NETWORKING REVIEWER

CISCO PACKET TRACER ICON LABELS:

A. MAIN

1 2 3 4 5 6

1.Network devices;

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Routers (15)

2. Switches (9)

3. Hubs (3)

4. Wireless Device (15)

5. Security (2)

6. WAN Emulation (4)

2. End Devices;

1 2 3 4 5

1. End Devices (15)

2. Home (28)

3. Smart City (13)

4. Industrial (21)

5. Power Grid (6)

3. Components;

1 2 3

1. Boards (3)

2. Actuators ()

3. Sensors (14)

4. Connections;

1 2

1. Connections

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Automatically chose a connection type

2. Console

3. Copper Straight-Through

4. Copper Cross-Over

5. Fiber

6. Phone

7. Coaxial

8. Serial DCE

9. Serial DTE

10. Octal

11. IoT Custome Cable

12. USB

2. Structured Cabling

5. Miscellaneous (7)
6. Multiuser Connection (1)

Module 1

Single Network Set-Up

Dual Network Set-Up

Module 2

Peer-to-peer
Router CLI Config (Connecting 2 Pc’s)

Steps:

1. Type (enable) then enter

2. Type (configure terminal or conf t) then enter

3. Type (interface fastethernet0/0 or int fa0/0) then enter

4. Provide the IP address. Type (ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0) then enter

5. Type (no shutdown) to switch on the router

Do the same on for the fasethernet0/1

Steps:

1. Type (int fa0/1 or interface fastethernet0/1) then enter

2. Provide an IP address(ip address 192.168.20.1 255.255.255.0) then enter

3. Type (no shutdown) to switch on the router

Switch CLI Config (Connecting 2 PC’s)
Module 3

BASIC NETWORK CONNECTIVITY AND COMMUNICATIONS

(L-1) Networking Today

1.2 Network Components

Every computer on a network is called a host or End Devices

Types of Servers:

(Email servers ) Clients use client software to access email

(Web servers )-Clients use browser software to access web page

(File servers) -The client's devices access these files

(Peer-to-Peer) - This type of network design is only recommended for every small network
Advantage – Easy to set up; Less complex; Lower cost

Disadvantage – No centralized administration; Not as secure; Not scalable

(End Devices) - Is where a message originates from where it is received. Data originates with an
end device, flows through the network, and arrives at an end device.

(Intermediary Network Devices) - Interconnects end devices. Examples include switches,

wireless access points, routers, and firewalls.

(Network Media) - Communication across a network is carried out through a medium which
allows a message to travel from source to destination.

Media Types:

Metal wires within cables (Copper cable) – Uses electrical impulses.

Glass or plastic fibers within cables (fiber-optic cable) - Uses pulses of light

Wireless transmission (Wireless) – Uses modulation of specific frequencies of electromagnetic

waves.

1.3 Network Representations and Topologies

Network diagrams, often called topology diagrams, use symbols to represent devices within the
network.

- Network Interface Card (NIC)

- Physical port
 - Interface

End Devices:

-Desktop Computer

-Laptop

-Printer

-IP Phone

-Wireless tablet

Intermediary Devices

-Wireless Router

-LAN Switch

-Router

-Multilayer Switch

-Firewall Appliance

Network Media

-Wireless Media

-LAN Media

-WAN Media

Types of Topology Diagrams:

(Physical Topology) - Diagrams illustrate the physical location of intermediary devices and cable
installation.

(Logical Topology) - Illustrate devices, ports, and the addressing scheme of the network.

1.4 Common Types of Networks

Networks of Many Sizes:

(Small Home Networks) - Connect a few computers to each other and the internet.

(Small Office/Home Office (SOHO)) - Enables computer within a home or remote office to
connect to a corporate network.

(Medium to Large Networks) - Many locations with hundreds or thousands of interconnected

computers.
 (World wide Networks) - Connects hundreds of millions of computers world-wide – such as the
internet.

LANs and WANs:

(LAN) - is a network infrastructure that spans a small geographical area.

-Interconnected end devices in a limited area

(WAN) - is a network infrastructure that spans a wide geographical area.

-Interconnect LANs over wide geographical area.

The Internet:

(Internet) - is a worldwide collection of interconnected LANs and WANs

Groups that developed to help maintain structure on the internet:

-IETF

-ICANN

-IAB

Intranets and Extranets:

(Intranet) - A private collection of LANs and WANs internal to an organization that is meant to
be accessible only to the organization members or others with authorization.

