Plasma Proteins

Albumin
● Makes up 58% of plasma proteins 16.
● Makes an important contribution in
Blood osmotic pressure.
Globulin
Functions of Blood ● Account for 38% of plasma proteins.
● Transport of gases, nutrients and waste ● Functions:
products. - Part of the immune system.
● Transport if processed molecules. - Transport molecules.
● Transport of regulatory molecules. - Clotting factors.
● Regulation of pH and osmosis.
● Maintenance of body temperature. Fibrinogen
● Protection against foreign substances. ● Clotting factor.
● Clot formation. ● Constitute 4% of plasma proteins.
● Converted fibrin, threadlike protein that
forms blood clot,
Characteristics of Blood Serum - 1
● A type of connective tissue. ● Plasma without clotting factor.
● Consist of cell fragments.
● Total volume:
- Female: 4-5 liters.
- Male: 5-6 liters. Formed Elements
● Makes up about 8% of total body weight. ● Account for 45% of the total
composition of blood.
Plasma ● Red blood cells.
● Platelets.
● Pale yellow fluid.
- 91$ water. Red Blood Cells 2
- 7% proteins. Erythrocytes
- 2% other components (ions, ●
- Erythro - red.
nutrients, gases, waste products, - Kytos -cell.
and regulatory substances). Most abundant of the formed elements.
● Liquid matrix containing cells and cell ●
Disk-shaped with edges that are thicker
fragments. ●
than the center of the cell.
● Accounts for slightly more than half (55%) Structure is important to its function.
of the total blood volume. ●
Biconcave shape - increase the cell’s
● Volume and composition remain constant. ●
surface are 18.
● Oxygen and carbon dioxide are important - Allow gases to move into and out of
blood gases. the red blood cell more rapidly.
- Ben and fold around their thin
centers, hence, they decrease in
 size and pass more easily through - Increased when blood oxygen
small vessels. levels is low.
- Improve blood flow in larger - Stimulates red bone marrow to
vessels. produce more red blood cells.
● Unable to divide.
Life Span: [Increases the blood’s capacity to transport
●
- Males: 120 days. oxygen.]
- Females: 110 days. [Maintains homeostasis.]
● Hemoglobin 17 ● When red blood cells become old
- Pigmented protein. abnormal or damaged, they are
- One-third of red blood cell’s removed from the blood by
volume. macrophages located in thee spleen
- Responsible for the cell’s red color. and liver.
● After phagocytosis, hemoglobin is
broken down and its components are
Functions recycled or excreted from the body.
● Transport oxygen from the lungs tot the
various tissues of the body. White Blood Cells
● Transport carbon dioxide from the Spherical cells that lack hemoglobin.
tissues to the lungs. ●
Make up the buffy coat.
● Each globin is bound to one heme. ●
- Thin, white layer of cells between
- Heme contains one iron atom. plasma and red blood cells.
- Hemoglobin bound oxygen is
bright red. ● Larger than red blood cells.
- Hemoglobin without bound ● Contains nucleus.
oxygen is darker red. ● Leave the blood and travel by ameboid
movement through tissues.
● Multiple types of white blood cells named
Life History of Red Blood Cells according to their appearance in stained
● 2.5 million red blood cells are preparations.
destroyed every seconds.
● New blood cells are produced just as
rapidly. Functions:
● Proerythroblasts Protect the body against invading
- Pro: before. ●
microorganisms and other pathogens.
- Erythro: red. Remove dead cells and debris from the
- Blastos: germ. ●
tissues.
- Give rise to red blood cell line.
● Production depends on the presence of
several vitamins (folate and B12) as well
as sufficient iron. Granulocytes
● Production is stimulated by low blood ● With large cytoplasmic granules.
oxygen levels.
● Erythropoietin Neutrophils 22
- Glycoprotein released by the ● Neutro: neutral, philos: loving.
kidneys. ● Most common type of white blood cells.
 ● With cytoplasmic granules that stain Platelets
with both acidic and basic dyes. ● Minute fragment of cells.
● Nuclei are commonly lobed. ● Consist of small amount of cytoplasm
● Remain in the blood for a short time surrounded by a cell membrane.
