Addis Ababa University

College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Department of Zoological Sciences

General Biology Program Unit

Mammalian Anatomy and Physiology

(Biol 2025)

Reading Material

Prepared by Tilaye Wube (PhD)

October 2020
Table of contents

1. The Integument (skin).............................................................................................................................3

2. Skeletal system........................................................................................................................................7
3. Muscular system....................................................................................................................................12
4. Homeostasis..........................................................................................................................................17
5. Sense organs..........................................................................................................................................26
6. Nervous system.....................................................................................................................................37
7. Endocrine System..................................................................................................................................46
8. Digestive system....................................................................................................................................53
9. Respiratory system..............................................................................................................................59
10. Circulatory system.............................................................................................................................64
11. Reproductive system..........................................................................................................................69
12. Immune system......................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

2
1. The Integument (skin)
The skin originates from the ectoderm (external layer) of the embryonic tissue. It has different
thickness in different regions. For instance, it is soft and thin under the eyes normally having a
thickness not more than 0.5mm. On the other hand, the palms and soles have thick skin layer
reaching upto 4mm.

Functions

 The primary function of the skin is protection from physical damage and invasion by
bacteria

 Sensory function related to temperature, touch, and vibration

 Thermoregulation – the skin has thermoregulatory glands known as sweat glands which
secret sweat to remove excess heat during a hot weather or exercise. In addition the
blood vessels in the skin dilate (known as vasodilation) to remove heat or constrict
(known as vasoconstriction) to conserve heat when the weather is hot or cold
respectively. In addition, the mammalian skin is covered with hair that assist in
insulation and heat conservation.

 Camouflage - mammals have different skin colouration and patterns. In some groups,
skin colour serves to conceal animals (camouflage) for the purpose of hiding from
predators or ambushing prey.

Skin layers

Epidermis – it is the outer most and structurally toughest layer. It is also the thinnest in terms
of thickness. 95% of the cells forming the epidermis are keratinocytes. These are cells that
secret the structural protein keratin that gives the epidermis its characteristic toughness. The
epidermis also contains malanocytes (melanin secreting cells), Langerhans cells (cells that have
a role in the immune system) and Merkel cells (light touch sensory cells).

3
The epidermis itself is subdivided into five thin layers:

I. Stratum corneum (outer most layer)

II. Stratum lucidum (mainly on palms and soles)

III. Startum granulosum

IV. Stratum spinosum

V. Stratum germinativum (also called Stratum basale)

Keratinocytes in the S. germinativum are proliferating (actively dividing). They are differentiated
and hardened by secretion of keratin on an extracellular matrix. In this manner they form the
hard protective layer of the skin. The keratinocytes on the S. corneum are mostly dead cells and
this layer of dead cells is replaced by a new layer formed underneath and it sheds in few days
intervals.

Dermis – it is the second skin layer which is found beneath the epidermis. The two layers are
separated by a thin basement membrane. There are small outgrowths known as dermal papilla
that help to tightly interlock the epidermis and dermis.

The dermis is made of connective tissues of elastic fibers and collagen fibrils that give the skin
its overall elasticity and texture. This mass of connective tissue declines in older individuals
causing the characteristic age related skin wrinkles

The dermis is rich in blood vessels (vascularization) and it provides nourishment to the
epidermis.

Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) – this is the last and lower most layer of the skin which
makes the skin attachment with bones or skeletal muscles. Basically, it is a fat deposit where up
to 50% of the body fat is stored. The layer contains fibroblasts (connective tissue cells),
macrophages (bacteria killing cells), and adipocytes (fat producing cells).

4
Skin glands

The mammalian skin contains several glands:

Mammary glands – produce milk to feed the new born. The mammary glands are functional in
the females. Just after birth, the glands are induced to produce milk by the pituitary hormone
prolactin.

Appocrine glands – they are found associated with hair follicles and produce secretions that are
released on the neck region of the hair follicles. The appocrine secretions contain proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids. The glands are localized in the axillae (armpits), anogenital area, and
breasts. Specialized apocrine glands are found in the external ear canal (known as ceruminous
glands) producing ear wax, and on the eye lids (known as Moll’s glands).

The apocrine glands are activated by hormonal changes during puberty. The secretions can be
metabolized by bacteria and cause unwanted body odour. This explains why adolescents
frequently experience body odours at the time of puberty that result from heightened secretion
from the apocrine glands. Frequent bathing that focuses on the axillae and anogenital areas of
the body helps to minimize the undesirable body odour.

Secretions of the apocrine glands have thermoregulatory functions in ungulates (hoofed

mammals) while they are used in mate attraction in other groups. Mammalian sent glands are
believed to be modified apocrine glands. It is also known that emotional stress and sexual
excitement trigger apocrine secretion.

Eccrine glands (sweat glands) – They secret colourless fluid known as sweat which is used to
remove excess heat by vaporization. They are found in different proportions in different
animals. Horses, bears and humans have eccrine glands in most parts of their body. In dogs,
cats, cattle and sheep, they are restricted to fewer regions such as pads, paws, and along the lip
margin. Small mammals such as rodents lack eccrine glands altogether.

Sebaceous glands – they secret oily substance known as sebum which is used to moisturize the
outer skin surface.
5
 Cross section of the skin

2. Skeletal system
The skeletal system is composed of two categories of bones. These are dermal bones and
endochondrial bones. Dermal bones originate under the skin during embryonic development
and they start as calcified bonny structure from the beginning. The skull, clavicle, and scapula
are dermal bones. Endochondrial bones start as cartilage and they become calcified (hardened)
into a bone during the later parts of prenatal development and early periods of postnatal

The skin
development. Most bone elements of thelayers
skeletal system other than the dermal bones listed
above are endochondrial bones; these include the limbs and their girdles, the ribs, and
vertebral column.

The skeletal bones are also divided into two categories as axial and appendicular bones. Axial
bones are positioned on the central axis of the skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral

6
column, and ribs while appendicular bones of the skeleton constitute the limbs and their
girdles.

Bone joints are cushioned by cartilage and lubricated by the synovial fluid. Two bone segments
that form joints are bound together by ligaments.

A bone joint

Bone ultra structure

A cross section of bone shows two concentric circles. The inner circle is called spongy bone and
it is made of the bone marrow and blood vessels. The bone marrow contains fat deposition and
blood cells that are proliferating. The outer circle is the hardened part of the bone which is
called compact bone. This is the part which gives bone its characteristics rigidity and strength.
The compact bone is produced as a result of deposition of calcium phosphate Ca 3(PO4)2secreted
by bone forming cells known as osteocytes. The compact bone is not just unstructured solid
deposition of calcium phosphate. Instead, it is build up from several thousands of distinct
building blocks known as osteons or Havershan system cemented together just like the bricks
of a wall. Each osteon has a cylindrical shape and small pockets on its wall. The pockets are
called lacunae and they contain osteocytes. The lacunae are interconnected by small canals

7
known as cannaliculi which form networks used as passages for smaller blood vessels and
nerves. The osteons also have a central canal known as osteonic canal which is a passage for
main blood vessels and nerves.

