Defining and non-defining relative clauses

1. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:

Defining relative clauses carry essential information, because they identify witch thing or
person we are talking about, and they are used without commas.

Example:

- This is the music which was used at the show.

- Have they found the prisoner who escaped last week?

 we can use that:

In defining relative clauses we can use that instead of which or who.

Example:

- This is the music that was used at the show.

- Have they found the prisoner that escaped last week?

 when can we omit who/which/that?

Who/which/that, can be omitted if they are followed by subject + verb

Example:

- Can you pass me the box (which/that) I keep in the top drawer?
- You are not the man (who/that) I thought you were.

2. NON DEFINING RELIVE CLAUSES:

Non-defining relative clauses are used between commas, and they add extra
information which is not necessary to know who or what we are talking about.

Example:

- This music, which I really like, was used at the show.

- My sister, who I truly admire, is coming for Thanksgiving.

 we cannot use that, and we cannot omit who/which

In non-defining relative clauses (between commas) we cannot use that, and we cannot omit
who/which.

Example:

- This music, that I really like, was used at the show.

- My sister, I truly admire, is coming for Thanksgiving.
 3. DEFINING VS NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

In a defining relative clause the information is essential to identify who or what we are talking
about, whereas in non-defining relative clauses we just add extra the information, which is not
necessary.

Example:

- My brother who lives in Cardiff is much older than me. (=I have more than one brother
and the relative clause helps identify which brother I am talking about)
- My brother, who lives in Cardiff, is much older than me. (=I have only one brother, so
we don’t need the relative clause to know who I am talking about)

4. RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS

Note that that can be used in informal English instead of who/whom/which but it is never used
after commas, i.e. in non-defining relative clauses, or after prepositions.

Example:

- That’s the man who/that offered me the job.

- My mother’s older brother, who/that lives in New York, is coming to visit. (Between
comas)
- That’s the house in which/that they lived all their lives. (After preposition)
 which/that vs what

We use which/that as relative pronouns. They refer back to a noun or sentence.

Example:

- I gave her the letter which/that I had been keeping since the war. (which/that= the
letter)
- He offered to help us, which was a nice gesture. (which= offering to help us)

We don’t use what as a relative pronoun. It cannot be used to refer back to a sentence or
noun.

Example:

- I gave her the letter what I had been keeping since the war.
- He offered to help us, what was a nice gesture.

We use what independently to mean ‘the thing/s that’.

Example:

- I didn’t like what he did.= I didn’t like the thing/s that he did.
- What I don’t understand is why we are here. (what= the thing that)

5. PREPOSITIONS IN RELATIVE CLAUSES

When the relative pronoun is the complement of a preposition, we can use the preposition
before the relative pronoun or at the end of the relative clause.

 Preposition + relative pronoun

It’s not very common to use prepositions before relative pronouns, we just do it in formal
language.

Examples:

- He wrecked the car for which he had paid a fortune.

- He was a man for whom everybody had great respect.

Note that after a preposition we can only use the pronouns whom or which. We cannot use
who or that after a preposition. We can also use whose after a preposition.

The team signed then the young Maradona, in whose skills everybody had their hopes.

 Preposition at the end of the relative clause

The most common position of the preposition is at the end of the relative clause.

Examples:
- He wrecked the car for which he had paid a fortune. (formal; not common)
- He wrecked the car (which/that) he had paid a fortune for. (more usual)

6. Relative adverbs
Relative adverbs introduce a relative clauses, just like relative pronouns, but in this case they are
used to introduce information about time (when), place (where), or reason (why).

Note that we can use a preposition + which instead of a relative adverb, although this structure
is more formal and not as common.

Examples:
- The coach changed the time when the players had to get up.
=The coach changed the time at which the players had to get up.
- The bench where they were sitting was dirty.
=The bench on which they were sitting was dirty.

7. Quantifier + of which/whom or whose.

In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of which/whom after a
quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many and few.

Examples:

- Their daughters, both of whom are in university, don’t visit them very often.
- The students, none of whom had failed the exam, were thrilled.
- Their house was full of cats, most of which had been found in the street.
- The two rooms, neither of which had windows, were small and dirty.

We can also use a quantifier + of whose.

Examples:

- I belong to a reading club, most of whose members are retired teachers.

- The parents, some of whose children were already grown-ups, marched down the street.

8. COMMON MISTAKES

 Two subjects

When who, which or that is the subject of a relative clause, we don’t use another pronoun or
noun after it, because we can only have one subject (who, which or that).

Example:
- I saw a man who was very tall. (NOT: I saw a man who he was very tall.)
- That is the painting that was stolen from the gallery. (NOT: That is the painting that it
was stolen from the gallery.)

 that between commas

We cannot use the relative pronoun that in a non-defining relative clause (between commas)

Example:
- The victim, who suffered a concussion, said he didn’t remember the accident. (NOT,
The victim, that suffered a concussion, said he didn’t remember the accident.)