(10-12 hours). Produced in the bone marrow from large
● Moven into the other tissues and
●
phagocytize microorganisms and other cells called megakaryocytees.
foreign substances. ● Small fragments break off from the
● Pus: are dead neutrophils, cell debris megakaryocytes and enter the blood as
and fluid at sites of infection. platelets.
● Play an important role in preventing blood
Basophils loss.
● Least common of all white blood cells.
● Contain large cytoplasmic granule that
stain blue or purple with basic dyes. Preventing Blood Loss
● Release histamine and other chemicals
that promote inflammation. Vascular Spasm
● Release heparin that prevents the
formation of clots 24. ● Immediate but temporary constriction
of a blood vessel that results when
Eosinophils smooth muscle within the wall of blood
● Contains cytoplasmic granules that stain vessel contracts.
bright red with eosin (acitic stain). ● Close small blood vessels completely
● Two-lobed nucleus, and stop the flow of blood.
● Involved in inflammatory responses ● Stimulated by chemicals released by
associated with allergies and asthma. cells of the damaged blood vessel wall
● Release chemicals involved in and by platelets,
destroying certain worm parasites. Platelet Plug Formation
● Platelet Plug
- Accumulation of platelets that
Agranulocytes seal up a small break in a blood
● With very small granules that cannot be vessel.
easily seen with a microscope. ● Maintain the integrity of blood vessels
of the cardiovascular system.
Lymphocytes 25 ● Platelet Adhesion
● Smallest of the white blood cells. - Von Willebrand factor.
● Cytoplasm consists of only a thin, ● Platelet Release Reaction
imperceptible ring around the nucleus. - ADP and Thromboxane.
● Body’s immune response. ● Platelet Aggregation
● Production of antibodies and other - Fibrinogen.
chemicals.
- Destroy microorganisms. Blood Clotting
- Allergic reactions. ● Coagulation: Formation of a clot.
- Reject grafts. - Network of threadlike protein
- Controls tumors, fibers (fibrin), that, traps blood
- Regulates immune systems. cells, platelets and fluid.
 - Formation depends on a number blood, reducing the probability of
of proteins found within plasma infection and enhance healing.
(clotting factors). ● Vessel is repaired as fibroblast move in
- Most clotting factors are the damaged area and new connective
manufactured in the liver and tissue forms.
require vitamin K for synthetic. ● Epithelial cells around the wound divide
and fill the torn area.
Clot Formation
● Prothrombinase Production. Fibrinolysis
● Thrombin production. ● Process by which clots are dissolved as
● Fibrin Production. the damaged tissue is repaired.
Anticoagulants
● Prevent clotting factors from forming Blood Grouping
under normal conditions. Rh Factor
● Antithrombin and heparin - inactive
thrombin. ● Rh factor (or Rhesus Factor) is a type of
- Without thrombin, fibrinogen is protein on the outside of your red blood
not converted to fibrin and no cells (RBCs).
clot forms.
● Prevents abnormal coagulation. Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
● Heparin acts more rapidly than Rh incompatibility.
warfarin. ●
Pose a major problem in a pregnancy
● Warfarin prevents clot formation by
●

suppressing the liver’s production of when the mother is Rh negative and the
vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. fetus is Rh positive.
● Any anti Rh antibodies produced by the
mother can cross the placenta and
destroy fetal red blood cells.
Control of Clot Formation ● Levels of anti Rh antibodies in the
mother’s blood should be monitored.
Thrombus ● Increased level of antibodies of the
● An attached clot formed when platelets mother.
encounter damaged or diseased areas - Transfusion to replace red blood
of blood vessels or heart walls. cells through the umbilical cord.
- Delivery of the baby is mature
Embolus enough.
● Thrombus that breaks loose and behind Prevention
to float through the circulation. ● Rh negative mother is injected with Rho
(D) immune globulin that contains
antibodies against Rh antigens.
Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis ● Given during pregnancy, before
delivery or immediately after each
Clot Retraction delivery, abortion, or miscarriage.
● Process when clot begins to condense
● Injected antibodies bind to Rh antigens
into a more compact structure, of any fetal red blood cells that may
● Serum is squeezed out of the clot,
have entered to the mother’s blood.
● Pulls the edges of the damaged blood
● Inactivates the fetal Rh antigens.
vessel together, that stops the flow of ● Prevents sensitization of the mother.
 Diagnostic Blood Test - Overabundance of red blood cells.
