p(x).
(A-APR.B.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Identify zeros of polynomials when suitable factorizations are available, and use the
zeros to construct a rough graph of the function defined by the polynomial. (A-APR.B.3)
(DOK 1,2)

Use polynomial identities to solve problems (A-APR.C)

4. Prove polynomial identities and use them to describe numerical relationships. For
example, the polynomial identity (x2 + y2)2 = (x2 – y2)2 + (2xy)2 can be used to generate
Pythagorean triples. (A-APR.C.4) (DOK 1,2,3)
5. (+) Know and apply the Binomial Theorem for the expansion of (x + y)n in powers of x
and y for a positive integer n, where x and y are any numbers, with coefficients
determined for example by Pascal’s Triangle.1 (A-APR.C.5) (DOK 1,2)

1
The Binomial Theorem can be proved by mathematical induction or by a combinatorial argument.
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Rewrite rational expressions (A-APR.D)
6. Rewrite simple rational expressions in different forms; write a(x)/b(x) in the form q(x) +
r(x)/b(x), where a(x), b(x), q(x), and r(x) are polynomials with the degree of r(x) less than
the degree of b(x), using inspection, long division, or, for the more complicated
examples, a computer algebra system. (A-APR.D.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. (+) Understand that rational expressions form a system analogous to the rational
numbers, closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division by a nonzero
rational expression; add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational expressions. (A-APR.D.7)
(DOK 1)

Creating Equations★ A-CED

Create equations that describe numbers or relationships (A-CED.A)
1. Create equations and inequalities in one variable and use them to solve problems.
Include equations arising from linear and quadratic functions, and simple rational and
exponential functions. (A-CED.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Create equations in two or more variables to represent relationships between quantities;
graph equations on coordinate axes with labels and scales. (A-CED.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Represent constraints by equations or inequalities, and by systems of equations and/or
inequalities, and interpret solutions as viable or nonviable options in a modeling context.
For example, represent inequalities describing nutritional and cost constraints on
combinations of different foods. (A-CED.A.3) (DOK 1,2,3)
4. Rearrange formulas to highlight a quantity of interest, using the same reasoning as in
solving equations. For example, rearrange Ohm’s law V = IR to highlight resistance R.
(A-CED.A.4) (DOK 1)

Reasoning with Equations and Inequalities A-REI

Understand solving equations as a process of reasoning and explain the reasoning (A-REI.A)
1. Explain each step in solving a simple equation as following from the equality of numbers
asserted at the previous step, starting from the assumption that the original equation
has a solution. Construct a viable argument to justify a solution method. (A-REI.A.1)
(DOK 1,2,3)
2. Solve simple rational and radical equations in one variable, and give examples showing
how extraneous solutions may arise. (A-REI.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Solve equations and inequalities in one variable (A-REI.B)

3. Solve linear equations and inequalities in one variable, including equations
with coefficients represented by letters. (A-REI.B.3) (DOK 1)
4. Solve quadratic equations in one variable.
a. Use the method of completing the square to transform any quadratic equation
in x into an equation of the form (x – p)2 = q that has the same solutions. Derive
the quadratic formula from this form.
b. Solve quadratic equations by inspection (e.g., for x2 = 49), taking square roots,
completing the square, the quadratic formula and factoring, as appropriate to
the initial form of the equation. Recognize when the quadratic formula gives
complex solutions and write them as a ± bi for real numbers a and b. (A-REI.B.4)
(DOK 1,2,3)

Solve systems of equations (A-REI.C)

5. Prove that, given a system of two equations in two variables, replacing one equation by
the sum of that equation and a multiple of the other produces a system with the same
solutions. (A-REI.C.5) (DOK 2,3)

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 6. Solve systems of linear equations exactly and approximately (e.g., with graphs), focusing
on pairs of linear equations in two variables. (A-REI.C.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. Solve a simple system consisting of a linear equation and a quadratic equation in two
variables algebraically and graphically. For example, find the points of intersection
between the line y = –3x and the circle x2 + y2 = 3. (A-REI.C.7) (DOK 1,2)
8. (+) Represent a system of linear equations as a single matrix equation in a vector
variable. (A-REI.C.8) (DOK 1)
9. (+) Find the inverse of a matrix if it exists and use it to solve systems of linear equations
(using technology for matrices of dimension 3 × 3 or greater). (A-REI.C.9) (DOK 1,2)

Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically (A-REI.D)

10. Understand that the graph of an equation in two variables is the set of all its solutions
plotted in the coordinate plane, often forming a curve (which could be a line).
(A-REI.D.10) (DOK 1)
11. Explain why the x-coordinates of the points where the graphs of the equations y = f(x)
and y = g(x) intersect are the solutions of the equation f(x) = g(x); find the solutions
approximately, e.g., using technology to graph the functions, make tables of values, or
find successive approximations. Include cases where f(x) and/or g(x) are linear,
polynomial, rational, absolute value, exponential, and logarithmic functions. ★
(A-REI.D.11) (DOK 1,2,3)
12. Graph the solutions to a linear inequality in two variables as a half-plane (excluding the
boundary in the case of a strict inequality), and graph the solution set to a system of
linear inequalities in two variables as the intersection of the corresponding half-planes.
(A-REI.D.12) (DOK 1,2)

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Mathematics | High School—Functions
Functions describe situations where one quantity determines another. For example, the return on $10,000
invested at an annualized percentage rate of 4.25% is a function of the length of time the money is invested.
Because we continually make theories about dependencies between quantities in nature and society, functions are
important tools in the construction of mathematical models.

In school mathematics, functions usually have numerical inputs and outputs and are often defined by an algebraic
expression. For example, the time in hours it takes for a car to drive 100 miles is a function of the car’s speed in
miles per hour, v; the rule T(v) = 100/v expresses this relationship algebraically and defines a function whose name
is T.

The set of inputs to a function is called its domain. We often infer the domain to be all inputs for which the
expression defining a function has a value, or for which the function makes sense in a given context.

A function can be described in various ways, such as by a graph (e.g., the trace of a seismograph); by a verbal rule,
as in, "I'll give you a state, you give me the capital city;" by an algebraic expression like f(x) = a + bx; or by a
recursive rule. The graph of a function is often a useful way of visualizing the relationship of the function models,
and manipulating a mathematical expression for a function can throw light on the function's properties.

Functions presented as expressions can model many important phenomena. Two important families of functions
characterized by laws of growth are linear functions, which grow at a constant rate, and exponential functions,
which grow at a constant percent rate. Linear functions with a constant term of zero describe proportional
relationships.

A graphing utility or a computer algebra system can be used to experiment with properties of these functions and
their graphs and to build computational models of functions, including recursively defined functions.

Connections to Expressions, Equations, Modeling, and Coordinates.

Determining an output value for a particular input involves evaluating an expression; finding inputs that yield a
given output involves solving an equation. Questions about when two functions have the same value for the same
input lead to equations, whose solutions can be visualized from the intersection of their graphs. Because functions
describe relationships between quantities, they are frequently used in modeling. Sometimes functions are defined
by a recursive process, which can be displayed effectively using a spreadsheet or other technology.

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Functions Overview
Mathematical Practices
Interpreting Functions
 Understand the concept of a function and use 1. Make sense of problems and
function notation persevere in solving them.
 Interpret functions that arise in applications in
terms 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
of the context 3. Construct viable arguments and
 Analyze functions using different representations critique the reasoning of others.
4. Model with mathematics.
Building Functions 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
 Build a function that models a relationship between 6. Attend to precision.
two quantities
 Build new functions from existing functions 7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in
repeated reasoning.
Linear, Quadratic, and Exponential Models
 Construct and compare linear, quadratic, and
exponential models and solve problems
 Interpret expressions for functions in terms of
the situation they model

Trigonometric Functions
 Extend the domain of trigonometric
functions using the unit circle
 Model periodic phenomena with
trigonometric functions
 Prove and apply trigonometric identities

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Interpreting Functions F-IF
Understand the concept of a function and use function notation (F-IF.A)
1. Understand that a function from one set (called the domain) to another set (called the
range) assigns to each element of the domain exactly one element of the range. If f is a
function and x is an element of its domain, then f(x) denotes the output of f
corresponding to the input x. The graph of f is the graph of the equation y = f(x). (F-
IF.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Use function notation, evaluate functions for inputs in their domains, and interpret
statements that use function notation in terms of a context. (F-IF.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Recognize that sequences are functions, sometimes defined recursively, whose domain
is a subset of the integers. For example, the Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively by
f(0) = f(1) = 1, f(n+1) = f(n) + f(n-1) for n ≥ 1. (F-IF.A.3) (DOK 1)

Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context (F-IF.B)

4. For a function that models a relationship between two quantities, interpret key features
of graphs and tables in terms of the quantities, and sketch graphs showing key features
given a verbal description of the relationship. Key features include: intercepts; intervals
where the function is increasing, decreasing, positive, or negative; relative maximums
and minimums; symmetries; end behavior; and periodicity.★ (F-IF.B.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. Relate the domain of a function to its graph and, where applicable, to the quantitative
relationship it describes. For example, if the function h(n) gives the number of person-
hours it takes to assemble n engines in a factory, then the positive integers would be an
appropriate domain for the function.★ (F-IF.B.5) (DOK 1,2) (DOK 1,2)
6. Calculate and interpret the average rate of change of a function (presented symbolically
or as a table) over a specified interval. Estimate the rate of change from a graph.★
(F-IF.B.6)

Analyze functions using different representations (F-IF.C)

7. Graph functions expressed symbolically and show key features of the graph, by hand in
simple cases and using technology for more complicated cases.★
a. Graph linear and quadratic functions and show intercepts, maxima, and
minima.
b. Graph square root, cube root, and piecewise-defined functions, including step
functions and absolute value functions.
c. Graph polynomial functions, identifying zeros when suitable factorizations are
available, and showing end behavior.
d. (+) Graph rational functions, identifying zeros and asymptotes when suitable
factorizations are available, and showing end behavior.
e. Graph exponential and logarithmic functions, showing intercepts and end
behavior, and trigonometric functions, showing period, midline, and amplitude.
(F-IF.C.7) (DOK 1,2)
8. Write a function defined by an expression in different but equivalent forms to reveal
and explain different properties of the function.
a. Use the process of factoring and completing the square in a quadratic function
to show zeros, extreme values, and symmetry of the graph, and interpret these
in terms of a context.
b. Use the properties of exponents to interpret expressions for exponential
functions. For example, identify percent rate of change in functions such as y =
(1.02)t, y = (0.97)t, y = (1.01)12t, y = (1.2)t/10, and classify them as representing
exponential growth or decay. (F-IF.C.8) (DOK 1,2)

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 9. Compare properties of two functions each represented in a different way (algebraically,
graphically, numerically in tables, or by verbal descriptions). For example, given a graph
of one quadratic function and an algebraic expression for another, say which has the
larger maximum. (F-IF.C.9) (DOK 1,2)

Building Functions F-BF

Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities (F-FB.A)
1. Write a function that describes a relationship between two quantities. ★
a. Determine an explicit expression, a recursive process, or steps for calculation
from a context.
b. Combine standard function types using arithmetic operations. For example,
build a function that models the temperature of a cooling body by adding a
constant function to a decaying exponential, and relate these functions to the
model.
c. (+) Compose functions. For example, if T(y) is the temperature in the
atmosphere as a function of height, and h(t) is the height of a weather balloon
as a function of time, then T(h(t)) is the temperature at the location of the
weather balloon as a function of time. (F-FB.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Write arithmetic and geometric sequences both recursively and with an explicit
formula, use them to model situations, and translate between the two forms. ★ (F-
FB.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Build new functions from existing functions (F-FB.B)

3. Identify the effect on the graph of replacing f(x) by f(x) + k, k f(x), f(kx), and f(x + k) for
specific values of k (both positive and negative); find the value of k given the graphs.
Experiment with cases and illustrate an explanation of the effects on the graph using
technology. Include recognizing even and odd functions from their graphs and algebraic
expressions for them. (F-FB.B.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Find inverse functions.
a. Solve an equation of the form f(x) = c for a simple function f that has an inverse
and write an expression for the inverse. For example, f(x) =2 x3 or f(x) =
(x+1)/(x–1) for x ≠ 1.
b. (+) Verify by composition that one function is the inverse of another.
c. (+) Read values of an inverse function from a graph or a table, given that the
function has an inverse.
d. (+) Produce an invertible function from a non-invertible function by restricting
the domain. (F-FB.B.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. (+) Understand the inverse relationship between exponents and logarithms and use this
relationship to solve problems involving logarithms and exponents. (F-FB.B.5) (DOK 1,2)

Linear, Quadratic, and Exponential Models★ F-LE

Construct and compare linear, quadratic, and exponential models and solve problems (F-LE.A)
1. Distinguish between situations that can be modeled with linear functions and with
exponential functions.
a. Prove that linear functions grow by equal differences over equal intervals, and
that exponential functions grow by equal factors over equal intervals.
b. Recognize situations in which one quantity changes at a constant rate per unit
interval relative to another.
c. Recognize situations in which a quantity grows or decays by a constant percent
rate per unit interval relative to another. (F-LE.A.1) (DOK 1,2,3)

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 2. Construct linear and exponential functions, including arithmetic and geometric
sequences, given a graph, a description of a relationship, or two input-output pairs
(include reading these from a table). (F-LE.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Observe using graphs and tables that a quantity increasing exponentially eventually
exceeds a quantity increasing linearly, quadratically, or (more generally) as a polynomial
function. (F-LE.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. For exponential models, express as a logarithm the solution to ab ct = d where a, c, and d
are numbers and the base b is 2, 10, or e; evaluate the logarithm using technology.
(F-LE.A.4) (DOK 1)

Interpret expressions for functions in terms of the situation they model

5. Interpret the parameters in a linear or exponential function in terms of a context.
(F-LE.B.5) (DOK 1,2)

Trigonometric Functions F-TF

Extend the domain of trigonometric functions using the unit circle (F-TF.A)
1. Understand radian measure of an angle as the length of the arc on the unit circle
subtended by the angle. (F-TF.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Explain how the unit circle in the coordinate plane enables the extension of
trigonometric functions to all real numbers, interpreted as radian measures of angles
traversed counterclockwise around the unit circle. (F-TF.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. (+) Use special triangles to determine geometrically the values of sine, cosine, tangent
for π/3, π/4 and π/6, and use the unit circle to express the values of sine, cosine, and
tangent for π–x, π+x, and 2π–x in terms of their values for x, where x is any real number.
(F-TF.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. (+) Use the unit circle to explain symmetry (odd and even) and periodicity of
trigonometric functions. (F-TF.A.4) (DOK 2)

Model periodic phenomena with trigonometric functions (F-TF.B)

5. Choose trigonometric functions to model periodic phenomena with specified amplitude,
frequency, and midline.★ (F-TF.B.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. (+) Understand that restricting a trigonometric function to a domain on which it is
always increasing or always decreasing allows its inverse to be constructed. (F-TF.B.6)
(DOK 1,2)
7. (+) Use inverse functions to solve trigonometric equations that arise in modeling
contexts; evaluate the solutions using technology, and interpret them in terms of the
context.★ (F-TF.B.7) (DOK 1,2,3)

Prove and apply trigonometric identities (F-TF.C)

8. Prove the Pythagorean identity sin2(θ) + cos2(θ) = 1 and use it to find sin(θ), cos(θ), or
tan(θ) given sin(θ), cos(θ), or tan(θ) and the quadrant of the angle. (F-TF.C.8) (DOK
1,2,3)
9. (+) Prove the addition and subtraction formulas for sine, cosine, and tangent and use
them to solve problems. (F-TF.C.9) (DOK 1,2,3)

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Mathematics | High School—Modeling
Modeling links classroom mathematics and statistics to everyday life, work, and decision-making. Modeling is the
process of choosing and using appropriate mathematics and statistics to analyze empirical situations, to
understand them better, and to improve decisions. Quantities and their relationships in physical, economic, public
policy, social, and everyday situations can be modeled using mathematical and statistical methods. When making
mathematical models, technology is valuable for varying assumptions, exploring consequences, and comparing
predictions with data.

A model can be very simple, such as writing total cost as a product of unit price and number bought, or using a
geometric shape to describe a physical object like a coin. Even such simple models involve making choices. It is up
to us whether to model a coin as a three-dimensional cylinder, or whether a two-dimensional disk works well
enough for our purposes. Other situations—modeling a delivery route, a production schedule, or a comparison of
loan amortizations—need more elaborate models that use other tools from the mathematical sciences. Real-world
situations are not organized and labeled for analysis; formulating tractable models, representing such models, and
analyzing them is appropriately a creative process. Like every such process, this depends on acquired expertise as
well as creativity.

Some examples of such situations might include:

 Estimating how much water and food is needed for emergency relief in a devastated city of 3 million
people, and how it might be distributed.
 Planning a table tennis tournament for 7 players at a club with 4 tables, where each player plays against
each other player.
 Designing the layout of the stalls in a school fair so as to raise as much money as possible.
 Analyzing stopping distance for a car.
 Modeling savings account balance, bacterial colony growth, or investment growth.
 Engaging in critical path analysis, e.g., applied to turnaround of an aircraft at an airport.
 Analyzing risk in situations such as extreme sports, pandemics, and terrorism.
 Relating population statistics to individual predictions.