(Extranet) - Provide secure access to their network for individuals who work for a different
organization that need access to their data on their network.

1.5 Internet Connections

Home and Small Office Internet Connections:

(Cable) - high bandwidth, always on, internet offered by cable television service providers.

(DSL) - high bandwidth, always on, internet connection that runs over a telephone line.

(Cellular) - Uses a cell phone network to connect to the internet.

(Satellite) - Major benefit to rural area without internet service providers.

(Dial-up telephone) - An expensive, low bandwidth option using a modem.

 Business Internet Connections:

(Dedicated Leased Line) - Reserved circuits within the service provider’s network that connect
distant offices with private voice and/or data networking.

(Ethernet WAN) - This extends LAN access technology into the WAN.

(DSL) - Business DSL is available in various formats including Symmetric Digital Subscribers Lines
(SDSL).

(Satellite) - This can provide a connection when a wired solution is not available.

The Converging Network:

Carries multiple services on one link including:

-Data

-Voice

-Video

1.6 Reliable Networks

(Network Architecture) - Refers to the technologies that support the infrastructure that moves data
across the network.

4 Basic Characteristics

(Fault Tolerance) - Limits the impact of failure by limiting the number of affected devices. Multiple paths
are required for fault tolerance.

(Scalability) - Can expand quickly and easily to support new users and applications without impacting
the performance of services to existing users.

(Quality of Service (QoS)) - Is the primary mechanism used to ensure reliable delivery of content for all
users.

(Network Security) - 2 types of Network Infrastructure Security and Information Security

1.7 Network Trends

Recent Trends
(Bring your own device (BYOD)) - Allows users to use their own devices giving them more opportunities
and greater flexibility. (Ex. Laptops, Netbooks, Tablets, Smartphones, E-readers).

(Online collaboration) - A very high priority for businesses and in education.

(Video Communication) - Calls are made to anyone, regardless of where they are located.

Video – Cisco WebEx for Huddles:

(Cloud Computing) - Allows us to store personal files or backup our data on servers over the internet

4 Types of Clouds:

(Public Clouds) - available to the public through a pay-per-user model or for free.

(Private Clouds) - Intended for a specific organization or entity such as the government.

(Hybrid Clouds) - Made up of two or more Cloud types – Ex. Part custom and part Public.

(Custom Clouds) - Built to meet the needs of a specific industry, such as healthcare or media. Can be
private or public.

(Powerline Networking) - Can allow devices to connect to a LAN where data network cables or wireless
communications are not a viable option.

(Wireless Broadband) - Is another solution for the home and small businesses.

1.8 Network Security

External Threats:

-Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses

-Spyware and adware

-Zero-day attacks

-Threat Actor Attacks

-Denial of service attacks

-Data interception and theft

-Identify theft

(Firewall filtering) - Used to block unauthorized access to the network

(L-2) Basic Switch and End Device Configuration

2.1 Cisco IOS Access

Operating Systems:

(Shell) - User Interface that allows users to request specific tasks from the computer (CLI or GUI)

(Kernel) - Communicates between the hardware and manages how hardware resources are used to
meet software requirements.

(Hardware) - The physical port of a computer including underlying electronics.

GUI (Graphical User Interface) - Allows the user to interact with the system using an environment of
graphical icons, menus, and windows.

Purpose of an OS

PC operating system enables a user to do the following:

-Use a mouse to make a selection and run programs

-Enter text and text-based commands

CLI-based network operating system enables a network technician to the following:

-Use a keyboard to run CLI-based network programs

-Use a keyboard to enter text and text-based commands

-View output on a monitor

Access Methods:

(Console) - A physical management port used to access a device to provide maintenance, such as
performing the initial configurations.

(Secure Shell (SSH)) - Establishes a secure remote CLI connection to a device, through a virtual interface,
over a network. Recommended method for remotely connecting to a device.

(Telnet) - Establishes an insecure remote CLI connection to a device over the network. User
authentication, passwords and commands are sent over the network in plaintext.
Terminal Emulation Programs:

(Terminal emulation programs) - Are used to connect to a network device by either a console port or by
an SSH/Telnet connection.

2.2 IOS Navigation

Primary Command Modes:

(Uses EXEC Mode) - Allows access to only a limited number of basic monitoring commands.

(Privileged EXEC Mode) - Allows access to all commands and features.