Osteone (Havershan system)

Bone growth

Bone growth takes place at the cartilaginous zone of growing bone known as the metaphysis.
During the growth process, new cartilage is deposited on top of the new one while the lower
end of the metaphysis is calcified (converted to hardened bone). When the individual stops
growth, the growth zone of the metaphysis known as epiphysial plate is completely closed and
only the epiphysis and metaphysis zones remain. This event leads to epiphysial closure and the
epiphysial becomes a narrow epiphysial line which marks the end of bone growth.

8
 Bone growth

Parts of the skeleton

Fiore limb – includes humerus, radius, ulna

Hand – includes carpals, metacarpals, phalanges (digits)

Pectoral girdle – includes clavicle and scapula

Chest – only sternum

Trunk – includes ribs and vertebral column

Skull – includes cranium, maxilla (upper jaw), and mandible (lower jaw)

Pelvic girdle – includes ilium, sacrum, pubis, ischium

Hind limb – includes femur, patella, tibia, fibula

Foot – includes tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges, and calcaneus

9
Parts of a representative mammalian skeleton (Cat)

The Tooth

The tooth is a calcified structure and it can be considered as part of the skeletal system.
However, it has different chemical composition compared to bone. Tooth has more physical
strength than bone and it is made from a hardened substance known as hydroxyl apatite which
is a mixture of calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide [Ca3(PO4)2 3(CaOH)].

The tooth has several layers. The strongest layer is the enamel which is found only on the upper
surface of the tooth. Lower to the enamel, is the dentin which is also hard but not to the same
extent as the enamel. It is found in both upper and lower parts of the tooth. Both enamel and
dentin are made of hydroxyl apatite and their difference in hardness and strength is due to the
concentration of hydroxyl apatite. Enamel has 97% hydroxyl apatite while dentine has only
70%. The pulp cavity is a soft core of the tooth which is considered as the living part. It has
blood vessels and nerve endings. Tooth decay causes damage to the enamel and dentine layers

10
exposing the pulp cavity. This results in excruciating pain when the exposed pulp comes in
contact with food or even cold air. The cement is found below the jaw line on the root of the
tooth and it provides the binding surface between the tooth and jaw bone.

Layers of the tooth

3. Muscular system
There are three types of muscle;

Smooth muscles – they are made from a single contractile muscle cell which is uninucleated.
They form the muscular walls of internal body parts including blood vessels, alimentary canal,
uterus, and urinary tract.

11
Cardiac muscle – single cell muscles that form the contractile wall of the heart. They are
uninucleated as well.

Skeletal muscles – these are voluntary muscles responsible for body movement. Skeletal
muscles are multi cellular and each cell of skeletal muscles is multinucleated.

Skeletal muscles are of two types;

Red muscles – these types of skeletal muscles have high concentration of a protein known as
myoglobin. It is rich in iron and gives the muscle tissue red colour. Myoglobin is used as an
extra oxygen reservoir apart from hemoglobin. Red muscles also have high fat reserve and
concentration of mitochondria. As a result, they can generate ATP through aerobic respiration
and don’t fatigue easily. Red muscles also have slow speed of contraction. In athletics, long
distance (endurance) athletes develop high proportion of red muscles which explains their
endurance.

White muscles – they lack myoglobin reserve which explains their lack of reddish colour. They
also don’t have high fat deposit and mitochondria concentration. As a result, they fatigue easily
due to the resulting low rate of aerobic respiration and high rate of anaerobic respiration. On
the other hand, white muscles contract very fast and they are also known as twitch muscles.
Sprint athletes have high concentration of white muscles which allows them to run at high
speeds.

Structure of skeletal muscles

The elongated and multinucleated skeletal muscle cells have a distinct structural organization
to form a skeletal muscle tissue. Several thousand cells are bundled together to form a
structure known as fascicle. Several fascicles are in turn bound together by sheets of connective
tissue known as epimysium and fascia. These bundles of fascicles are what become a skeletal
muscle tissue. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by a string of ligament.

12
Each skeletal muscle is packed with contractile fibers known as myofibrils (1-2 µm in diameter).
Myofibrils are in turn made of two types of protein fibers known as myosin (11nm) and actin
Structural organization of skeletal muscles
(5nm). Myosin and actin filaments of myofibrils have distinct structural arrangement of
repeating units known as sarcomere. A sarcomeric region has different densities of myosin and
actin filaments. These regions form three types of bands. The I band contains only actin
filaments and it appears the lightest, the A band contains both actin and myosin filaments and
appears the darkest and the third band which is the H band contains only myosin filament and
it is in between the two bands in terms of its light shed. As a result, longitudinal sections of
skeletal muscles appear as alternating white and dark bands known as striations. For this
reason, skeletal muscles are called striated muscles. Similar structural organization also exists
in cardiac muscles thus they are striated muscles as well. But smooth muscles lack striation and
referred to as nonstriated muscles.

Mechanism of muscle contraction

Muscle contraction takes place by pulling of actin filaments by myosin filaments within the
sarcomere. Before muscle fibers contract, myosin fibers bind on actin filaments using their hook
-like structures. The binding site on the actin filaments is blocked by a protein known as
tropomysin. The tropomyosin is removed from its blocking position when Ca++ is attached to it.
Therefore, Ca++ is crucial for muscle contraction. The stimulus for muscle contraction comes
13
from a motor neuron. The motor neuron is in contact with a target muscle tissue at the point of
the synaptic terminal (also known as motor end plate). When the nerve signal reaches the
synaptic terminal, a neurotransmitter is released and binds on receptors on the cell membrane
of the muscle cells. This binding triggers opening of Na+ channels which allow inward flow of
Na+. This creates a buildup of an electric field on the cell membrane known as end plate
potential. The cell membrane then forms inward folding known as transverse tubules to carry
the end plate potential to the endoplasmic reticulum (note that the endoplasmic reticulum of
muscle cells is also known as sarcoplasmic reticulum. Similarly, the cell membrane and
cytoplasm
are also called