In situations like these, the models devised depend on a number of factors: How precise an answer do we want or
need? What aspects of the situation do we most need to understand, control, or optimize? What resources of time
and tools do we have? The range of models that we can create and analyze is also constrained by the limitations of
our mathematical, statistical, and technical skills, and our ability to recognize significant variables and relationships
among them. Diagrams of various kinds, spreadsheets and other technology, and algebra are powerful tools for
understanding and solving problems drawn from different types of real-world situations.

One of the insights provided by

mathematical modeling is that
essentially the same mathematical or
statistical structure can sometimes
model seemingly different situations.
Models can also shed light on the
mathematical structures themselves,
for example, as when a model of
bacterial growth makes more vivid
the explosive growth of the exponential function.

The basic modeling cycle is summarized in the diagram. It involves (1) identifying variables in the situation and
selecting those that represent essential features, (2) formulating a model by creating and selecting geometric,
graphical, tabular, algebraic, or statistical representations that describe relationships between the variables, (3)
analyzing and performing operations on these relationships to draw conclusions, (4) interpreting the results of the
mathematics in terms of the original situation, (5) validating the conclusions by comparing them with the situation,
and then either improving the model or, if it is acceptable, (6) reporting on the conclusions and the reasoning
behind them. Choices, assumptions, and approximations are present throughout this cycle.

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In descriptive modeling, a model simply describes the phenomena or summarizes them in a compact form. Graphs
of observations are a familiar descriptive model— for example, graphs of global temperature and atmospheric CO 2
over time.

Analytic modeling seeks to explain data on the basis of deeper theoretical ideas, albeit with parameters that are
empirically based; for example, exponential growth of bacterial colonies (until cut-off mechanisms such as
pollution or starvation intervene) follows from a constant reproduction rate. Functions are an important tool for
analyzing such problems.

Graphing utilities, spreadsheets, computer algebra systems, and dynamic geometry software are powerful tools
that can be used to model purely mathematical phenomena (e.g., the behavior of polynomials) as well as physical
phenomena.

Modeling Standards Modeling is best interpreted not as a collection of isolated topics but rather in relation to
other standards. Making mathematical models is a Standard for Mathematical Practice, and specific modeling
standards appear throughout the high school standards indicated by a star symbol ( ★).

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Mathematics | High School—Geometry
An understanding of the attributes and relationships of geometric objects can be applied in diverse contexts—
interpreting a schematic drawing, estimating the amount of wood needed to frame a sloping roof, rendering
computer graphics, or designing a sewing pattern for the most efficient use of material.

Although there are many types of geometry, school mathematics is devoted primarily to plane Euclidean
geometry, studied both synthetically (without coordinates) and analytically (with coordinates). Euclidean geometry
is characterized most importantly by the Parallel Postulate, that through a point not on a given line there is exactly
one parallel line. (Spherical geometry, in contrast, has no parallel lines.)

During high school, students begin to formalize their geometry experiences from elementary and middle school,
using more precise definitions and developing careful proofs. Later in college some students develop Euclidean and
other geometries carefully from a small set of axioms.

The concepts of congruence, similarity, and symmetry can be understood from the perspective of geometric
transformation. Fundamental are the rigid motions: translations, rotations, reflections, and combinations of these,
all of which are here assumed to preserve distance and angles (and therefore shapes generally). Reflections and
rotations each explain a particular type of symmetry, and the symmetries of an object offer insight into its
attributes—as when the reflective symmetry of an isosceles triangle assures that its base angles are congruent.

In the approach taken here, two geometric figures are defined to be congruent if there is a sequence of rigid
motions that carries one onto the other. This is the principle of superposition. For triangles, congruence means the
equality of all corresponding pairs of sides and all corresponding pairs of angles. During the middle grades, through
experiences drawing triangles from given conditions, students notice ways to specify enough measures in a
triangle to ensure that all triangles drawn with those measures are congruent. Once these triangle congruence
criteria (ASA, SAS, and SSS) are established using rigid motions, they can be used to prove theorems about
triangles, quadrilaterals, and other geometric figures.

Similarity transformations (rigid motions followed by dilations) define similarity in the same way that rigid motions
define congruence, thereby formalizing the similarity ideas of "same shape" and "scale factor" developed in the
middle grades. These transformations lead to the criterion for triangle similarity that two pairs of corresponding
angles are congruent.

The definitions of sine, cosine, and tangent for acute angles are founded on right triangles and similarity, and, with
the Pythagorean Theorem, are fundamental in many real-world and theoretical situations. The Pythagorean
Theorem is generalized to non-right triangles by the Law of Cosines. Together, the Laws of Sines and Cosines
embody the triangle congruence criteria for the cases where three pieces of information suffice to completely
solve a triangle. Furthermore, these laws yield two possible solutions in the ambiguous case, illustrating that Side-
Side-Angle is not a congruence criterion.

Analytic geometry connects algebra and geometry, resulting in powerful methods of analysis and problem solving.
Just as the number line associates numbers with locations in one dimension, a pair of perpendicular axes
associates pairs of numbers with locations in two dimensions. This correspondence between numerical
coordinates and geometric points allows methods from algebra to be applied to geometry and vice versa. The
solution set of an equation becomes a geometric curve, making visualization a tool for doing and understanding
algebra. Geometric shapes can be described by equations, making algebraic manipulation into a tool for geometric
understanding, modeling, and proof. Geometric transformations of the graphs of equations correspond to
algebraic changes in their equations.

Dynamic geometry environments provide students with experimental and modeling tools that allow them to
investigate geometric phenomena in much the same way as computer algebra systems allow them to experiment
with algebraic phenomena.

Connections to Equations. The correspondence between numerical coordinates and geometric points allows
methods from algebra to be applied to geometry and vice versa. The solution set of an equation becomes a
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geometric curve, making visualization a tool for doing and understanding algebra. Geometric shapes can be
described by equations, making algebraic manipulation into a tool for geometric understanding, modeling, and
proof.

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Geometry Overview
Congruence Mathematical Practices
 Experiment with transformations in the plane
1. Make sense of problems and
 Understand congruence in terms of rigid motions
persevere in solving them.
 Prove geometric theorems
 Make geometric constructions 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
3. Construct viable arguments and
critique the reasoning of others.
Similarity, Right Triangles, and Trigonometry
 Understand similarity in terms of similarity 4. Model with mathematics.
transformations 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
 Prove theorems involving similarity
6. Attend to precision.
 Define trigonometric ratios and solve problems
involving right triangles 7. Look for and make use of structure.
 Apply trigonometry to general triangles
8. Look for and express regularity in
repeated reasoning.

Circles
 Understand and apply theorems about circles
 Find arc lengths and areas of sectors of circles

Expressing Geometric Properties with Equations

 Translate between the geometric description and
the equation for a conic section
 Use coordinates to prove simple geometric theorems
algebraically

Geometric Measurement and Dimension

 Explain volume formulas and use them to
solve problems
 Visualize relationships between two-dimensional
and three-dimensional objects

Modeling with Geometry

 Apply geometric concepts in modeling situations
 (IA) Use diagrams consisting of vertices and edges (vertex-edge graphs) to model and solve problems
related to networks.