Exercises:

1This is the place ______ I saw him the last time.

 a. wherecorrect
 b. which
 c. that

➪ We use where as a relative adverb to refer to a place.

2That's the man ______ daughter has won the lottery.

  a. which
 b. who
 c. whosecorrect

➪ We use whose as the possessive form of who (whose daughter= 'the

daughter of whom').
➪ Whose can be used for people and things.

3Do you know the musician ______ is playing the guitar. Choose TWO correct

options

 a. whocorrect
 b. -
 c. thatcorrect

➪ We can use who and that for people in defining relative clauses (without
comas).
➪ We can't leave out the relative pronoun (who, that, which) when it is
followed by a verb, we can only omit it when it is followed by subject + verb in
defining relative clauses.

4The painting, ______ was finished in 1850, is one of the most representative

works of that time.

 a. whichcorrect
 b. -
 c. that

➪ That can only be used in defining relative clauses (without comas).

➪ We can only omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas).

5This is the person ______ I introduced you a few weeks ago. Choose TWO

correct options

 a. which
 b. thatcorrect

 c. -correct

➪ We can use who and that for people in defining relative clauses (without
comas).
➪ We can omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas) when it's followed by subject + verb.

6I can't find the shop ______ I bought my computer two years ago.

 a. wherecorrect
 b. that
 c. which

➪ We use where as a relative adverb to refer to a place.

7What's the book ______ we must read this term?

 a. where
 b. who
 c. –correct

➪ We can omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas) when it’s followed by subject + verb.
➪ In this sentence we could also use the pronouns which and that.

8This is the girl ______ parents are getting divorced.

 a. who
 b. whosecorrect
 c. whom

➪ We use whose as the possessive form of who (whose daughter= ‘the

daughter of whom’).
➪ Whose can be used for people and things.

9The final decision, ______ not everybody is going to like, will be announced at

the next meeting.

 a. whichcorrect
 b. that
 c. –

➪ We can only use which or who (not that) in non-defining relative clauses
(between comas).
➪ We can only omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas).

10This phone is much better than the first phone ______ you showed

me. Choose TWO correct options

 a. whose
  b. thatcorrect

 c. –correct

➪ We can use which or that for things in defining relative clauses (without
comas).
➪ We can omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas) when it’s followed by subject + verb.

My sister, who is now living in New York, has just had a baby.
➪ That can only be used in defining relative clauses (without comas).
➪ We can only omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas).
2Can you give me the number of the plumber that repaired your shower?
➪ We can use who and that for people in defining relative clauses (without
comas).
➪ We can omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas), but only when it’s followed by subject + verb, not when
it's followed by a subject.

3I'd like to eat at the restaurant where we met.

➪ We use where as a relative adverb to refer to places.

4Thanks for the wine – you brought us.

➪ We can omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas) when it’s followed by subject + verb.

5The car, which cost more than 20,000 dollars, was a present from his

family.
➪ We can only use which or who (not that) in non-defining relative clauses
(between comas).
➪ We can only omit the relative pronoun (who, which, that) in defining relative
clauses (without comas).

6The company, whose workers are now being forced to stay home, will

probably go bankrupt.
➪ We use whose as the possessive form of who (whose daughter= ‘the
daughter of whom’).
➪ Whose can be used for people and things.

7This is the bar where I work.

➪ We use where as a relative adverb to refer to places.

8I'll always remember the day when we met.

➪ We use when to refer to time (after words such as time, day, year,
winter, etc.).

9Joe was carrying a gun, which was fortunate, because it saved our lives.
➪ We use which to refer to a whole sentence. Which = Joe was carrying a
gun.

10You should write a thank you email to the lady who assisted you the night

of the accident.
➪ We can’t leave out the relative pronoun (who, that, which) when it is
followed by a verb, we can only omit it when it is followed by subject + verb in
defining relative clauses.

1Sony is building a robot which can form an 'emotional connection' with

humans.
➪ We use which for things and animals.
➪ In this sentence we could also use that because it's a defining relative
clause.
➪ In this sentence we can't omit which because it's followed by a verb.

2Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, who died in October at the age of 56, had a

rare form of pancreatic cancer.

➪ We use who for people.
➪ In this sentence we can't use that or omit the relative pronoun because it’s a
non-defining relative clause (between commas).

3Can you give me back the book which I lent you last year?
➪ We use which for things and animals.
➪ In this sentence we could also use that because it’s a defining relative
clause (without commas).
➪ In this sentence we could also omit which because it’s followed by subject +
verb.

4Is that the man whose house was destroyed by the hurricane?
➪ We use whose as the possessive form of who (whose daughter= ‘the
daughter of whom’).
➪ Whose can be used for people and things.