sarcoplasmic membrane and sarcoplasm respectively). When the end plate potential gets to the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, it will be triggered to release a bulk of Ca++. Eventually the Ca++ is used
to remove the tropomyosin from the binding site of the mysosin. However, it is not enough to
remove tropomysoin for myosin to bind. A final step is required where ATP is used to provide
the necessary energy for the binding to take place. Once myosin is attached on actin, it pulls the
actin filaments from either sides of the sarcomere towards the center. Hence, contraction takes
place by sliding of the actin filaments over myosin resulting in a decrease in the sarcomeric
width. This mechanism of muscle contraction is described by the sliding filament model
14
proposed by Huxley and Huxley in 1954. Note that there is no bending or shortening of the
actual size of both filaments during muscle contraction. The muscle fibers relax and come to
their resting position when the myosin is detached from actin. The detachment also requires
expenditure of energy from ATP hydrolysis. The muscle stiffness in dead animals known as rigor
mortis is due to lack of ATP that leaves mysosin and actin filaments attached during the time of
death. It s clear that muscle contraction is energy dependent and there should be continuous
supply to sustain muscle contraction. For this reason, muscle cells have additional energy
reserve known as creatine phosphate which is a protein containing high energy phosphate
bonds produced in the liver. Creatine phosphate is used to produce ATP when the cells are not
able to produce enough ATP through cellular respiration.

The binding process of myosin and actin

15
 4.

Homeostasis
Muscle contraction
Homeostastis is the sum of physiological process.
processes responsible Also note
to maintain the different
a constant internal bands
environment with regard to temperature and blood chemistry. Here two major homeostatic
processes - thermoregulation and osmoregulation are considered.

16
Thermoregulation
Animals are affected by extreme temperature. Extremely hot temperature denatures enzymes
and other proteins while harsh cold temperature solidifies membrane structures and also
denatures enzymes.

Some animals have body temperature that varies with the environment and they are called
poikilothermic or cold blooded (reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates) while others have
constant internal temperature and they are referred as homeothermic or warm blooded
(mammals and birds).

Poikilotherms obtain heat from the environment, a condition known as ectothermy (the
animals are called ectothermic) while homeotherms generate body heat internally and they are
called endothermic (endothermy). Endotherms like shrews and hamming birds produce heat
which is also lost rapidly due to their high surface area to volume ratio. In order to tackle this
problem, they shift to pokilothermy when they are at rest and return to homeothermy when
they are active. This condition is termed as heterothermy.

Thermoregulation mechanisms

Sweating – the production of warm fluid by the skin sweat glands is a mechanism of cooling
only known in mammals. However, excessive sweating can have serious impacts because it
results in excessive loss of salt and water. For example, if a person exercises in a hot day he
could lose upto 4 liters of water/hr and 6-18% salt/day.

Vasodilation is a mechanism of heat loss because it allows more blood to come to the skin
surface. In this manner, heat is lost to the environment by convection. The opposite of
vasodilation is vasoconstriction which narrows blood vessels that limits blood flow to the skin
and minimize heat loss to the cold environment.

In mammals, there are specialized networks of arteries and veins known as rete mirable. In cold
weather, the veins bring cold blood from the extremities which is undesirable to get into the
core and vital body parts such as the heart and brain. On the other hand, arteries take hot
17
blood from the heart to body parts including the extremities where the heat could be lost.
However, before this happens, the arteries of the rete mirable transfer the heat to the veins so
that the venous blood that returns back to the heart gets warmed and the body heat is
conserved.

In temperate regions some animals enter a period of dormancy through most of the winter. In
this period of dormancy known as hibernation, the animals are not active, instead they reduce
their energy demanding metabolic activities including heart beat and respiration and stay in
deep sleep. When the harsh winter season is over, they come back to normal life triggered by
the change in photoperiod cues (length of the day and night). For example, one of the true
hibernating animals, wood chucks, reduce their heart beat from 80/min – 4 or 5/min. Their
body temperature also goes down to just 15oC. Aestivation is similar type of dormancy but
occurring during a harsh summer.

Animals also use emigration, cuddling, and sheltering as thermoregulatory and thermal
adaptation mechanisms.

Thermogenesis

Thermogenesis is a mechanism of heat generation by a physiological means by endothermic

animals. There are four mechanisms of thermogenesis.

Muscle contraction – when muscles contract voluntarily or involuntarily (shivering) ATP is

hydolysed which is accompanied by heat release.

ATPase pump enzymes – cold temperature triggers the release of the hormone thyroxine by
the thyroid gland and norepinephrine by nerve cells. The two hormones stimulate Na+ channels
to open and allow inward flow of Na+. Later on, Na+ ions are pumped out by ATPase enzymes
which hydrolyze ATP and release heat energy.

Brown fat metabolism – brown fat is a specialized fat rich in mitochondria and stored on the
shoulder blades and the ribs. Heat generated by metabolism of this fat deposit is used to
maintain optimum temperature around the vital organs mainly the heart and brain.
18
Overall metabolic rate – increase in overall metabolic rate of the body to generate heat.

The hypothalamus is responsible for regulating most thermoregulatory processes.

Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining the right balance of solvent (water) and solutes
(electrolytes, waste products such as nitrogenous waste, and residues of drugs and toxins). One
of the main metabolic wastes that need to be removed (excreted) from the body is nitrogenous
waste which results from breakdown of aminoacids. Nitrogenous waste is processed by the
liver into different forms in different animals. The type of nitrogenous waste produced by
mammals is urea;

The kidneys are the excretory organs of mammals and other vertebrates. They are paired
organs located on either side of the lumbar (back of the waist) region. Each human kidney is
approximately 0.20% of the body weight.

Nephrotubules found in each kidney are the functional units which absorb fluid from the
circulatory system and filter excess water and solutes that are excreted as urine. There are upto
one million nephrotubules in each kidney.

Structure of the kidneys

The kidneys have an overall bean shaped appearance. Externally they are enveloped with three
layers. The outer most layer is a tough flattened sheet of connective tissue known as renal
fascia. Below, there is a spongy layer of fat called renal fat pad. Finally, the inner most layer is a
dense and irregular connective tissue called renal capsule. These layers help to maintain the
shape and structure of the kidneys.
19
Internally, the kidneys have three regions. The outer (peripheral) part is called the cortex where
most parts of nephrotubules are positioned. The middle part is the medulla which has distinctly
divided pyramid structures known as renal pyramids. The pyramids are separated by
connective tissue bands known as renal columns. The medulla contains the loope of Henle of
most nephrotubules. The third region is the funnel shaped renal pelvis which collects urine and
transports it to the ureter. Part of the kidney which is point of entry and exit of blood vessels,
nerves and the ureters is called the renal hilum.