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Congruence G-CO
Experiment with transformations in the plane (G-CO.A)
1. Know precise definitions of angle, circle, perpendicular line, parallel line, and line
segment, based on the undefined notions of point, line, distance along a line, and
distance around a circular arc. (G-CO.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Represent transformations in the plane using, e.g., transparencies and geometry
software; describe transformations as functions that take points in the plane as inputs
and give other points as outputs. Compare transformations that preserve distance and
angle to those that do not (e.g., translation versus horizontal stretch). (G-CO.A.2) (DOK
1,2)
3. Given a rectangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, or regular polygon, describe the rotations
and reflections that carry it onto itself. (G-CO.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Develop definitions of rotations, reflections, and translations in terms of angles, circles,
perpendicular lines, parallel lines, and line segments. (G-CO.A.4) (DOK 2)
5. Given a geometric figure and a rotation, reflection, or translation, draw the transformed
figure using, e.g., graph paper, tracing paper, or geometry software. Specify a sequence
of transformations that will carry a given figure onto another. (G-CO.A.5) (DOK 1,2)

Understand congruence in terms of rigid motions (G-CO.B)

6. Use geometric descriptions of rigid motions to transform figures and to predict the
effect of a given rigid motion on a given figure; given two figures, use the definition of
congruence in terms of rigid motions to decide if they are congruent. (G-CO.B.6) (DOK
1,2)
7. Use the definition of congruence in terms of rigid motions to show that two triangles
are congruent if and only if corresponding pairs of sides and corresponding pairs of
angles are congruent. (G-CO.B.7) (DOK 2,3)
8. Explain how the criteria for triangle congruence (ASA, SAS, and SSS) follow from the
definition of congruence in terms of rigid motions. (G-CO.B.8) (DOK 2,3)

Prove geometric theorems (G-CO.C)

9. Prove theorems about lines and angles. Theorems include: vertical angles are
congruent; when a transversal crosses parallel lines, alternate interior angles are
congruent and corresponding angles are congruent; points on a perpendicular bisector
of a line segment are exactly those equidistant from the segment’s endpoints. (G-
CO.C.9) (DOK 3)
10. Prove theorems about triangles. Theorems include: measures of interior angles of a
triangle sum to 180°; base angles of isosceles triangles are congruent; the segment
joining midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half the
length; the medians of a triangle meet at a point. (G-CO.C.10) (DOK 3)
11. Prove theorems about parallelograms. Theorems include: opposite sides are congruent,
opposite angles are congruent, the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, and
conversely, rectangles are parallelograms with congruent diagonals. (G-CO.C.11) (DOK
3)

Make geometric constructions (G-CO.D)

12. Make formal geometric constructions with a variety of tools and methods (compass and
straightedge, string, reflective devices, paper folding, dynamic geometric software,
etc.). Copying a segment; copying an angle; bisecting a segment; bisecting an angle;
constructing perpendicular lines, including the perpendicular bisector of a line segment;
and constructing a line parallel to a given line through a point not on the line. (G-
CO.D.12) (DOK 2)
13. Construct an equilateral triangle, a square, and a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle.
(G-CO.D.13) (DOK 2)

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Similarity, Right Triangles, and Trigonometry G-SRT
Understand similarity in terms of similarity transformations (G-SRT.A)
1. Verify experimentally the properties of dilations given by a center and a scale factor:
a. A dilation takes a line not passing through the center of the dilation to a
parallel line, and leaves a line passing through the center unchanged.
b. The dilation of a line segment is longer or shorter in the ratio given by the scale
factor. (G-SRT.A.1) (DOK 2)
2. Given two figures, use the definition of similarity in terms of similarity transformations
to decide if they are similar; explain using similarity transformations the meaning of
similarity for triangles as the equality of all corresponding pairs of angles and the
proportionality of all corresponding pairs of sides. (G-SRT.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Use the properties of similarity transformations to establish the AA criterion for two
triangles to be similar. (G-SRT.A.3) (DOK 2,3)

Prove theorems involving similarity (G-SRT.B)

4. Prove theorems about triangles. Theorems include: a line parallel to one side of a
triangle divides the other two proportionally, and conversely; the Pythagorean Theorem
proved using triangle similarity. (G-SRT.B.4) (DOK 3)
5. Use congruence and similarity criteria for triangles to solve problems and to prove
relationships in geometric figures. (G-SRT.B.5) (DOK 1,2,3)

Define trigonometric ratios and solve problems involving right triangles (G-SRT.C)
6. Understand that by similarity, side ratios in right triangles are properties of the angles in
the triangle, leading to definitions of trigonometric ratios for acute angles. (G-SRT.C.6)
(DOK 1,2)
7. Explain and use the relationship between the sine and cosine of complementary angles.
(G-SRT.C.7) (DOK 1,2)
8. Use trigonometric ratios and the Pythagorean Theorem to solve right triangles in
applied problems.★ (G-SRT.C.8) (DOK 1,2)

Apply trigonometry to general triangles (G-SRT.D)

9. (+) Derive the formula A = 1/2 ab sin(C) for the area of a triangle by drawing an auxiliary
line from a vertex perpendicular to the opposite side. (G-SRT.D.9) (DOK 2,3)
10. (+) Prove the Laws of Sines and Cosines and use them to solve problems. (G-SRT.D.10)
(DOK 1,2,3)
11. (+) Understand and apply the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines to find unknown
measurements in right and non-right triangles (e.g., surveying problems, resultant
forces). (G-SRT.D.11) (DOK 1,2)

Circles G-C
Understand and apply theorems about circles (G-C.A)
1. Prove that all circles are similar. (G-C.A.1) (DOK 3)
2. Identify and describe relationships among inscribed angles, radii, and chords. Include
the relationship between central, inscribed, and circumscribed angles; inscribed angles
on a diameter are right angles; the radius of a circle is perpendicular to the tangent
where the radius intersects the circle. (G-C.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Construct the inscribed and circumscribed circles of a triangle, and prove properties of
angles for a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle. (G-C.A.3) (DOK 2,3)
4. (+) Construct a tangent line from a point outside a given circle to the circle. (G-C.A.4)
(DOK 2)

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Find arc lengths and areas of sectors of circles (G-C.B)
5. Derive using similarity the fact that the length of the arc intercepted by an angle is
proportional to the radius, and define the radian measure of the angle as the constant
of proportionality; derive the formula for the area of a sector. (G-C.B.5) (DOK 1,2,3)

Expressing Geometric Properties with Equations G-GPE

Translate between the geometric description and the equation for a conic section (G-GPE.A)
1. Derive the equation of a circle of given center and radius using the Pythagorean
Theorem; complete the square to find the center and radius of a circle given by an
equation. (G-GPE.A.1) (DOK 1,2,3)
2. Derive the equation of a parabola given a focus and directrix. (G-GPE.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. (+) Derive the equations of ellipses and hyperbolas given the foci, using the fact that the
sum or difference of distances from the foci is constant. (G-GPE.A.3) (DOK 1,2)

Use coordinates to prove simple geometric theorems algebraically (G-GPE.B)

4. Use coordinates to prove simple geometric theorems algebraically. For example, prove
or disprove that a figure defined by four given points in the coordinate plane is a
rectangle; prove or disprove that the point (1, √3) lies on the circle centered at the origin
and containing the point (0, 2). (G-GPE.B.4) (DOK 3)
5. Prove the slope criteria for parallel and perpendicular lines and use them to solve
geometric problems (e.g., find the equation of a line parallel or perpendicular to a given
line that passes through a given point). (G-GPE.B.5) (DOK 1,2)
6. Find the point on a directed line segment between two given points that partitions the
segment in a given ratio. (G-GPE.B.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. Use coordinates to compute perimeters of polygons and areas of triangles and
rectangles, e.g., using the distance formula.★ (G-GPE.B.7) (DOK 1,2)

Geometric Measurement and Dimension G-GMD

Explain volume formulas and use them to solve problems (G-GMD.A)
1. Give an informal argument for the formulas for the circumference of a circle, area of a
circle, volume of a cylinder, pyramid, and cone. Use dissection arguments, Cavalieri’s
principle, and informal limit arguments. (G-GMD.A.1) (DOK 2,3)
2. (+) Give an informal argument using Cavalieri’s principle for the formulas for the volume
of a sphere and other solid figures. (G-GMD.A.2) (DOK 2,3)
3. Use volume formulas for cylinders, pyramids, cones, and spheres to solve problems. ★
(G-GMD.A.3) (DOK 1,2)

Visualize relationships between two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects (G-GMD.B)

IA.7.Plot points in three-dimensions. (DOK 1)
4. Identify the shapes of two-dimensional cross-sections of three-dimensional objects, and
identify three-dimensional objects generated by rotations of two-dimensional objects.
(G-GMD.B.4) (DOK 1,2)

Modeling with Geometry G-MG

Apply geometric concepts in modeling situations (G-MG.A)
1. Use geometric shapes, their measures, and their properties to describe objects (e.g.,
modeling a tree trunk or a human torso as a cylinder).★ (G-MG.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Apply concepts of density based on area and volume in modeling situations (e.g.,
persons per square mile, BTUs per cubic foot).★ (G-MG.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Apply geometric methods to solve design problems (e.g., designing an object or
structure to satisfy physical constraints or minimize cost; working with typographic grid
systems based on ratios).★ (G-MG.A.3) (DOK 2,3,4)

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(IA) Use diagrams consisting of vertices and edges (vertex-edge graphs) to model and solve
problems related to networks.
IA.8.Understand, analyze, evaluate, and apply vertex-edge graphs to model and solve
problems related to paths, circuits, networks, and relationships among a finite number
of elements, in real-world and abstract settings.★ (DOK 2,3)
IA.9.Model and solve problems using at least two of the following fundamental graph topics
and models: Euler paths and circuits, Hamilton paths and circuits, the traveling
salesman problem (TSP), minimum spanning trees, critical paths, vertex coloring. ★
(DOK 2,3)
IA.10.Compare and contrast vertex-edge graph topics and models in terms of:★ (DOK 2,3)
 properties
 algorithms
 optimization
 types of problems that can be solved

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Mathematics | High School— Statistics and Probability★
Decisions or predictions are often based on data—numbers in context. These decisions or predictions would be
easy if the data always sent a clear message, but the message is often obscured by variability. Statistics provides
tools for describing variability in data and for making informed decisions that take it into account.