Type and Crossmatch
- Increased blood viscosity.
- Reduced flow rates.
- Plugged capillaries -severe.
Blood Typing ● Blood Doping
● Determines the ABO and Rh blood groups - Intentional process that increase
of a blood sample. the number of circulation red
● Cells are separated from the plasma and blood cells.
tested with known antibodies to - More red blood cells equates to an
determine the type of antigen on the cell increase in blood’s ability to
surface. transport oxygen,
- Blood transfusion.
Agglutination - Medication that stimulates the
● Type A: Blood cells agglutinate with process of red blood cell
anti-A antibodies not with anti-B production.
antibodies.
● Type B: Blood cells agglutinate with Hemoglobin Measurement
anti-B antibodies not with anti-A ● Expressed in terms of grams of
antibodies. hemoglobin per 100mL of blood,
● Type AB: Blood cells agglutinate with ● Normal Level:
anti-A and anti-B antibodies. - Male: 14-18g/100mL
● Type O: Blood cells do not agglutinate - Female: 12-16g/100mL
with anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
Crossmatch Anemia
Abnormally low hemoglobin
● Donor’s blood cells are mixed with the ●
measurement.
recipient’s serum. Reduced number of red blood cells.
● Donor’s serum is mixed with the ●
● Reduced amount of hemoglobin in each
recipient’s cells. red blood cell.
● Match if no agglutination occurs, it mean
that it is safe for transfusion. Hematocrit Measurement
● Percentage of total blood volume that is
Complete BLood Count composed of red blood cells.
Red Blood Count ● Affected by the number and size of the
● Performed electronically with a machine red blood cells.
and manually with a microscope. - Decrease Hematocrit: Decreased
● Normal Red blood count (RBC): number of normal-sized red blood
- Male: 4.6-6.2 RBC per microliter. cells or a number of red blood
- Female: 4.2-5.4 RBC per cells.
microliter.
- (1 drop of blood -50 microliter)
● Erythrocytosis
 White Blood Cells Abnormalities
● Measures the total number of WBC in
blood. Thrombocytopenia
● 5000-9000 WBC per microliter of blood. ● Decreased platelet production.
- Hereditary disorders.
- Lack of vitamin B12 (pernicious
Abnormalities anemia).
- Drug and radiation therapy.
Leukopenia ● Platelet count is greatly reduced.
● Decreased production or destruction of ● Chronic bleeding through small vessels
the red marrow. and capillaries.
● Lower than normal WBC.
● Caused by: radiation, tumors, viral
infections, deficiency of vitamin B12 Prothrombin Time Measurement
and folate. ● Calculate how long it takes for the blood
Leukocytosis to start clotting.
● Abnormally high WBC.
● 9-12 seconds.
● Bacterial infection -increase
● Determined by adding thromboplastin to
neutrophils. whole plasma.
● Thromboplastin
Leukemia - Chemical released from injured
● Cancer of the red marrow. tissues that starts the process of
● Abnormal production of one or more of clotting.
the blood cell types. Abnormal Prothrombin Time
● White blood cells are usually immature
●
or abnormal and lack normal - Deficiency of clotting factors.
immunological function, meaning, they - Increased: Vitamin K deficiency,
do not function normally. liver disease, drug therapy.
● Susceptible to infection.
Blood Chemistry
Differential White Blood Count ● Composition of materials dissolved or
Determines the percentage of each of the suspended in the plasma can be used to
●
five kinds of WBC: assess the functioning of many of the
- Neutrophils: 60-70% body’s systems.
- Lymphocytes: 20-25% ● High Blood Glucose Level: Pancreas is
- Monocytes: 3-8% not producing enough insulin.
- Eosinophils: 2-4% ● High Blood Urea Nitrogen: Reduced
- Basophils: 0.5-1% kidney function.
● Increased Bilirubin: Liver dysfunction.
Platelet Count ● High Cholesterol Levels: Increased risk
● 250,000-400,000 platelets per microliter of of cardiovascular disease.
blood.
 ● Ensuring one-way blood flow
● Regulating blood supply
- Changes in the rate and force of
heart contraction match blood
● Four-chambered muscular organ that flow to the changing metabolic
pumps blood through the blood vessels. needs of tissues during rest,
Pericardium: Collection of tissue that exercise, and changes in body
●
surrounds the heart. position.