Kidney
The process of urine formation structures
The kidneys receive blood directly from the aorta through the renal artery. The renal artery
branches into a network of capillaries known as glomeruli formed on the bowman’s capsule of
the nephrotublue. The high blood pressure in the aorta forces the plasma fluid to be filtered
into the inside (lumen) of the nephrotubules. Glucose, aminoacids, water, urea and other
solutes are filtered at this point. The pores on the glomerular capillaries are relatively wider (20-

20
50nm) to facilitate filtration. However, proteins are not filtered out due to their large molecular
size. The first filtrate that is formed in the nephrotubules in this manner is called glomerular
filtrate. Upto 180 liter of glomerular filtrate is produced per day. Of this, 99% is reabsorbed
while the remaining 1% is excreted as urine. As the filtrate proceeds in the lumen towards the
proximal nephrotubule, glucose and aminoacids are fully reabsorbed and returned to the body
circulation. However, if there is excess glucose in the blood like in the case of diabetes, there
will be high concentration of glucose in the filtrate more than that can be returned. As a result,
glucose can be detected in the urine of diabetic individuals. In addition to glucose and
aminoacids, half of the urea, water and Na+ are also reabsorbed. The amount of water and Na+
reabsorbed or excreted outside of the body is influenced by the amount of intake. Normally, an
adult human being excretes up to 1-2 liters of urine per day. Excessive urine production is
known as polyuria where >2.5 liters of urine is produced. Low urine productions are known as
oligouria (<400 ml) and anuria (<100ml). These conditions should be checked by doctors to
assess the health status of the kidneys and the overall excretory system.

The filtrate then flows down the descending limb of the nephrotubules. This section is only
permeable to water therefore it allows reabsorption of water. The tissue space (interstitial
space) in the region of the descending limb is hypertonic compared to the filtrate. As a result,
water is reabsorbed by osmotic force. A network of arteries and veins known as vasa recta
surround the descending limb and they are responsible for absorbing water from the interstitial
fluid due to their high concentration of proteins. This in turn makes the interstitial space around
the descending limb hypertonic. The filtrate now becomes hypertonic as it loses water and
makes a ‘U’ turn around the Loop of Henle and flows upwards in the ascending limb. At the
lower side of the ascending limb, Na+ is reabsorbed. As it loses Na+ the filtrate now starts to
become hypotonic. At the upper end of the ascending limb (which is wider than the lower part)
further Na+ reabsorption takes place. However, this is done against concentration gradient via
active transport. The filtrate then makes its way through the distal convoluted tubule and joins
the collecting duct. At the upper part of the collecting duct water is reabsorbed and at the
lower end reabsorption of urea takes place. Urine formation is then completed at the lower

21
end of the collecting duct and each drop of urine from each nephrotubule is collected by the
renal pelvis and released from the kidneys through the ureter into the urinary bladder. Urine
formation also includes a process of secretion. Secretion is the addition of particles that are
either impossible to filter at the Bowman’s capsule due to their large size (such as creatinin,
antibiotics, and toxins) or those ions which are in excess amount in the blood such as H+ and
K+. Secretion mainly occurs at the proximal and distal convoluted tubules directly from the
capillaries.

Proximal convoluted tubule

Distal convoluted tubule

Gloemruli
Glomeruli

H2HO2O
Bowman’s capsule
Na+
Collecting
Collectingduct
duct
HH
2O
2O

Urea
Na+

Loop of Henle

Structure of the nephron and the urine formation process

Hormonal regulation of urine volume

If salt concentration increases due to excess intake , the blood becomes thicker and requires
dilution. This is first sensed by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. Then the hypothalamus
sends signals to the pituitary to release the hormone vasopressin also known as anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH). Vsopressin is transported to the kidneys and acts on the cells of the upper

22
collecting duct to make them more permeable to water so that more water is reabsorbed. In
doing so more water is retained in the body, or in other words urine volume is reduced. The
additional water retained in the body helps to dilute the thickened blood. However, if secretion
of vasopressin continuous for long, the blood becomes too diluted and blood pressure
increases. When this happens, baroreceptors (pressure receptors) in the heart send signal to
the hypothalamus. This time the hypothalamus sends signal to stop release of vasopressin.

When blood pressure gets low, it is detected by the juxta glomerular apparatus of the kidneys
which responds by releasing the protein rennin. Rennin converts the inactive plasma protein
angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. Then angiotensin I is converted to its active form
angiotensin II by enzymes produced in the capillaries of the lung. Angiotensin II has the
following functions:

 Constriction of blood vessels

 Stimulation of thirst centers in the hypothalamus

 Stimulation of the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.

Constriction of blood vessels directly affects blood pressure by increasing it. Also, drinking more
water has the same effect on blood pressure. Aldosterone increases the rate of reabsorption of
Na+ and water at the distal convoluted tubule of the nephrotubules. This will once again
increase blood pressure. If blood pressure increases to unwanted level, the atrial natriuretic
factor (ANF) is secreted by cells of the atrium of the heart. ANF counter acts upon the effect of
angiotensin II by stimulating secretion of Na+ and water in urine (increased urine volume) and
vasodilation, both of which help to reduce blood pressure.

Blood Chemistry
Blood hast two parts; plasma (90%) and cells (10%)

Plasma

The plasma is a liquid that contains

 Gases (O2, CO2, N2)

23
  Ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-, SO4-, HPO2-4, H2PO4-)

 Nutrients and raw materials (glucose, fatty acids, aminoacids, nitrogenous base,
vitamins)

 Proteins (hormones, carriers, immunoglobulins, fibrinogen, albumin). Most blood

proteins are synthesized by the liver.

 Waste (lactic acid, urea, degraded cellular parts, metabolites)

Blood cells

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)- there are 5 million/ml, upto 25 billion in a human body. They are
enucleated as matured cells.

White blood cells (leukocytes) – 7500/ml. There are three different types of white blood cells.

 Granulocytes – contain enzymes that trigger allergy reaction and acute allergy reactions
of the immune system

 Monocytes – change into macrophages when they mature and engulf bacteria and
cellular debris

 Lymphocytes – produce antibodies

Germinative blood stem cells that differentiate into red or white blood cells are found in the fat
marrow of bones.

Megakaryocytes are special stem cells which produce platelets. Platelets are also membrane
bound structures but not proper cells as such. They are responsible for blood clotting.

During bleeding, platelets breakdown as they come in contact with the surrounding connective
tissue. Then they release serotonin and thromboplastin. Serotonin causes constriction of blood
vessels.

Thromboplastin converts plasma protein prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin in turn converts
fibrinogen into fibrin which forms a meshwork that creates blood clot.