5Do you remember the summer where Jack came home by surprise.
Correct answer: when
➪ We use when to refer to time (after words such as time, day, year,
winter, etc.).

6A love affair quickly developed between Gala and Dalí, which was about 10

years younger than her.

Correct answer: who
➪ We use who for people.
➪ In this sentence we can’t use that or omit the relative pronoun because it’s a
non-defining relative clause (between commas).

7Why don't we book a room at the hotel where we stayed last year?
➪ We use where as a relative adverb to refer to places.

8Is that the boy who insulted you?

➪ We use who for people.
➪ In this sentence we could also use that because it’s a defining relative
clause (without commas).
➪ In this sentence we could also omit who because it’s followed by subject +
verb.

9William Colgate, who name is on toothpaste tubes all around the world, left

home because the family was very poor.

Correct answer: whose
➪ We use whose as the possessive form of who (whose daughter= ‘the
daughter of whom’).
➪ Whose can be used for people and things.

10He took us into his house and gave us food, which was really nice of him.
➪ We use which to refer to a whole sentence. Which = He took us into his
house and gave us food.

1Did you really understand what I told you?

➪ We use which/that as relative pronouns. They refer back to a noun or
sentence.
➪ We use what independently to mean ‘the thing/s that’.
➪ Did you really understand what I told you? = Did you really understand the
thing(s) I told you?

2Mr. Dean, who had recently been fired, had a long list of misconducts.
➪ We use who or that to refer to people, but that cannot be used in non-
defining relative clauses (between commas).

3The victims, most of whom were adults, are being identified by the US

authorities.
➪ We can use of which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none,
all, both, several, enough, many and few.
➪ We use of whom (NOT of which) to refer to people.

4I like the scene where Dorothy meets Scarecrow.

➪ We can use where or at/in/on which to refer to a place.

5This is the man whom I am in love with.

Correct answer: who
➪ We can use who(m) to refer to people. We use whom after a preposition.
➪ This is the man who I am in love with. = This is the man with whom I am in
love.

6I wasn't honest with Kenneth, which made him furious.

➪ We use which as a relative pronoun when we want to refer back to a whole
sentence.
➪ We can never use that in a non-defining relative clause (between commas).

7The chancellor, both of whose sons were arrested in the corruption

operation, resigned yesterday.

➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use a quantifier
+ of whose.

8The police searched the vehicle which the gun was found.
Correct answer: where
➪ We can use where or at/in/on which to refer to a place.
➪ The police searched the vehicle where the gun was found. = The police
searched the vehicle in which the gun was found.

9The driver, who contract finishes at the end of the season, doesn't want to

talk about his future.

Correct answer: whose contract
➪ We use whose to express possession (whose contract= the driver's
contract).

10Between 2000 and 2005 she wrote three novels, none of which were

published.
➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of
which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.
➪ We use either when we have to choose between two possibilities, A or B.

1They said they were going to have twins, ______ surprised everybody.

 a. that
 b. whichcorrect
 c. what
 d. whosewrong
 ➪ We use which as a relative pronoun when we want to refer back to a whole
sentence.
➪ We can never use that in a non-defining relative clause (between commas).

2This is the man ______. Choose the INCORRECT answer

 a. who I used to work with.

 b. with whom I used to work.
 c. I used to work with.
 d. whom I used to work with.correct

➪ We use whom after a preposition, and we use who or that if we leave the
preposition at the end.

3They've caught the driver ______ caused the car accident. Choose TWO correct

options

 a. whocorrect
 b. –
 c. thatcorrect
 d. which

➪ We can use who or that to refer to people.

➪ We cannot leave out a relative pronoun when it's the subject of the relative
clause, i.e. when it is followed by a verb.

4Several men in plainclothes, ______ were armed, forced him to go with them.

 a. who some
 b. whom some
 c. some of whomcorrect
 d. some who

➪ We can use of which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all,
both, several, enough, many and few.

5She's going with a friend ______ I really don't like. Choose the INCORRECT

answer

 a. whom
 b. who
 c. that
 d. whichcorrect

➪ We use which to refer to things or animals, not people.

➪ In formal language, we can use whom when it is the object of the relative clause,
i.e. when it's followed by subject + verb.

6This is the house ______. Choose TWO correct options

  a. where I was borncorrect
 b. I was born
 c. in which I was borncorrect
 d. in where I was born

➪ We can use where or at/in/on which to refer to a place.

➪ We could also put the preposition at the end and/or leave the relative pronoun
out.

 This is the house where/in which I was born.

 This is the house (which/that) I was born in.

7The world is full of good singers _______. Choose TWO correct options

 a. whom nobody has heard of.

 b. who nobody has heard of. correct
 c. of which nobody has heard.
 d. of whom nobody has heard. correct

➪ We use whom after a preposition to refer to people.