● Pericardial Cavity: Fluid space around
the heart. Anatomy of the Heart
● Atria: Receiving chambers of the heart. Pericardium
● Ventricles: Large pumping chambers of
the heart.
● Lies obliquely in the mediastinum. Fibrous Pericardium
● Outer layer of the pericardium.
Base ● Composed of tough, fibrous connected
● Directed posteriorly and slightly tissue.
superiorly.
● Located just behind the sternum and Serous Pericardium
extends to the space just below the ● Inner layer.
second rib -second intercostal space. ● Consists of flat epithelial cells with a thin
layer of connective tissue,
Apex - Parietal Pericardium: Lines the
● Directed anteriorly and slightly inferiorly. fibrous pericardium.
● Directed to the left -two thirds of the heart - Visceral Pericardium or
mass to the left of the midline of the Epicardium: covers the heart
sternum. surface.
● Behind the 5th and 6th ribs at the 5th - Continuous with each where the
intercostal space and to the left of the great vessels enter or leave the
sternum. heart.
External Anatomy
Functions of the Heart Atria
● Entrance chamber.
● Generating blood pressure ● Located at the base of the heart.
- Contractions of the heart equate ● Blood enters.
to contraction of blood vessels.
● Routing Blood Ventricle
- Separates the pulmonary and Cavities
systemic circulations. ●
Extend from the base of the heart toward
- Ensures that the blood flowing to ●
the tissues has adequate levels of the apex.
oxygen. ● Blood exits.
 Coronary Sulcus Left Atrium Receives blood through the four
● Groove that extends around the heart pulmonary veins
separating the atria and ventricles. ● Pulmonary veins -drain blood from the
lungs.
Superior and Inferior Vena Cava Interatrial Septum
● Carry blood from the body to the right ● Partition that separates the two atria.
atrium.
Pulmonary Veins Heart Valves
● Carry blood from the lungs to the left
atrium. Atrioventricular Valves
Located between each atrium and
Pulmonary trunk
●
ventricle.
● Arise from the right ventricle. Tricuspid Valve
● Splits into right and left pulmonary ● AV valve between the right atrium and
arteries. ventricle.
● Composed of three cusps or flaps of
Pulmonary Arteries tissue.
● Carry blood to the lungs. Bicuspid Valve
● Also called mitral valve (bishop’s miter,
Aorta two-pointed hat).
● Arise from the left ventricle. ● AV valve between the left atrium and
● Carries blood to the rest of the body. ventricle.
● Consists of two cusps.
● Allow blood to flow from the atria into the
ventricles but prevent it from flowing
Heart Chamber and Internal Anatomy back into the atria.
Left and Right Atria Papillary Muscles
● Reservoirs where blood returning from ● Coned-shaped, muscular pillars in each
veins collects before it enters the ventricle.
ventricles. ● Attached by thin, strong, connective
● Contraction forces blood into the tissue strings called chordae tendinae
ventricles to complete ventricular filing. to the free margins of the cusps of
atrioventricular cusps.
Atria
Right Atrium Receives blood from: Semilunar Valves
● Superior vena cava. Located between each ventricle and its
● Inferior vena cava.
●

● Coronary sinus.
associated great artery.
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
 ● Located between the right ventricle and ● Consists of simple squamous epithelium
pulmonary trunk. overlying a layer of loose connective
tissue and adipose tissue.
Aortic Semilunar Valve
● Located between the left ventricle and
aorta. Myocardium
● Thick, middle layer of the heart
[Each valve consists of three pocketlike semilunar composed of cardiac muscle cells.
cusps] ● Responsible for the contraction of heart
chambers.
Coronary Arteries Endocardium
● Smooth inner surface of the heart.
● Consists of simple squamous epithelium
Right Coronary Artery over a layer of connective tissue,
● Originates on the right side of the aorta. ● Allows blood to move easily through the
● Extends around the coronary sulcus on heart.
the right to the posterior surface of the
heart. Cardiac Muscle
● Gives rise to the posterior
interventricular artery. ● Muscles are elongated, branching cells
● Supply most of the wall of the right that contain one or occasionally two,
ventricle. centrally located nuclei.