Data are gathered, displayed, summarized, examined, and interpreted to discover patterns and deviations from
patterns. Quantitative data can be described in terms of key characteristics: measures of shape, center, and
spread. The shape of a data distribution might be described as symmetric, skewed, flat, or bell shaped, and it might
be summarized by a statistic measuring center (such as mean or median) and a statistic measuring spread (such as
standard deviation or interquartile range). Different distributions can be compared numerically using these
statistics or compared visually using plots. Knowledge of center and spread are not enough to describe a
distribution. Which statistics to compare, which plots to use, and what the results of a comparison might mean,
depend on the question to be investigated and the real-life actions to be taken.

Randomization has two important uses in drawing statistical conclusions. First, collecting data from a random
sample of a population makes it possible to draw valid conclusions about the whole population, taking variability
into account. Second, randomly assigning individuals to different treatments allows a fair comparison of the
effectiveness of those treatments. A statistically significant outcome is one that is unlikely to be due to chance
alone, and this can be evaluated only under the condition of randomness. The conditions under which data are
collected are important in drawing conclusions from the data; in critically reviewing uses of statistics in public
media and other reports, it is important to consider the study design, how the data were gathered, and the
analyses employed as well as the data summaries and the conclusions drawn.

Random processes can be described mathematically by using a probability model: a list or description of the
possible outcomes (the sample space), each of which is assigned a probability. In situations such as flipping a coin,
rolling a number cube, or drawing a card, it might be reasonable to assume various outcomes are equally likely. In
a probability model, sample points represent outcomes and combine to make up events; probabilities of events
can be computed by applying the Addition and Multiplication Rules. Interpreting these probabilities relies on an
understanding of independence and conditional probability, which can be approached through the analysis of two-
way tables.

Technology plays an important role in statistics and probability by making it possible to generate plots, regression
functions, and correlation coefficients, and to simulate many possible outcomes in a short amount of time.

Connections to Functions and Modeling. Functions may be used to describe data; if the data suggest a linear
relationship, the relationship can be modeled with a regression line, and its strength and direction can be
expressed through a correlation coefficient.

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Statistics and Probability Overview
Mathematical Practices
Interpreting Categorical and Quantitative Data
 Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single 1. Make sense of problems and
count or measurement variable persevere in solving them.
 Summarize, represent, and interpret data on two
categorical and quantitative variables 2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
 Interpret linear models 3. Construct viable arguments and
critique the reasoning of others.
4. Model with mathematics.
Making Inferences and Justifying Conclusions
 Understand and evaluate random processes underlying 5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
statistical experiments 6. Attend to precision.
 Make inferences and justify conclusions from sample
surveys, experiments and observational studies 7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in
repeated reasoning.
Conditional Probability and the Rules of Probability
 Understand independence and conditional probability
and use them to interpret data
 Use the rules of probability to compute probabilities of
compound events in a uniform probability model

Using Probability to Make Decisions

 Calculate expected values and use them to solve
problems
 Use probability to evaluate outcomes of decisions

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Interpreting Categorical and Quantitative Data S-ID
Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single count or measurement variable (S-ID.A)
1. Represent data with plots on the real number line (dot plots, histograms, and box plots).
(S-ID.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Use statistics appropriate to the shape of the data distribution to compare center
(median, mean) and spread (interquartile range, standard deviation) of two or more
different data sets. (S-ID.A.2) (DOK 1,2)
3. Interpret differences in shape, center, and spread in the context of the data sets,
accounting for possible effects of extreme data points (outliers). (S-ID.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Use the mean and standard deviation of a data set to fit it to a normal distribution and
to estimate population percentages. Recognize that there are data sets for which such a
procedure is not appropriate. Use calculators, spreadsheets, and tables to estimate
areas under the normal curve. (S-ID.A.4) (DOK 1,2)

Summarize, represent, and interpret data on two categorical and quantitative variables (S-
ID.B)
5. Summarize categorical data for two categories in two-way frequency tables. Interpret
relative frequencies in the context of the data (including joint, marginal, and conditional
relative frequencies). Recognize possible associations and trends in the data. (S-ID.B.5)
(DOK 1,2)
6. Represent data on two quantitative variables on a scatter plot, and describe how the
variables are related.
a. Fit a function to the data; use functions fitted to data to solve problems in the
context of the data. Use given functions or choose a function suggested by the
context. Emphasize linear, quadratic, and exponential models.
b. Informally assess the fit of a function by plotting and analyzing residuals.
c. Fit a linear function for a scatter plot that suggests a linear association. (S-
ID.B.6) (DOK 1,2)

Interpret linear models (S-ID.C)

7. Interpret the slope (rate of change) and the intercept (constant term) of a linear model
in the context of the data. (S-ID.C.7) (DOK 1,2)
8. Compute (using technology) and interpret the correlation coefficient of a linear fit.
(S-ID.C.8) (DOK 1,2)
9. Distinguish between correlation and causation. (S-ID.C.9) (DOK 1,2)

Making Inferences and Justifying Conclusions S-IC

Understand and evaluate random processes underlying statistical experiments (S-IC.A)
1. Understand statistics as a process for making inferences about population parameters
based on a random sample from that population. (S-IC.A.1) (DOK 1)
2. Decide if a specified model is consistent with results from a given data-generating
process, e.g., using simulation. For example, a model says a spinning coin falls heads up
with probability 0.5. Would a result of 5 tails in a row cause you to question the model?
(S-IC.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

Make inferences and justify conclusions from sample surveys, experiments, and observational
studies
3. Recognize the purposes of and differences among sample surveys, experiments, and
observational studies; explain how randomization relates to each. (S-IC.B.3) (DOK 1,2)

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 4. Use data from a sample survey to estimate a population mean or proportion; develop a
margin of error through the use of simulation models for random sampling. (S-IC.B.4)
(DOK 2)
5. Use data from a randomized experiment to compare two treatments; use simulations to
decide if differences between parameters are significant. (S-IC.B.5) (DOK 2,3)
6. Evaluate reports based on data. (S-IC.B.6) (DOK 2,3)

Conditional Probability and the Rules of Probability S-CP

Understand independence and conditional probability and use them to interpret data (S-CP.A)
1. Describe events as subsets of a sample space (the set of outcomes) using characteristics
(or categories) of the outcomes, or as unions, intersections, or complements of other
events ("or," "and," "not") (S-CP.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. Understand that two events A and B are independent if the probability of A and B
occurring together is the product of their probabilities, and use this characterization to
determine if they are independent. (S-CP.A.2) (DOK 1)
3. Understand the conditional probability of A given B as P(A and B)/P(B), and interpret
independence of A and B as saying that the conditional probability of A given B is the
same as the probability of A, and the conditional probability of B given A is the same as
the probability of B. (S-CP.A.3) (DOK 1,2)
4. Construct and interpret two-way frequency tables of data when two categories are
associated with each object being classified. Use the two-way table as a sample space to
decide if events are independent and to approximate conditional probabilities. For
example, collect data from a random sample of students in your school on their favorite
subject among math, science, and English. Estimate the probability that a randomly
selected student from your school will favor science given that the student is in tenth
grade. Do the same for other subjects and compare the results. (S-CP.A.4) (DOK 1,2)
5. Recognize and explain the concepts of conditional probability and independence in
everyday language and everyday situations. For example, compare the chance of having
lung cancer if you are a smoker with the chance of being a smoker if you have lung
cancer. (S-CP.A.5) (DOK 1,2,3)

Use the rules of probability to compute probabilities of compound events in a uniform

probability model (S-CP.B)
6. Find the conditional probability of A given B as the fraction of B's outcomes that also
belong to A, and interpret the answer in terms of the model. (S-CP.B.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. Apply the Addition Rule, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B), and interpret the answer in
terms of the model. (S-CP.B.7) (DOK 1,2)
8. (+) Apply the general Multiplication Rule in a uniform probability model, P(A and B) =
P(A)P(B|A) = P(B)P(A|B), and interpret the answer in terms of the model. (S-CP.B.8)
(DOK 1,2)
9. (+) Use permutations and combinations to compute probabilities of compound events
and solve problems. (S-CP.B.9) (DOK 1,2)