Configuration Mode and Sub configuration Modes:

(Global Configuration Mode) - Access configuration options on the device.

(Line Configuration Mode) - Configure console, SSH, Telnet or AUX access.

(Interface Configuration Mode) - Configure a switch port or router interface.

2.3 The Command Structure

Basic IOS Command Structure

(Keyword) - This is a specific parameter defined in the operating system.

(Argument) - This in not predefined, it is value or variable defined by the user

IOS Command Syntax Check

(Command) - Might require one or more arguments. Determine the keywords and arguments required
for a command, refer to the command syntax.

(boldface) - Commands and keywords that you enter literally as shown.

(italics) - Arguments for which you supply values.

([x]) - Optional element (keyword or argument)

({x}) - Required element (keyword or element).

([x {y | z} ]) - Required choice within an optional element. Spaces are used to clearly delineate parts of
the command.

IOS Help Features

(Context-sensitive) - Enables you to quickly find answers to these questions:

-Commands available in each mode?

-Commands that start with specific characters or a group of characters?

-Which arguments and keywords are available to commands?

(Command syntax check) - Verifies that a valid command was entered by the user.

-If the interpreter cannot understand the command being entered, it will provide feedback describing
what is wrong with command

Hot Keys and Shortcuts

(IOS CLI) - Provides hot keys and shortcuts that make configuring, monitoring, and troubleshooting
easier.

Keystroke:

(Tab) - Completes a partial command name entry.

(Backspace) - Erases the character to the left of the cursor.

(Left Arrow or ctrl+B) - Moves the cursor one character to the left.

(Right Arrow or ctrl+P) - Recalls the commands in the history buffer, beginning with the most recent
commands.

(Enter key) - Displays the next line.

(Space Bar) - Displays the next screen.

(Any other key) - End the display string, returning to privileged EXEC mode.

(Ctrl + C) - When in any configuration mode, ends the configuration mode and returns to
privileged EXEC mode.

(Ctrl + Shift + 6) - All-purpose break sequences used to abort DNS lookups, traceroutes, pings,
etc.

2.4 Basic Device Configuration

Configuration Files

2 System files that store the device configuration

(Startup-config) - Saved configuration file that is stored in NVRAM. Contains all the commands that will
be used by the device upon startup or reboot.

(Running-config) - Stored in Random Access Memory (RAM). Reflects the current configuration.
Modifying a running configuration affects the operation of Cisco device immediately.

(Alter the Running Configurations) - It changes made to the running config do not have the desired
effect and the running-config has not yet been saved, you can restore the device to its previous
configuration.

Capture Configuration to a Text File:

Step 1: Open terminal emulation software, such as PuTTY or Tera Term, that is already connected to a
switch.

Step 2: Enable logging in to the terminal Software and assign a name and file location to save the log
file. The figure displays that All session output will be captured to the file specified.

Step 3: Execute the show running config or show startup-config command at the privileged EXEC
prompt. Text displayed in the terminal window will be placed into the chosen file.

Step 4: Disable logging in the terminal software. The figure shows how to disable logging by choosing
the Non session logging option.

2.6 Ports and Addresses

IP Addresses:

(Use of IP Addresses) - is the primary means of enabling devices to locate one another and establish
end-to-end communication on the internet.

Structure of an Ipv4 address is called (dotted decimal notation) and is represented by four decimal
numbers between 0 and 255.

IPv4 subnet mask is a (32-bit) value that differentiates the network portion of the address from
the host portion.

IPv6 addresses are (128 bits) in length and written as a string of hexadecimal values.

IPv6 addresses are not case-sensitive and can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.

Interfaces and Ports

Types of network media:

-Twisted-pair copper cables

-Fiber-optic cables

-Coaxial Cables

-Wireless

2.7 Configure IP addressing

Manual IP Address Configuration for End Devices

Manually configure an IPv4 address on a windows PC, open the:

-Control Panel

-Network Sharing Center

-Change adapter settings

And choose the adapter. Next, right-click and select Properties to display the Local Area Connection
Properties;

Next, click Properties to open the Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties window. Then
configure the IPv4 address and subnet mask information, and default gateway.

Automatic IP Address Configuration for End Devices

(DHCP) - enables automatic IPv4 address configuration for every end device that is DHCP-enabled.

To configure DHCP on a Windows PC, open the:

-Control Panel

-Network Sharing Center

-Change Adapter settings

And choose the adapter.