Hemophilia is a genetic disorder that results failure of blood clotting. The gene responsible for
heamophilia is found on the X chromosome. Thus the disease is sex linked. It is a recessive gene

24
that is expressed if both X chromosomes carry the defective gene in females. Therefore, a
female becomes haemophilic if she receives the gene from both parents. If she inherits one
normal and one defective gene, she becomes a carrier. In males, having the defective gene on
the only X chromosome results in haemophilia. As a result, the frequency of haemophilia is
high in males than females. Prevention method available involves collecting the egg and
fertilizing it in a test tube. Then the embryo is tested for the defective gene. If it is free, the
embryo is inserted back into the uterus. Haemophilia can be treated by medication that
contains the clotting factors that are missing (can’t be produced) in the patient.

5. Sense organs
The Eye
The eye is spherical in its overall shape. It is enveloped with a protective connective tissue layer
known as sclera. Underneath the sclera, there is vascularized layer, the choroid, which provides
nutritional requirements to the sclera and other parts of the eye. The transparent glassy part of
the eye which allows passage of light into the eye is the cornea. It is made of specialized skin
that contains collagen fibers. The iris is a pigmented muscular structure that has a central hole-
25
the pupil. The circular muscles of the iris contract and relax to regulate the size of the pupil
there by regulating the amount of light that enters into the eye. The space between the cornea
and the iris is filled with the aqueous humour. Just behind the iris, there is the biconvex lens
which is responsible for focusing light on the retina. The lens is suspended by ciliary muscles
that contract and relax to regulate the shape of the lens for proper focusing (seel also below).
The retina contains the visual cells or photoreceptors that receive light and form the visual
image. There are two types of photoreceptor cells. Cones are sensitive for bright light and
responsible for day time vision while rods are sensitive to dim light. The retina has two regions.
The neural retina is the image forming part while the pigment retina is responsible for
reflecting or absorbing excess light not used in image formation. Another function of the
pigment retina is described in a later part. Fovea is a small area (1mm2) of the retina which is
densely packed with photoreceptor cells and a spot where high visual acuity (clear vision)
occurs. The blind spot (optic disc) is part of the eye through which the nerves from the neural
retina leave the optic nerve. The optic nerve is the major nerve of the eye which transports the
image signal to the brain. The space between the lens and retina is filled with the vitrous
humour.

26
 Parts of the eye

Focusing

The process of focusing is all about bending light coming from visual objects and casting it on
the retina. While the lens is the major focusing structure of the eye, the cornea also bends light
to some extent, therefore, it is also considered as a focusing structure of the eye. Light rays
that come from distant objects require slight bending, thus the thickness of the lens should be
reduced by stretching effect from the cilliary muscles. On the other hand, light rays coming
from near objects require strong bending and the lens thickness should be increased. Such
flexibility of the lens thickness for proper focusing of the image is called accommodation. As we
age, the lens losses its flexibility and our visual capacity declines. There are a number of visual
problems (defects) that are clinically recognized and treated.

27
 The process of focusing

Short sightedness (Myopia) – this is a condition where a person is able to see near objects but
unable to focus on distant objects. Shortsightedness results from a powerful lens or long eye
balls. The light coming from distant objects is powerfully bent so that the image is prematurely
focused before the retina. Myopia is corrected by concave (divergent lenses).

Long sightedness (Hyperopia) – this is the opposite of myopia where a person can see clearly
distant objects while having difficulty to see near objects. It results from having weak lens or
short eye ball. Light coming from near objects requires strong bending. But the weak and
flattened lens of hyperopic individual is unable to attain the required bending. As a result, the
image is formed late and falls behind the retina. Hyperopia is corrected by convex of converging
lens.

Astigmatism – is a condition which results from having a cornea with irregular surfaces. The
light is bent at different and irregular angles by the cornea making it difficult to form a clear
visual image. The resulting visual problem experienced by the individual is dependent on the
level of irregularity. Minor surface irregularities may not have serious visual impacts. However,
if the surface irregularity is pronounced, visual capacity can be seriously affected irrespective of
distance. Astigmatism can be corrected by specially designed lenses, contact lenses and
surgery.

Image formation

28
When rods and cones receive light, the visual pigment inside them is stimulated. This pigment is
called rhodopsin. Rhodpsin has two components known as retinol and opsin. Retinol which is a
derivative of Vitamin A changes its three dimensional conformation (shape) from 11-cis to all
trans. As this happens, the retinol stretches and comes in contact with the cell membrane. This
contact results in the activation of a molecule known as transducin. Transducin in its turn
activates phosphodiesterase which hydrolyses molecules of cyclic guanine monophosphate
(cGMP) which results in the closing of Na+ channels of the plasma membrane. This leads finally
to the generation of an electric field on the plasma membrane known as hyperpolarization (this
is explained under Nervous System). The visual signal is simply the hyperpolarization formed on
the photoreceptor cells. Now this visual signal has to be transported to the vision center of the
brain to be processed and understood as an image.

The cones and rods are connected to nerve cells known as bipolar cells. The bipolar cells
receive the visual signal and transmit the image to the ganglion cells. Finally, the image is
transported to the brain through the optic nerve. Image quality or visual acuity is determined
by the density of photoreceptors on the retina. Birds of prey such as eagle, have super visual
acuity since they have high density of photoreceptors in tiny spaces of the retina. For instance,
birds of prey have up to 1 million photoreceptor/1mm2 area of the retina compared to just
160,000 /1mm2 of humans. Visual acuity is also a function of the number of photoreceptors
connected with a bipolar cell. If too many photoreceptors send their signal to a single bipolar
cell, the image quality decreases due to signal overlap and trafficking.

Finally, the retinol which was converted to all-trans confirmation is recycled back to the 11-cis
conformation by the pigment retina.

29
 Photoreceptors and sensory neurons on the retina

The Ear
The ear has three parts, which are the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The outer ear has
an external lobe (pinna) which has different shape and size in different mammals.

Sound waves are transmitted to the middle ear through the tympanic membrane (ear drum).
Then it is transmitted to the hearing structure in the middle ear known as cochlea. The sound
vibration enters the cochlea through a small opening known as oval window. There are three
middle ear bones that assist in amplification of sound waves. These small pebbles are called
hammer, anvil, and stirrup. Alternatively they are also called maleus, incus and stapes
respectively. Sound waves are also amplified by the tympanic membrane and this why the ear
drum is an important structure for proper hearing. Another point of amplification of the sound
waves is the small oval windows.

The cochlea is divided into 3 canals known as scala vestibule (vestibular canal), scala tympani
(tympanic canal), and scala media (middle canal). These canals are filled with gelatinous fluids
known as perilymph (vestibular and tympanic canals) and endolymph (middle canal).