Using Probability to Make Decisions S-MD

Calculate expected values and use them to solve problems (S-MD.A)
1. (+) Define a random variable for a quantity of interest by assigning a numerical value to
each event in a sample space; graph the corresponding probability distribution using the
same graphical displays as for data distributions. (S-MD.A.1) (DOK 1,2)
2. (+) Calculate the expected value of a random variable; interpret it as the mean of the
probability distribution. (S-MD.A.2) (DOK 1,2)

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 3. (+) Develop a probability distribution for a random variable defined for a sample space
in which theoretical probabilities can be calculated; find the expected value. For
example, find the theoretical probability distribution for the number of correct answers
obtained by guessing on all five questions of a multiple-choice test where each question
has four choices, and find the expected grade under various grading schemes. (S-
MD.A.3.) (DOK 1,2,3)
4. (+) Develop a probability distribution for a random variable defined for a sample space
in which probabilities are assigned empirically; find the expected value. For example,
find a current data distribution on the number of TV sets per household in the United
States, and calculate the expected number of sets per household. How many TV sets
would you expect to find in 100 randomly selected households? (S-MD.A.4.) (DOK 1,2,3)

Use probability to evaluate outcomes of decisions (S-MD.B)

5. (+) Weigh the possible outcomes of a decision by assigning probabilities to payoff values
and finding expected values.
a. Find the expected payoff for a game of chance. For example, find the expected
winnings from a state lottery ticket or a game at a fast-food restaurant.
b. Evaluate and compare strategies on the basis of expected values. For example,
compare a high-deductible versus a low-deductible automobile insurance policy
using various, but reasonable, chances of having a minor or a major accident.
(S-MD.B.5) (DOK 1,2,3)
6. (+) Use probabilities to make fair decisions (e.g., drawing by lots, using a random
number generator). (S-MD.B.6) (DOK 1,2)
7. Analyze decisions and strategies using probability concepts (e.g., product testing,
medical testing, pulling a hockey goalie at the end of a game). (S-MD.B.7) (DOK 2,3)

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Note on courses and transitions
The high school portion of the Standards for Mathematical Content specifies the mathematics all students should
study for college and career readiness. These standards do not mandate the sequence of high school courses.
However, the organization of high school courses is a critical component to implementation of the standards. To
that end, sample high school pathways for mathematics – in both a traditional course sequence (Algebra I,
Geometry, and Algebra II) as well as an integrated course sequence (Mathematics 1, Mathematics 2, Mathematics
3) – will be made available shortly after the release of the final Common Core State Standards. It is expected that
additional model pathways based on these standards will become available as well.

The standards themselves do not dictate curriculum, pedagogy, or delivery of content. In particular, states may
handle the transition to high school in different ways. For example, many students in the U.S. today take Algebra I
in the 8th grade, and in some states this is a requirement. The K-7 standards contain the prerequisites to prepare
students for Algebra I by 8th grade, and the standards are designed to permit states to continue existing policies
concerning Algebra I in 8th grade.

A second major transition is the transition from high school to post-secondary education for college and careers.
The evidence concerning college and career readiness shows clearly that the knowledge, skills, and practices
important for readiness include a great deal of mathematics prior to the boundary defined by (+) symbols in these
standards. Indeed, some of the highest priority content for college and career readiness comes from Grades 6-8.
This body of material includes powerfully useful proficiencies such as applying ratio reasoning in real-world and
mathematical problems, computing fluently with positive and negative fractions and decimals, and solving real-
world and mathematical problems involving angle measure, area, surface area, and volume. Because important
standards for college and career readiness are distributed across grades and courses, systems for evaluating
college and career readiness should reach as far back in the standards as Grades 6-8. It is important to note as well
that cut scores or other information generated by assessment systems for college and career readiness should be
developed in collaboration with representatives from higher education and workforce development programs, and
should be validated by subsequent performance of students in college and the workforce.

NOTE: The link listed below goes to the Appendix A: Designing High School Mathematics Courses Based on the
Common Core State Standards document that is part of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
However, the document is not part of the Common Core Mathematics Standards that were adopted by Iowa's
State Board of Education. The pathways and courses addressed in the document are models not mandates.

http://www.corestandards.org/assets/CCSSI_Mathematics_Appendix_A.pdf

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Glossary
Addition and subtraction within 5, 10, 20, 100, or 1000. Addition or subtraction of two whole numbers with whole
number answers, and with sum or minuend in the range 0-5, 0-10, 0-20, or 0-100, respectively. Example: 8 + 2 = 10
is an addition within 10, 14 – 5 = 9 is a subtraction within 20, and 55 – 18 = 37 is a subtraction within 100.

Additive inverses. Two numbers whose sum is 0 are additive inverses of one another. Example: 3/4 and – 3/4 are
additive inverses of one another because 3/4 + (– 3/4) = (– 3/4) + 3/4 = 0.

Associative property of addition. See Table 3 in this Glossary.

Associative property of multiplication. See Table 3 in this Glossary.

Bivariate data. Pairs of linked numerical observations. Example: a list of heights and weights for each player on a
football team.

Box plot. A method of visually displaying a distribution of data values by using the median, quartiles, and extremes
of the data set. A box shows the middle 50% of the data. 1

Commutative property. See Table 3 in this Glossary.

Complex fraction. A fraction A/B where A and/or B are fractions (B nonzero).

Computation algorithm. A set of predefined steps applicable to a class of problems that gives the correct result in
every case when the steps are carried out correctly. See also: computation strategy.

Computation strategy. Purposeful manipulations that may be chosen for specific problems, may not have a fixed
order, and may be aimed at converting one problem into another. See also: computation algorithm.

Congruent. Two plane or solid figures are congruent if one can be obtained from the other by rigid motion (a
sequence of rotations, reflections, and translations).

Counting on. A strategy for finding the number of objects in a group without having to count every member of the
group. For example, if a stack of books is known to have 8 books and 3 more books are added to the top, it is not
necessary to count the stack all over again. One can find the total by counting on—pointing to the top book and
saying “eight,” following this with “nine, ten, eleven. There are eleven books now.”

Dot plot. See: line plot.

Dilation. A transformation that moves each point along the ray through the point emanating from a fixed center,
and multiplies distances from the center by a common scale factor.

Expanded form. A multi-digit number is expressed in expanded form when it is written as a sum of single-digit
multiples of powers of ten. For example, 643 = 600 + 40 + 3.

Expected value. For a random variable, the weighted average of its possible values, with weights given by their
respective probabilities.

1
Adapted from Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, http://dpi.wi.gov/standards/mathglos.html, accessed
March 2, 2010.
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First quartile. For a data set with median M, the first quartile is the median of the data values less than M.
Example: For the data set {1, 3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 22, 120}, the first quartile is 6. See also: median, third quartile,
interquartile range.2

Fraction. A number expressible in the form a/b where a is a whole number and b is a positive whole number. (The
word fraction in these standards always refers to a non-negative number.) See also: rational number.

Identity property of 0. See Table 3 in this Glossary.

Independently combined probability models. Two probability models are said to be combined independently if
the probability of each ordered pair in the combined model equals the product of the original probabilities of the
two individual outcomes in the ordered pair.

Integer. A number expressible in the form a or –a for some whole number a.

Interquartile Range. A measure of variation in a set of numerical data, the interquartile range is the distance
between the first and third quartiles of the data set. Example: For the data set {1, 3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 22, 120},
the interquartile range is 15 – 6 = 9. See also: first quartile, third quartile.

Line plot. A method of visually displaying a distribution of data values where each data value is shown as a dot or
mark above a number line. Also known as a dot plot.3

Mathematics of Information Processing and the Internet (IA). The Internet is everywhere in modern life. To be
informed consumers and citizens in the information-dense modern world permeated by the Internet, students
should have a basic mathematical understanding of some of the issues of information processing on the Internet.
For example, when making an online purchase, mathematics is used to help you find what you want, encrypt your
credit card number so that you can safely buy it, send your order accurately to the vendor, and, if your order is
immediately downloaded, as when purchasing software, music, or video, ensure that your download occurs
quickly and error-free. Essential topics related to these aspects of information processing are basic set theory,
logic, and modular arithmetic. These topics are not only fundamental to information processing on the Internet,
but they are also important mathematical topics in their own right with applications in many other areas.

Mathematics of Voting (IA). The instant-runoff voting (IRV), the Borda method (assigning points for preferences),
and the Condorcet method (in which each pair of candidates is run off head to head) are all forms of preferential
voting (rank according to your preferences, rather than just voting for your single favorite candidate).