➪ We can also use who/that, or leave the relative pronoun out, and put the
preposition at the end:

 The world is full of good singers of whom nobody has heard.

 The world is full of good singers of (who/that) nobody has heard of.

8The paramedics rescued the driver, ______ legs were injured.

 a. who both
 b. whom both
 c. both of whom
 d. both of whosecorrect

➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of

which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.
➪ We can also use a quantifier + of whose when we want to express possession.

9______ won him many enemies. Choose TWO correct options

 a. What he wrotecorrect
 b. That he wrote
 c. Which he wrote
 d. The things he wrotecorrect

➪ We use which/that as relative pronouns. They refer back to a noun or sentence.

➪ We use what independently to mean ‘the thing/s that’.
10The police in Seattle has arrested 10 men, ______ are members of a dangerous

street gang.

 a. all of who
 b. all of whomcorrect
 c. all who
 d. whom all

➪ We can use of which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all,
both, several, enough, many and few.
➪ We could also say 'who are all'.

1I'll never forget the day when we met.

➪ We can use when or at/in/on which to talk about time.
➪ We can also use that instead of when, or leave when out, in informal
speech: I'll never forget the day (when/that) we met.

2Is that the lady whose husband tried to rob the bank?
➪ We use whose to express possession (whose husband= the lady's
husband).

3We need to find an empty building where we can hide for a couple of days.
➪ We can use where or at/in/on which to refer to a place.
➪ We need to find an empty building where/in which we can hide for a couple
of days.

4Social media networks are an excellent tool which you can use to promote
your business.
➪ We can use which or that in defining relative clauses to refer to things or
animals.

5In the military, D-Day is the day on which a combat attack or operation is

to be initiated.
➪ We can use when or at/in/on which to talk about time.
➪ We can say 'the day when' or 'the day on which'.

6I have two brothers, both of whom are younger than me.

➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of
which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.

7This is the house where I grew up in.

Correct answer: which
➪ We can use where or at/in/on which to refer to places.
➪ We can also use the relative pronoun with the preposition at the end. Check
all the different possibilities for this sentence:

➪ This is the house where I grew up.

➪ This is the house in which I grew up.
➪ This is the house (which/that) I grew up in.

8At home we have more than 20 gadgets, none of whose I can use.
Correct answer: which
➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of
which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.

9Do you remember the girl whose brother sat next to you in 3rd grade?
➪ We use whose to express possession (whose brother= the girl's brother).

10He denounced the injustice at the conference, which everybody

applauded.
➪ We use which as a relative pronoun when we want to refer back to a whole
sentence.

1We are arguing. Do you remember the reason? (why)

Do you remember why we are arguing ?

➪ We can use why or for which to refer to reason.

➪ Do you remember the reason why/for which we are arguing?

2We have to be at the station. Can you tell me the exact time? (when)

Can you tell me the exact time when we have to be at the station ?

➪ We can use when or at/in/on which to talk about time.

➪ We can also use that instead of when, or leave when out, in informal
speech.
➪ Can you tell me the exact time (when/at which/that) we have to be at the
station?

3He got the job. This surprised everyone. (which)

He got the job, which surprised everyone .

➪ We use which as a relative pronoun when we want to refer back to a whole

sentence.

4You need to listen to a person. He is not this person. (whom)

He is not the person of whom you need to listen .

Correct answer: to whom you need to listen

➪ We use whom after a preposition to refer to people.
➪ We could also use who/that and put the preposition at the end:

➪ He is not the person who/that you need to listen to.

525 people disembarked on a local beach. Some of them were

children. (whom)

25 people, all of whom , disembarked on a local beach.

Correct answer: some of whom were children

➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of
which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.

6He was found in a place. That's the place. (which)

That's the place in which was found .

Correct answer: in which he was found

➪ We can use where or at/in/on which to refer to a place.
➪ That's the place where/in which he was found.
➪ We could also use the preposition at the end: That's the place
(which/that) he was found in.

7You must decide the exact location. You are going to build your house in that

location. (where)

You must decide the exact location where your house are going to build .

Correct answer: where you are going to build your house

➪ We can use where or at/in/on which to refer to a place.

8You arrived with a woman. Who was that woman? (that)

Who was the woman that arrive with you ?

Correct answer: that you arrived with

➪ When there is a preposition we can use it before which/whom or leave it at
the end.
➪ In this sentence we could say:
➪ Who was the woman with whom you arrived?
➪ Who was the woman with (who/that) you arrived with?

9They have appointed two new directors. Neither of them has any

experience. (whom)

They have appointed two new directors, neither of whom has any

experience .

➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of

which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.
➪ After neither we can use a singular or plural verb.

10The buildings are badly damaged. All of them have been hit by the

storm. (which)

The buildings, all of which have been hit , are badly damaged.

Correct answer: all of which have been hit by the storm

➪ In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of
which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.