Next, right-click and select Properties to display the Local Area Connection Properties.

Next, click Properties to open Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties window, then
select Obtain an IP Address automatically and Obtain DNS server address automatically.

Switch Virtual Interface Configuration

To configure an SVI on a switch:

-Enter the interface vlan 1 command in global configuration mode.

-Next assign an IPv4 address using the IP address IP-address subnet-mask command.

-Finally enable the virtual interface using the no shutdown command.

(L-3) Protocols and Models

Communication Fundamentals

3 elements to any communication

-Source (sender)

-Destination (receiver)

-Channel (media) that provides for the path pf communication to occur.

Communication Protocols

-All communications are governed by protocols.

(Protocols) - Are the rules that communication will follow.

Network Protocol Requirements

-Message encoding

-Message formatting and encapsulation

-Message size

-Message timing

-Message delivery options

(Encoding) - Is the process of converting information into another acceptable form for transmission.

Message Timing

(Flow Control) - Manages the rate of data transmission and defines how much information can be sent
and the speed at which it can be delivered.

(Response Timeout) - Manages how long a device waits when it does not hear a reply from the
destination.
(Access method) - Determines when someone can send a message.

Message Delivery Options

(Unicast) - One to one communication

(Multicast) - One to many, typically not all

(Broadcast) - One to all

3.2 Protocols

Network Protocol Overview

Can be implemented on devices in:

-Software, Hardware, Both

Protocol has their own:

-Function, Format, and Rules

Protocol Types:

(Network Communications) - Enable two or more devices to communicate over one or more networks

(Network Security) - Secure data to provide authentication, data integrity, and data encryption.

(Routing) - Enable routers to exchange rout information, compare path information, and select best
path.

(Service Discovery) - Used for the automatic deletion of devices or services.

Network Protocol Functions

Functions:

(Addressing) - Identifies sender and recover.

(Reliability) - Provides guaranteed delivery.

(Flow Control) - Ensures data flows at an efficient rate.

(Sequencing) - Uniquely labels each transmitted segment of data

(Error Detection) - Determines if data became corrupted during transmission

(Application Interface) - Process-to-process communication between network application.

Protocol Interaction

Protocol:

(Hypertext Transfer Protocol/HTTP) - Governs the way a web server and a web client interact

(Transmission Protocol) - Manages individual conversations.

(Internet Protocol/IP) - Delivers messages globally from the sender to the receiver.

(Ethernet) - Delivers messages from one NIC to another NIC on the same Ethernet Local Area Network
(LAN).

3.3 Protocol Suites

(Protocol Suite) - A group of inter-related protocols necessary to perform communication functions.

(Internet Protocol Suite or TP/IP) - The most common protocol suite and maintained by the internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF).

(Open Systems Interconnection/OSI) - Developed by the international Organization for standardization

(ISO) and the international Telecommunication Union (ITU)

(Apple Talk) - Proprietary suite release by Apple Inc.

(Novell NetWare) - Proprietary suite developed by Novell Inc.

(TCP/IP) - An open standard protocol suite that is freely available to the public and can be used by any
vendor.

3.4 Standards Organizations

Open Standards encourage:

-Interoperability

-Competition

-Innovation

Internet Standards:

(Internet Society (ISOC)) - Promotes the open development and revolution of the internet.

(Internet Architecture Board (IAB)) - Responsible for management and development of internet
standards.
 (Internet Engineering Task Force) - Develops, updates, and maintains internet and TCP/IP
technologies.

(Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)) - Focused on long-term research related to the internet.

(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Number (ICANN)) - Coordinates IP address
allocation, the management of domain names, and assignment of other information.

(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) - Overseas and manages IP address allocation, domain
name management, and protocol identifiers for ICAN.

Electronic and Communication Standards

(Institute of Electrical and Electronics/ IEEE) - Dedicated to creating standards in power and energy,
healthcare, telecommunications, and networking.

(Electronic Industries Alliance/EIA) - Develops standards relating to electrical wiring, connectors, and
the 19-inch racks used to mount networking equipment.

(Telecommunications Industry Association/TIA) - Develops communication standards in radio

equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP devices, satellite communications, and more.

(International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector/ ITU-T) - Defines

standards for video compression, Internet Protocol Television, and broadband communications, such as
digital subscriber line (DSL).

3.5 Reference Models

The Benefits of Using Layered Model:

-Assist in protocol design

-Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together.

-Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and below.

-Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities

The OSI Reference Model:

OSI Model Layer:

(Application) - Contains protocols used for process-to-process communication

(Presentation) - Provides a common representation of the data transferred between application layer
devices.

(Session) - Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.
(Transport) - Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual
communications.

(Network) - Provides services to exchange individual pieces of data over the network.

(Data Link) - Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.

(Physical) - Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model Layer:

(Application) - Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialing control.

(Transport) - Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks

(Internet) - Determines the best path through the network.

(Network Access) - Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.

3.6 Data Encapsulation

(Segmenting) - Is the process of breaking up messages into smaller units.

Two Primary benefits of Segmenting messages:

(Increases speed) - Large amounts of data can be sent over the network without tying up a
communication link.

(Increases efficiency) - Only segments which fail to reach the destination need to be
transmitted, not the entire data stream.

(Sequencing messages) - Is the process of numbering the segments so that the message may be
reassembled at the destination.

(Encapsulation) - Is the process where protocols add their information to the data.

PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:

1.Data (Data stream)

2.Segment

3.Packet

4.Frame

5.Bits (Bit Stream)

3.7 Data Access

Addresses

(Network layer source and destination addresses) - Responsible for delivering the IP packet from
original source to the destination.

(Data link layer source and destination addresses) - Responsible for delivering the data link frame
from one network interface card (NIC) to another NIC on the same network.

Layer 3 Logical Address

(Source IP address) - The IP address of the sending device, original source of the packet.

(Destination IP address) - The IP address of the receiving device, destination of the packet.

IP address contains 2 parts:

(Network portion IPv4 or prefix IPv6)

(Host portion IPv4 or interface ID IPv6)

MODULE 4

ETHERNET CONCEPTS

(L-1) - Physical Layer

Bandwidth

4.3 Copper Cabling

(Copper cabling) - Is the most common type of cabling used in networks today.
Types of Copper Cabling:

(Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable)

- Is the most common networking media. Terminated with RJ-45 connectors.

Key characteristic of UTP:

1.The outer jacket protects the copper wires from physical damage.

2.Twisted pairs protect the signal from interference.

3.Color-coded plastic insulation electrically isolates the wires from each other
and identifies each pair.

(Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable)

- Better noise protection than UTP; More expensive than UTP, harder to install than UTP.

Key Characteristics of STP:

1.The outer jacket protects the copper wires from physical damage.

2.Braided or foil shield provides EMI/RFI protection.

3.Foil shield for each pair of wires provides EMI/RFI protection.

4.Color-coded plastic insulation electrically isolates the wires from each other and identifies
each pair.

(Coaxial Cable)

- Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage

- A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for
the inner conductor.
- A layer of flexible plastic insulation.
- A copper conductor is used to transmit the electronic signals

Commonly used in the following situations:

Wireless installations – Attach antennas to wireless devices

Cable Internet Installations – Customer premises wiring

4.4 UTP CABLING

UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper wires twisted together and encased in a flexible plastic
sheath.
Each wire in pair of wires uses opposite polarity. One wire is negative, the other wire is positive.

UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors:

- RJ-45
- RJ-45 Socket.

Straigth-through and Crossover UTP Cables:

- Ethernet Straight-through
▪ Both ends T568A or T568B
▪ Host to Network device
- Ethernet Crossover
▪ One end T568A, other end T568B
▪ Host-to-host, switch-to-switch, Router-to-router
- Rollover
▪ Cisco Proprietary
▪ Host serial port to Router or Switch Console port, using an adapter

4.5 Fiber-Optic Cabling

-Not as common as UTP because of expensiveness

-Ideal for some networking scenarios

-Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth than any other networking media

Types of Fiber Media:

(Single-Mode Fiber) - Very small core, uses expensive lasers, long-distance applications.

(Multimode Fiber) - Larger core, uses less expensive LEDs, LEDs transmit at different angles, up
to 10 Gbps over 550 meters.

Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage:

(Enterprise Networks) - Used for backbone cabling applications and interconnecting infrastructure
devices.

(Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH)) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to homes and small
businesses.
(Long-Haul Networks) - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities.

(Submarine Cable Networks) - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity solutions cable for
surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic distances.