Mean. A measure of center in a set of numerical data, computed by adding the values in a list and then dividing by
the number of values in the list.4 Example: For the data set {1, 3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 22, 120}, the mean is 21.

Mean absolute deviation. A measure of variation in a set of numerical data, computed by adding the distances
between each data value and the mean, then dividing by the number of data values. Example: For the data set
{2,3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 22, 120}, the mean absolute deviation is 20.

Median. A measure of center in a set of numerical data. The median of a list of values is the value appearing at the
center of a sorted version of the list—or the mean of the two central values, if the list contains an even number of
values. Example: For the data set {2,3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 22, 90}, the median is 11.

Midline. In the graph of a trigonometric function, the horizontal line halfway between its maximum and minimum
values.

Multiplication and division within 100. Multiplication or division of two whole numbers with whole number
answers, and with product or dividend in the range 0-100. Example: 72 ÷ 8 = 9.

2
Many different methods for computing quartiles are in use. The method defined here is sometimes called the
Moore and McCabe method. See Langford, E., "Quartiles in Elementary Statistics," Journal of Statistics Education
Volume 14, Number 3 (2006).
3
Adapted from Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, op. cit.
4
To be more precise, this defines the arithmetic mean.
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Multiplicative inverses. Two numbers whose product is 1 are multiplicative inverses of one another. Example: 3/4
and 4/3 are multiplicative inverses of one another because 3/4 × 4/3 = 4/3 × 3/4 = 1.

Number line diagram. A diagram of the number line used to represent numbers and support reasoning about
them. In a number line diagram for measurement quantities, the interval from 0 to 1 on the diagram represents
the unit of measure for the quantity.

Percent rate of change. A rate of change expressed as a percent. Example: if a population grows from 50 to 55 in a
year, it grows by 5/50 = 10% per year.

Probability distribution. The set of possible values of a random variable with a probability assigned to each.

Properties of operations. See Table 3 in this Glossary.

Properties of equality. See Table 4 in this Glossary.

Properties of inequality. See Table 5 in this Glossary.

Properties of operations. See Table 3 in this Glossary.

Probability. A number between 0 and 1 used to quantify likelihood for processes that have uncertain outcomes
(such as tossing a coin, selecting a person at random from a group of people, tossing a ball at a target, or testing
for a medical condition).

Probability model. A probability model is used to assign probabilities to outcomes of a chance process by
examining the nature of the process. The set of all outcomes is called the sample space, and their probabilities sum
to 1. See also: uniform probability model.

Random variable. An assignment of a numerical value to each outcome in a sample space.

Rational expression. A quotient of two polynomials with a non-zero denominator.

Rational number. A number expressible in the form a/b or – a/b for some fraction a/b. The rational numbers
include the integers.

Rectilinear figure. A polygon all angles of which are right angles.

Rigid motion. A transformation of points in space consisting of a sequence of one or more translations, reflections,
and/or rotations. Rigid motions are here assumed to preserve distances and angle measures.

Repeating decimal. The decimal form of a rational number. See also: terminating decimal.

Sample space. In a probability model for a random process, a list of the individual outcomes that are to be
considered.

Scatter plot. A graph in the coordinate plane representing a set of bivariate data. For example, the heights and
weights of a group of people could be displayed on a scatter plot.5

Similarity transformation. A rigid motion followed by a dilation.

Tape diagram. A drawing that looks like a segment of tape, used to illustrate number relationships. Also known as
a strip diagram, bar model, fraction strip, or length model.

Terminating decimal. A decimal is called terminating if its repeating digit is 0.

5
Adapted from Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, op. cit.

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Third quartile. For a data set with median M, the third quartile is the median of the data values greater than M.
Example: For the data set {2,3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 22, 120}, the third quartile is 15. See also: median, first quartile,
interquartile range.

Transitivity principle for indirect measurement. If the length of object A is greater than the length of object B, and
the length of object B is greater than the length of object C, then the length of object A is greater than the length
of object C. This principle applies to measurement of other quantities as well.

Uniform probability model. A probability model which assigns equal probability to all outcomes. See also:
probability model.

Vector. A quantity with magnitude and direction in the plane or in space, defined by an ordered pair or triple of
real numbers.

Vertex-Edge Graphs (IA). Vertex-edge graphs are diagrams consisting of vertices (points) and edges (line segments
or arcs) connecting some of the vertices. Vertex-edge graphs are also sometimes called networks, discrete graphs,
or finite graphs. A vertex-edge graph shows relationships and connections among objects, such as in a road
network, a telecommunications network, or a family tree. Within the context of school geometry, which is
fundamentally the study of shape, vertex-edge graphs represent, in a sense, the situation of no shape. That is,
vertex-edge graphs are geometric models consisting of vertices and edges in which shape is not essential, only the
connections among vertices are essential. These graphs are widely used in business and industry to solve problems
about networks, paths, and relationships among a finite number of objects – such as, analyzing a computer
network; optimizing the route used for snowplowing, collecting garbage, or visiting business clients; scheduling
committee meetings to avoid conflicts; or planning a large construction project to finish on time.

Visual fraction model. A tape diagram, number line diagram, or area model.

Whole numbers. The numbers 0, 1, 2,3, ….

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Table 1. Common addition and subtraction situations.6

Result Unknown Change Unknown Start Unknown

Two bunnies sat on the Two bunnies were sitting Some bunnies were sitting
grass. Three more bunnies on the grass. Some more on the grass. Three more
hopped there. How many bunnies hopped there. bunnies hopped there.
bunnies are on the grass Then there were five Then there were five
Add to
now? bunnies. How many bunnies. How many
2+3=? bunnies hopped over to bunnies were on the grass
the first two? before?
2+?=5 ?+3=5
Five apples were on the Five apples were on the Some apples were on the
table. I ate two apples. table. I ate some apples. table. I ate two apples.
How many apples are on Then there were three Then there were three
Take from
the table now? apples. How many apples apples. How many apples
5–2=? did I eat? were on the table before?
5–?=3 ?–2=3
Total Unknown Addend Unknown Both Addends Unknown1
Three red apples and two Five apples are on the Grandma has five flowers.
green apples are on the table. Three are red and How many can she put in
table. How many apples the rest are green. How her red vase and how
Put Together/
are on the table? many apples are green? many in her blue vase?
Take Apart2
3+2=? 3 + ? = 5, 5 – 3 = ? 5 = 0 + 5, 5 = 5 + 0
5 = 1 + 4, 5 = 4 + 1
5 = 2 + 3, 5 = 3 + 2
Difference Unknown Bigger Unknown Smaller Unknown
("How many more?" (Version with "more"): (Version with "more"):
version): Lucy has two Julie has three more Julie has three more
apples. Julie has five apples than Lucy. Lucy has apples than Lucy. Julie has
apples. How many more two apples. How many five apples. How many
apples does Julie have apples does Julie have? apples does Lucy have?
than Lucy?
(Version with "fewer"): (Version with "fewer"):
Compare3
("How many fewer?" Lucy has 3 fewer apples Lucy has 3 fewer apples
version): Lucy has two than Julie. Lucy has two than Julie. Julie has five
apples. Julie has five apples. How many apples apples. How many apples
apples. How many fewer does Julie have? does Lucy have?
apples does Lucy have 2 + 3 = ?, 3 + 2 = ? 5 – 3 = ?, ? + 3 = 5
than Julie?
2 + ? = 5, 5 – 2 = ?
1
These take apart situations can be used to show all the decompositions of a given number. The associated
equations, which have the total on the left of the equal sign, help children understand that the = sign does not
always mean makes or results in but always does mean is the same number as.
2
Either addend can be unknown, so there are three variations of these problem situations. Both Addends Unknown
is a productive extension of this basic situation, especially for small numbers less than or equal to 10.
3
For the Bigger Unknown or Smaller Unknown situations, one version directs the correct operation (the version
using more for the bigger unknown and using less for the smaller unknown). The other versions are more difficult.

6
Adapted from Box 2-4 of Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood, National Research Council (2009, pp. 32,33).