30
 Parts of the ear

The hearing organ inside the cochlea is called organ of Corti and it is found on the membrane of
the middle canal. It is a membranous structure embedded with sound sensitive cells known as
hair cells. They have hair like projections hence their name. Vibration from the tympanic canal
is transferred to these sound sensory cells. The sound sensory cells generate the hearing signal
and send it through the auditory nerve to the hearing center of the brain.

The hearing capacity of humans is between 15 Hz – 20,000 Hz (Hz= frequency/second). Sound

vibrations outside of this range are undetectable by the human ear.

(Middle canal)

31
Hair cells
 Inner part of the cochlea showing the organ of Corti

The ear is also an organ of balance. The organ of balance of the ear is called vestibular
apparatus located just in front of the cochlea. It has fluid filled chambers know as saccule and
utricle that contain balance sensory cells. The saccule is responsible for maintaining vertical
balance while utricle is responsible for horizontal balance. Close to the vestibular apparatus,
there are three semi-circular canals that are responsible for maintaining balance in a rotational
movement.

The vestibular apparatus of the ear responsible for keeping balance

The Tongue
The tongue surface has
taste sensitive

32
clusters known as taste buds which contain clusters of taste sensory cells. These cells have villi
which contain receptor molecules that bind with a taste particle when it presents itself on the
tongue surface. After a taste stimulus is bound on the receptors on the villi, Na+ and K+ flow
into the cell. This will generate a nerve signal (in this case the taste signal) that is transported to
a sensory neuron attached to the taste sensory cell.

Taste receptor cells of the tongue

33
The tongue surface is not uniformly sensitive to all kinds of tastes. Instead, different regions
have specialized taste sensitivity;

 Tip = sensitive to sweet taste

 Lower lateral sides = sensitive to salt

 Upper lateral sides = sensitive to sour taste

 Central region = sensitive to umami (taste of broth and cooked meat)

 Back = sensitive to bitter taste

Taste regions of the tongue

The Nose
The smell structure of the nose is the olfactory epithelium located at the base of the nose just
below the forehead. Smell sensory cells are unlike other sensory cells because they have dual
characteristics as both sensory cells and sensory neurons. That means, they generate the smell
signal and also transmit it to the brain smell (olfactory) center themselves without the need for
a sensory neuron.

34
Olfactory receptor cells have villi like taste receptor cells. When smell particles bind on
receptors found on the villi, G-protein is activated to stimulate the enzyme adenylcyclase which
synthesizes cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP binds with channel proteins that
will cause inward flow of Na+. This results in the formation of membrane depolarization
(explained under Nervous system). This depolarized membrane status constitutes the olfactory
signal which is sent to the olfactory centers of the brain.

The olfactory epithelium and the olfactory receptor cells. Note the cells have two end
that act as sensory cell and sensory neuron

Skin receptors

There are four main types of skin receptors;

Pacinian corpuscles – inserted in the base of the dermis, sensitive to firm pressure (touch)
stimulus on the skin

Meissner’s corpuscles – located close to the epidermis and they are sensitive to gentle (slight)
touch.

Ruffini’s corpuscles – heat receptors

35
Krause’s corpuscles – cold receptors

Skin receptors

36
6. Nervous system
Parts of nerve cells (Neurons)

Nerve cells also known as neurons are specialized cells which are elongated like threads or
cables. They have different parts:

Dendrites (antennae) are branching structures that originate from the cell body. They
collect nerve signals from other nerve cells or receptor cells.

Cell body is the part which carries the different organelles and the nucleus that are
responsible for carrying out regular activities of a cell (respiration, material recycling,
synthesis, packing, etc)

Axon is the elongated cable-like part of a neuron which is responsible for generation
and propagation of the nerve impulse. The size of axons varies both in length and width.
In most cells, the diameter is between 1-20 µm. The Giant squid holds the record for
axon width with some of its neurons having a width of upto 1 mm (1000 µm!). The
length of the axon in most neurons does not exceed few micrometers, while some of
the neurons in the giraffe could have axons that reach a staggering length of 4 m (4
million micrometers)

Synaptic terminals form the end tip of the neuron. They are also branching structures
and they are sites of nerve impulse transmission between two neurons, or between a
motor neuron and muscles.

37
 Structure of a neuron

Types of neurons
Sensory (receptor) neurons, these are neurons that receive sensory signals (stimuli) from
receptor cells and pass them to interneurons.

Effector (motor) neurons are responsible for transmission of response or command signals
to muscle cells or glands and trigger contraction or secretion respectively.

Inter (association) neurons receive signals from receptor neurons, process and interpret the
signals and send necessary response or command signals to motor neurons. In doing so,
the interneurons are responsible for coordination and integration of muscle contractions.
They are also the most common types of neurons, making upto 98% of the tens of billions of
nerve cells in the human body.

Generation of the neural signal (nerve impulse)

The neural signal (nerve impulse) is formed in the form of an electric field. The neuron has a
resting potential of -70 mV towards the inner side of the plasma membrane. This is created as a
result of ionic imbalance between the two sides of the membrane.

38
Na+ and K+ are pumped outside and inside of the cell respectively by the Na+-K+ ATPase pump.
However, since K+ leaks out of the cell at a higher rate than the inward leakage of Na+, the
inside of the cell becomes negatively charged and the outside becomes positively charged.

Generation of a nerve impulse starts when the neuron receives stimulation (chemical or
electrical) through its dendrites.

Upon reception of the stimulus, Na+ channels will be opened at the upper part of the axon to
allow inward flow of Na+ ions. This will reduce the charge difference between the two sides
which is called depolarization. If the depolarization can cause what is called a threshold
potential (which is -55 mV) on the inner part of the cell membrane, it can cause a second round
opening of Na+ channels which will allow an influx of more Na+ ions. This will cause a further
depolarization and reversal of the electric charge between the two sides of the plasma
membrane. Now the inner side will have around +40 mV electric field and this is called the
action potential. Essentially, the action potential is what constitutes the nerve impulse.

Propagation of the nerve signal

Once it is generated at the upper part of the axon, the nerve impulse (action potential) has to
be propagated downwards to the synaptic terminal.

The process of propagation starts by opening of Na+ channels on a segment of the axon just
below the action potential. This opening is stimulated by the action potential itself. Following
this, Na+ will flow inwards to cause a depolarization of +40 mV. At this time, the membrane
where the first depolarization took place reverses its depolarized state to -70 mV due to closing
of Na+ channels and opening of K+ channels. These results in the flow of more K+ channels
outside of the cell making the outer part of the cell membrane positively charged.