Fiber-Optic Connectors:

-Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors

-Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors

-Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors

-Duplex Multimode LC Connectors

Fiber Patch Cords:

- SC-SC Patch Cord

- LC-LC Patch Cord
- ST-LC MM Patch Cord
- ST-SC SM Patch Cord

(Yellow Jacket) - For single-mode fiber cables

(Orange Jacket or Aqua) - For multimode fiber cables.

Fiber Versus Copper

4.6 Wireless Media

Properties of Wireless Media

(Wireless Media) - It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or
microwave frequencies.

Limitations of Wireless:
 - Coverage area
- Interference
- Security
- Shared medium

Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:

(Wireless Access point (AP)) - Concentrate wireless signals from users and connect to the existing
copper-based network infrastructure

(Wireless NIC Adapters) - Provide wireless communications capability to network hosts

(L-2) Data Link Layer

6.1 Purpose of the Data Link

(Data Link Layer) - Is responsible for communications between end-device network interface cards.

IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Data Link Sublayers

Data Link Layers consists of two sublayers:

(Logical Link Control (LLC)) - Communicates between the networking software at the upper layers and
the device hardware at the lower layers.

(Media Access Control (MAC)) - Is responsible for data encapsulation and media access control.

Data Link Layer Standards:

DDL defined by engineering organizations:

(IEEE) - Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

(ITU) - International Telecommunications Union

(ISO) - International Organizations for Standardization.

(ANSI) - American National Standards Institute

6.2 Topologies

Physical and Logical Topologies

(Physical Topology) - Shows physical connections and how devices are interconnected

(Logical Topology) - Identifies the virtual connections between devices using device interfaces and IP
addressing schemes.

WAN Topologies

Common Physical WAN topologies:

(Point-to-point) - The simplest and most common WAN topology. Consists of a permanent link between
two endpoints.

(Hub and spoke) - Similar to a star topology where a central site interconnects branch site through
point-to-point links.

(Mesh) - Provides high availability but requires every end system to be connected to every other end
system.

Early Ethernet and Legacy Token Ring technologies provide two additional topologies:

(Bus) - All end systems chained together and terminated on each end.

(Ring) - Each end system is connected to its respective neighbors to form a ring.
Half and Full Duplex Communication

(Half-duplex Communication) - Only allows one device to send or receive at a time on a shared
medium.

(Full-duplex communication) - Allows both devices to simultaneously transmit and receive on a shared
medium.

Access Control Methods

(Contention-based access) - All nodes operating in half-duplex, competing for use of the medium.

(Controlled access) - Deterministic access where each node has its own time on the medium.

Contention-Based Access – CSMA/CD

(CSMA/CD) - Operates in half-duplex mode where only one device sends or receives at a time

(CSMA/CD collision detection process)

-Devices transmitting simultaneously will result in a signal collision on the shared media

-Devices detect the collision

-Devices wait a random period of time and retransmit data

Contention-Based Access – CSMA/CA

CSMA/CA

-Used by IEEE 802.11 WLANs

-Operates in half-duplex mode where only one device sends or receives at a time.

-Uses a collision avoidance process to govern when a device can send and what happens if multiple
devices send at the time.

CSMA/CA collision avoidance process

-When transmitting, devices also include the time duration needed for the transmission.

-Other devices on the shared medium receive the time duration information and know how long the
medium will be unavailable.

6.3 Data link Frame

Data link frame has three parts:

- Header
- Data
- Trailer

Frame Fields:

Field:

(Frame Start and Stop) - Identifies beginning and end of frame

(Addressing) - Indicates source and destination nodes

(Type) - Identifies encapsulated Layer 3 protocol

(Control) - Identifies flow control services

(Data) - Contains the frame payload

(Error Detection) - used for determining transmission error

(L-3) Ethernet Switching

7.1 Ethernet Frames

(MAC Sublayer) - Is responsible for data encapsulation and accessing the media.
(Ethernet frame) - Is the internal structure of the ethernet frame.

(Ethernet Addressing) - Includes both a source and destination MAC address to deliver the Ethernet
frame from NIC to Ethernet NIC on the same LAN.

(Ethernet Error detection) - a frame check sequence (FCS) trailer used for error detection

Minimum Ethernet frame size (64 bytes) maximum (1518) bytes.

A frame that is less than 64 bytes is considered as (collision fragment or runt frame) and is
automatically discarded.

Frames with more than 1500 bytes of data are considered (jumbo or baby giant frames)

7.2 Ethernet MAC Address

Ethernet MAC address consists of a (48-bit binary) value, expressing using 12 hexadecimal values.