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Table 2. Common multiplication and division situations.7

Unknown Product Group Size Unknown Number of Groups Unknown

("How many in each group?" ("How many groups?" Division)
Division)
3×6=? 3 × ? = 18, and 18 ÷ 3 = ? ? × 6 = 18, and 18 ÷ 6 = ?
There are 3 bags with 6 If 18 plums are shared equally If 18 plums are to be packed 6 to a
plums in each bag. How into 3 bags, then how many bag, then how many bags are
many plums are there in all? plums will be in each bag? needed?
Equal
Measurement example. You Measurement example. You Measurement example. You have
Groups
need 3 lengths of string, have 18 inches of string, which 18 inches of string, which you will
each 6 inches long. How you will cut into 3 equal pieces. cut into pieces that are 6 inches
much string will you need How long will each piece of long. How many pieces of string
altogether? string be? will you have?
There are 3 rows of apples If 18 apples are arranged into 3 If 18 apples are arranged into
with 6 apples in each row. equal rows, how many apples equal rows of 6 apples, how many
How many apples are there? will be in each row? rows will there be?
Arrays,4
Area5 Area example. What is the Area example. A rectangle has Area example. A rectangle has
area of a 3 cm by 6 cm area 18 square centimeters. If area 18 square centimeters. If one
rectangle? one side is 3 cm long, how long side is 6 cm long, how long
is a side next to it? is a side next to it?
A blue hat costs $6. A red A red hat costs $18 and that is A red hat costs $18 and a blue hat
hat costs 3 times as much as 3 times as much as a blue hat costs $6. How many times as much
the blue hat. How much costs. How much does a blue does the red hat cost as the blue
does the red hat cost? hat cost? hat?

Compare Measurement example. A Measurement example. A Measurement example. A rubber

rubber band is 6 cm long. rubber band is stretched to be band was 6 cm long at first. Now it
How long will the rubber 18 cm long and that is 3 times is stretched to be 18 cm long. How
band be when it is stretched as long as it was at first. How many times as long is the rubber
to be 3 times as long? long was the rubber band at band now as it was at first?
first?
General a×b=? a × ? = p, and p ÷ a = ? ? × b = p, and p ÷ b = ?
4
The language in the array examples shows the easiest form of array problems. A harder form is to use the terms
rows and columns: The apples in the grocery window are in 3 rows and 6 columns. How many apples are in
there? Both forms are valuable.
5
Area involves arrays of squares that have been pushed together so that there are no gaps or overlaps, so array
problems include these especially important measurement situations.

7
The first examples in each cell are examples of discrete things. These are easier for students and should be given
before the measurement examples.
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Table 3. The properties of operations. Here a, b and c stand for arbitrary numbers in a given number system. The
properties of operations apply to the rational number system, the real number system, and the complex number
system.

Associative property of addition (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

Commutative property of addition a+b=b+a
Additive identity property of 0 a+0=0+a=a
Existence of additive inverses For every a there exists –a so that a + (–a) = (–a) + a = 0.
Associative property of multiplication (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
Commutative property of multiplication a×b=b×a
Multiplicative identity property of 1 a×1=1×a=a
Existence of multiplicative inverses For every a ≠ 0 there exists 1/a so that a × 1/a = 1/a × a
= 1.
Distributive property of multiplication over addition a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c

Table 4. The properties of equality. Here a, b and c stand for arbitrary numbers in the rational, real, or complex
number systems.

Reflexive property of equality a=a

Symmetric property of equality If a = b, then b = a.
Transitive property of equality If a = b and b = c, then a = c.
Addition property of equality If a = b, then a + c = b + c.
Subtraction property of equality If a = b, then a – c = b – c.
Multiplication property of equality If a = b, then a × c = b × c.
Division property of equality If a = b and c ≠ 0, then a ÷ c = b ÷ c.
Substitution property of equality If a = b, then b may be substituted for a
in any expression containing a.

Table 5. The properties of inequality. Here a, b and c stand for arbitrary numbers in the rational or real number
systems.

Exactly one of the following is true: a < b, a = b, a > b.

If a > b and b > c then a > c.
If a > b, then b < a.
If a > b, then –a < –b.
If a > b, then a ± c > b ± c.
If a > b and c > 0, then a × c > b × c.
If a > b and c < 0, then a × c < b × c.
If a > b and c > 0, then a ÷ c > b ÷ c.
If a > b and c < 0, then a ÷ c < b ÷ c.

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The Role and Importance of Cognitive Complexity

The Iowa Core Standards for Mathematics are intended to play a central role in defining what teachers teach. That
is, teachers are to align their instruction to the Standards. The Standards not only define the topical, procedural,
and conceptual knowledge students are to learn, they also define the type of cognitive processes in which students
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are to engage. This is known as cognitive demand or cognitive complexity. The practical implication of cognitive
complexity is that the Standards require teachers to provide students with instructional experiences that not only
address the topical and conceptual knowledge of the standards, but the type of thinking called for by the standards
as well. Compelling evidence suggests that when teachers align their instruction to an assessment, students
perform better on that assessment. However, the impact of alignment is only detectable when both
topical/conceptual knowledge and cognitive complexity are taken into consideration. (Gamoran, Porter, Smithson,
& White, 1997)

The Iowa Core Standards for Mathematics have been coded for cognitive complexity using Webb’s Depth of
Knowledge (DOK) approach (Webb, 2005). The DOK called for in each standard reflects the complexity of the
standard, not its difficulty. The topical/conceptual knowledge detailed in a standard will be more or less difficult
for each student, but requires a consistent level of complexity across students. The DOK of a standard describes
the type of work students are most commonly required to perform to demonstrate their attainment of the
standard. Webb’s DOK has four levels: DOK 1 = Recall, DOK 2 = Skills and Concepts, DOK 3 = Strategic Thinking, and
DOK 4 = Extended Thinking. Detailed, verbatim descriptions of each level are provided next (Webb, 2002). These
descriptions are intended to provide examples of the type of work students are expected to engage in for each
standard.

Mathematics DOK Levels

Level 1 (Recall) includes the recall of information such as a fact, definition, term, or a simple procedure, as well as
performing a simple algorithm or applying a formula. That is, in mathematics, a one-step, well defined, and straight
algorithmic procedure should be included at this lowest level. Other key words that signify Level 1 include
“identify,” “recall,” “recognize,” “use,” and “measure.” Verbs such as “describe” and “explain” could be classified
at different levels, depending on what is to be described and explained.

Level 2 (Skill/Concept) includes the engagement of some mental processing beyond an habitual response. A Level 2
assessment item requires students to make some decisions as to how to approach the problem or activity,
whereas Level 1 requires students to demonstrate a rote response, perform a well-known algorithm, follow a set
procedure (like a recipe), or perform a clearly defined series of steps. Keywords that generally distinguish a Level 2
item include “classify,” “organize,” ”estimate,” “make observations,” “collect and display data,” and “compare
data.” These actions imply more than one step. For example, to compare data requires first identifying
characteristics of objects or phenomena and then grouping or ordering the objects. Some action verbs, such as
“explain,” “describe,” or “interpret,” could be classified at different levels depending on the object of the action.
For example, interpreting information from a simple graph, or reading information from the graph, also are at
Level 2. Interpreting information from a complex graph that requires some decisions on what features of the graph
need to be considered and how information from the graph can be aggregated is at Level 3. Level 2 activities are
not limited only to number skills, but may involve visualization skills and probability skills. Other Level 2 activities
include noticing or describing non-trivial patterns, explaining the purpose and use of experimental procedures;
carrying out experimental procedures; making observations and collecting data; classifying, organizing, and
comparing data; and organizing and displaying data in tables, graphs, and charts.

Level 3 (Strategic Thinking) requires reasoning, planning, using evidence, and a higher level of thinking than the
previous two levels. In most instances, requiring students to explain their thinking is at Level 3. Activities that
require students to make conjectures are also at this level. The cognitive demands at Level 3 are complex and
abstract. The complexity does not result from the fact that there are multiple answers, a possibility for both Levels
1 and 2, but because the task requires more demanding reasoning. An activity, however, that has more than one
possible answer and requires students to justify the response they give would most likely be at Level 3.

Other Level 3 activities include drawing conclusions from observations; citing evidence and developing a logical
argument for concepts; explaining phenomena in terms of concepts; and deciding which concepts to apply in order
to solve a complex problem.
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Level 4 (Extended Thinking) requires complex reasoning, planning, developing, and thinking, most likely over an
extended period of time. The extended time period is not a distinguishing factor if the required work is only
repetitive and does not require applying significant conceptual understanding and higher-order thinking. For
example, if a student has to take the water temperature from a river each day for a month and then construct a
graph, this would be classified as a Level 2. However, if the student is to conduct a river study that requires taking
into consideration a number of variables, this would be a Level 4. At Level 4, the cognitive demands of the task
should be high and the work should be very complex. Students should be required to make several connections—
relate ideas within the content area or among content areas—and have to select one approach among many
alternatives on how the situation should be solved, in order to be at this highest level. Level 4 activities include
designing and conducting experiments and projects; developing and proving conjectures, making connections
between a finding and related concepts and phenomena; combining and synthesizing ideas into new concepts; and
critiquing experimental designs.

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