● Contain actin and myosin filaments ->
Left Coronary Artery sacromers
● Originates on the left side of the aorta. - Muscle Contraction
● Contains three major branches. - Striated Appearance Striations are
● Supply the anterior wall of the heart and less arranged and less numerous
most of the left ventricle. than in skeletal muscle.
● Relies on calcium and ATP for
Cardiac Veins contraction.
● Drain blood from the cardiac muscles.
● Drain blood into the coronary sinus. Circulatory System
● Some drain directly into the right atrium. Functions
Histology of the Heart
● Carries blood.
● Exchanges nutrients, waste products, and
Heart Wall gases with tissues.
● Transport substances.
● Helps regulate blood pressure.
Epicardium ● Directs blood flow to the tissues.
● Visceral Pericardium
- Thin, serous membrane forming
the smooth outer surface of the
heart.
 Blood Vessels ● Greater proportion of their walls is
composed elastic tissue and a smaller
proportion of smooth muscle.
Tunica Intima ● Aorta and pulmonary trunk.
● Innermost layer. ● Stretch when the ventricles of the heart
● Consist of endothelium. pump into them.
- Composed of simple squamous Their elastic recoil prevents blood
epithelial cells, a basement ●
pressure from falling rapidly and
membrane and a small amount of maintains blood flow when the ventricles
connective tissue. are relaxed.
- Muscular arteries also contains a
layer of thin elastic connective
tissue. Muscular
● Include medium-sized and small
Tunica Media arteries.
● Middle layer. Walls of medium-sized arteries are
● Consists of smooth muscle cells ●
relatively thick compared to their
arranged circularly around the blood diameter.
vessel. Most of the wall’s thickness is from smooth
● Also contains various amounts of elastic ●
muscle cells of the tunica media.
and collagen fibers depending on the
size and type of blood vessel.
● Muscular Arteries Medium-sized arteries are frequently called
- Layer of elastic connective tissue distributing arteries
forms the outer margin. ● Smooth muscle tissues enable this
vessel to control blood flow to different
Tunica Adventitia body reigions.
● Composed of dense connective tissue ● Supply blood to small arteries.
adjacent to the tunica media.
● Tissue becomes loose connective tissue Small Arteries
toward the outer portion of the blood ● Same structure as the medium-sized
vessel wall. arteries.
● The smallest have only three or four

Arteries layers of smooth muscle in their walls.

● Carry blood away from the heart. Vasoconstriction
● Oxygenated blood. Contraction of smooth muscles in blood
● Elastic Arteries. ●
vessel.
● Muscular arteries Decreases blood diameter and blood
● Arteroiles ●
flow.
Elastic Vasodilation
● Largest diameter arteries. Relaxation of smooth muscles in blood
● Thickest walls. ●
vessel.
● Increases blood diameter and blood flow.
 Capillaries Blood Vessels of the Pulmonary
● Exchange of substances such as oxygen,
nutrients, carbon dioxide and other waste Circulation
products. Pulmonary Circulation
● Have thinner walls than arteries. ● System of blood vessels that carries blood
● Blood flows more slowly. from the right ventricle of the heart to the
● Walls are very thin and consists of only lungs and back to the left atrium of the
endothelium. heart.
- Facilitate diffusion between the
capillaries and surrounding cells.
● Capillary networks are more numeropus
and more extensive in the lungs and in
highly metabolic tissues such as the liver,
kidneys, skeletal muscle, and cardiac
muscle.
Veins
● Carry blood toward the heart.
● Deoxygenated blood.
● Walls are thinner than arteries and contain
less elastic tissue and fewer smooth
muscles. ● Blood returns to the right atrium from
● Tunica Adventitia is the predominant three sources:
layer in veins and consists primarily of 1. Inferior thoracic cavity below:
dense connective tissue. inferior vena cava.
- Diameter determines the degree to 2. Most of thoracic cavity and above:
which they can distend. superior vena cava.
● Veins 3. Coronary circulation: coronary
- Venules sinus.
- Small Veins ● The deoxygenated blood moves from the
- Medium-sized veins right atriym to the right ventricle.
- Large veins ● From the right ventricle, blood moves to
the: pulmonary trunk -> R./L. Pulmonary
arteries -> Pulmonary arterioles ->
Pulmonary capillaries -> Pulmonary
venules -> R./L. Pulmonary veins -> Left
atrium -> Left ventricle.