Now, note that the action potential has moved downwards on the axon few notches. Further
stimulation of the axon below the action potential results repetition of the depolarization steps
until the action potential finally reaches the synaptic terminal.
39
The speed of propagation is normally between 1 – 100m/s. Temperature and axon width
increase speed of transmission. In addition to temperature and axon width, speed of
propagation is also increased by the presence of the myelin sheath. This lipid coating of the
axon is found in some neurons which are referred as myelinated neurons. The myelin sheath is
an extension of the cell membrane of what are called glial cells that are supportive cells of the
neurons. There are points on the axon which are not covered with myelin sheath called nodes
of Ranvier. The impulse propagates by jumping between the nodes of Ranvier, as a result it
moves faster than the usual mechanism of transmission. Such propagation of the nerve impulse
by jumping is called saltatory propagation.

Transfer of impulses between neurons

Impulses between presynaptic (signal transmitting) and postsynaptic (signal receiving)

neurons are transmitted by either electrical route (electrical synapses) or chemical route
(chemical synapses).

Electrical synapses: in this mechanism of transmission, the two neurons are in direct
contact with each other forming a gap junction. The nerve impulse directly passes
through the gap junction. Such route is very fast and it is common in cardiac muscles.

Chemical synapses: the presynaptic neuron produces a neurotransmitter which is

released adjacent to the postynaptic neuron. Chemical synapses are slower than electric
synapses. The two neurons do not make direct contact as in electrical synapses. There is
an open space between them which has a diameter of 15-20 nm and it is called synaptic
cleft. The neurotransmitter is found in what are called synaptic vesicles at the tip of the
synaptic terminal. As the nerve impulse gets to the synaptic terminal of the presynaptic
neuron, Ca++ flows into the synaptic terminal. This will cause fusion of the synaptic
vesicles with the plasma membrane and subsequent secretion of the neurotransmitter
by exocytosis. Several types of neurotransmitters are known and most studied are
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. The amount of

40
 neurotransmitter released is proportional to the intensity of the nerve impulse and the
amount of Ca++ diffused into the cell.

Once released on the synaptic cleft, the neurotransmitter binds on its receptor. The
binding will trigger either one of two types of postsynaptic potential in the postsynaptic
neuron. These are Excitory Postsynaptic Potential (EPP) and Inhibitory Postsynaptic
Potential (IPP). EPP is created as a result of inward flow of cations (Ca++, Na+, and K+).
These cations cause membrane depolarization and generation of nerve impulse. On the
other hand, IPP is created due to inward flow of Cl- or outward flow of K+. The result is
an increase in the negative charge of the inner membrane from -70 mV to -90 mV. Such
deepening of the polarized state of the membrane is called hyperpolarizaton. When a
neuron is hyperpolarized, it is made to become inactive (deep rest) - the reason why
such post synaptic potentials are called inhibitory. The type of post synaptic potential
generated in the postsynaptic neuron is determined by the characteristics of the
receptor.

After delivering the message to the postsynaptic neuron, the neurotransmitter has to be
removed by the necessary enzymes. This is done either by absorption into the
presynaptic neuron or breakdown by the postsynaptic neuron. This is very important
because, if the neurotransmitter is left for a long time, its effect will be prolonged where
a neuron can remain generating nerve impulses continuously (EPP) or it will remain
inhibited for long (IPP). Nerve gases and insecticides are poisonous to the nervous
system through affecting the mechanism of neurotransmitter removal. They have an
active agent called DIIPF which is an enzyme inhibitor affecting the enzymes the
breakdown neurotransmitters.

Organization of the nervous system

The nervous system is organized at two levels - the central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord) and peripheral nervous system (neural networks in other body parts).

41
The brain receives signals directly from cranial nerves and those coming from the peripheral
nervous system through the spinal cord. It also sends out commands through cranial nerves,
the spinal cord, and pituitary secretions.

In cross section, the brain has an outer layer of gray matter which contains the cell bodies and
an inner layer of white matter which is made of the axons of brain neurons.

The spinal cord is hollow and it is filled with the cerebrospinal fluid. It mainly contains
interneurons and motor neurons.

The peripheral nervous system is composed of sensory and motor neurons. It also contains the
paired sensory ganglia (also called dorsal root ganglia).

The sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia collect sensory stimulus from sensory cells and
send it to the spinal cord.

The peripheral nervous system is of two types – somatic nervous system and autonomic
nervous system. The somatic nervous system has sensory and motor neurons and it is
voluntary. The autonomic nervous system is involuntary and it controls heart rate, digestion,
excretion, etc and it is mainly composed of motor neurons.

The autonomic nervous system is also categorized as sympathetic and parasympathetic. The
sympathetic nervous system accelerates while the parasympathetic nervous system slows
down internal body activities such as breathing and heart rate. The sympathetic nervous
system uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter while the parasympathetic uses
acetylcholine.

42
Parts of the brain

The brain has three divisions

Cerebellum
Metencephalen
Pons
Hind brain
Mylencephalon
Medulla oblongata

Mid brian Mesencephalon Corpora quadrigemina

Cerebrum (cortex and basal nuclei)

Telencephalon

Fore brain Thalamus

Diencephalon
Hypothalamus

Pineal body

43
 Parts of the brain

Functions of parts of the brain

Medulla oblongata controls blood pressure, breathing, heart beat, digestion, and other
autonomic activities.
Thalamus is the pathway for sensory nerves except smell.
Hypothalamus controls appetite, drinking, osmoregulation, reproduction, emotion and
mood

44
Cerebellum is responsible for motor coordination
Cerebrum
 Occipital lobe – responsible for vision
 Temporal lobe – responsible for hearing
 Parietal lobe – responsible for motor coordination (control of skeletal
muscles)
 Frontal lobe – responsible for intellectual processes, thinking, rationalization
logic, abstraction, smell.

45
7. Endocrine System
The endocrine system is a system of coordination using chemicals known as hormones.
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands which are ductless and release their hormones into
the interstitial fluid. The hormones are later on absorbed by the blood stream and transported
to the target cells where they will have their specific effects.

Below, some of the major endocrine glands, their hormones and functions are described.

The pancreas
It has circular patches of glandular cells called Islets of Langerhans. They produce three
hormones:

 Insulin which is produced by β-cells of the Islets of Langerhans facilitates glucose

metabolism in cells also stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver.

 Glucagon produced by α-cells of the Islets of Langerhans stimulates conversion of

glycogen back to glucose.

 Somatostatin produced by delta cells inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon

depending on their blood concentration. Thus, it helps to regulate the concentration
of the two hormones

Secretion of insulin and glucagon is under control of hypothalamic nerves.

Diabetes is a disease that results in disruption of the control mechanism of sugar level in the
blood. Signs of diabetes include weight loss, constant hunger and thirst, frequent urination, and
fatigue. Type I Diabetes is caused by inability of the pancreas to secret insulin. It occurs at early
age. This kind of diabetes is treated with a daily dose of insulin injection throughout life. Type II
Diabetes is caused by inability of cells of the liver to respond to insulin. Therefore, even if the
pancreas can produce insulin, the cells in the liver will not respond and fail to convert glucose
to glycogen as they should. This type of diabetes occurs at older ages (usually >45 years). It is
also called insulin resistant type of diabetes since the problem arises due to lack of response to
the effect of insulin. Obesity, alcoholism, high fat and other unhealthy diets are risk factors for
Type II Diabetes. It can be treated and controlled by exercise to maintain healthy weight and
having diet that has low fat and more fruits and vegetables. Gestational diabetes is a type of
46
diabetes that occurs during pregnancy. It is similar with Type II Diabetes and returns back to
normal after giving birth.

Kidneys
The kidneys also produce three types of hormones:

 Erythropoietin stimulates production of erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the bone

marrow.

 An unknown hormone converts VitD3 to 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol, which in

turn stimulates absorption of calcium by the intestine. Vitamin D 3 (Calciferol) is
inactive and will not help in bone development before it is converted to 1,25
dihydroxycholecalciferol.

 Renin converts the inactive blood protein angiotensinogen to its active form
angiotensin which is responsible for elevating blood pressure by inducing thirst,
vasoconstriction, and secretion of aldosterone. This is important when blood
pressure goes down below normal levels.

The Heart
It produces atrialnatriuretic factor (ANF) which stimulates secretion of more Na+ and water
through urine and vasodilation to reduce blood pressure resulting from the effect of
angiotensin.

Adrenal glands
These are a pair of glands found anterior to each kidney. Each adrenal gland has two separate
regions which produce different hormones. These are the outer cortex and the inner medulla
regions.

Adrenal cortex

It produces steroid hormones that are known as corticosteroids. There are three types:

 Glucocoricoids stimulate glucose production from proteins and carbohydrates in

the liver. Cortisol is the main type of glucocorticoid. Lack of these hormones causes
Addison’s disease which shows symptoms of weakness and weight loss. These
hormones also stimulate fat deposition and reduce inflammation. There are
47
 corticosteroid drugs synthesized as derivatives of cortisol. For example, cortisone
(one of such groups of drugs) is subscribed for inflammation, swelling, athletic
(sport) injuries, arthritis, insect bites, and poison ivy.

 Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) stimulates reabsorption of Na+ and water at the

distal convoluted tubule of the kidneys and secretion of K+. High concentration of
aldosterone could cause increased blood pressure, edema and muscle paralysis. If
the amount of this hormone goes down beyond normal levels, there will be
increased loss of water and Na+ which leads to low blood pressure that could be
fatal.

 Sex steroids which are testosterone (male sex hormone) and estrogen (female sex
hormone) regulate development of secondary sexual characters and sex. Abnormal
secretions of these hormones could result in development of secondary sexual
characters of the opposite sex i.e. secretion of estrogens in males could lead to
development of female sexual characters in a male individual such as high pitch
voice, lack of facial hair, round body stature, development of breasts. Similarly,
females with testosterone secretion can have male characters such as facial hair,
muscular body, and deep voice.

Adrenal medulla

 It produces adrenalin (epinephrine) and noradrenalin (norepinephrine). These

hormones are also used as neurotransmitters in the nervous system.

 But when they are produced by the adrenal medulla, they trigger what is known as the
fight or flight response when we are excited or faced with a sudden life endangering
situation. This response includes increased heart beat and breathing rate, muscle
tension, dilation of the pupil, and elevation of sugar levels.

 The hormones are also produced during periods of anxiety thereby causing elevation of
blood pressure and stress. As a result, together with cortisol, they are known as stress
hormones.

Thyroid gland
48
  Located on the tracheal region, the thyroid gland secrets the hormone thyroxin. This
hormone is secreted in two forms with the same functions. One of these forms is known
as Triiodothyronine (T3) and the other is Thyroxine (T4). The two are primarily different
based on the number of iodine molecules they contain, which is 3 and 4 respectively.

 The thyroid hormones are derivatives of the aminoacid tyrocine.

Functions

 Carbohydrate breakdown
 Protein synthesis
 Regulation of metabolic rate (Oxygen consumption)
 Thermogenesis

The synthesis of thyroid hormones is regulated by Thyrotropic hormone (TH) also formerly
called Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which is secreted by the anterior pituitary.

Abnormal thyroxine production causes health problems.

 Hypothyroidism is a condition of low thyroxine production. It results in low

metabolic rate, low heart rate and the associated weight gain, fatigue, and
sluggishness. Hypothyroidism occurring during fetal development (pregnancy)
causes Cretinism, a condition which results in retarded mental and physical
development.

 Hyperthyroidism is the reverse of hypothyroidism where secretion of thyroxine is in

excess. It results in increased metabolic rate, weight loss and hyperactivity.

Enlargement of the thyroid gland known as Goiter results from lack of iodine. When iodine is
absent, thyroxine production drops which in turn triggers the release of TH by the pituitary. This
causes constant stimulation on the thyroid gland to maximize thyroxine production. As the
thyroid tries to stretch its output in spite of limited iodine supply, the thyroid tissue starts to
bulge and develop goiter. Goiter can be prevented by adding iodine in the diet usually in the
form of iodized salt.

49
In addition to thyroxine, the thyroid gland produces the hormone calcitonin. This hormone
inhibits the action of cells known as osteoclats. Osteoclasts digest calcium stored in bone and
release it to the blood stream. Thus, calcitonin can decrease blood calcium concentration by
stopping the ostocalsts from adding calcium into the blood.

Parathyroid glands

The parathyroid glands are found in two pairs on either side of the thyroid gland. They secrete
the parathyroid hormone which is antagonistic to calcitonin. The parathyroid hormone
increases the activity and number of osteoclasts which results in increased rate of calcium
removal from bone and its addition into the blood stream.

Hypothalam
us
Parathyroid
Pituitary glands
gland

Thyroid
gland
Adrenal
glands
Pancreas

Ovaries
(females)

Testes
(males)

Endocrine glands

50
Pituitary gland

The pituitary secretes a number of hormones which either directly trigger a physiological
response by body organs or stimulate the production of another hormone by endocrine glands.

The pituitary has anterior and posterior lobes that secrete different hormones. The anterior
lobe secrets most of the pituitary hormones.

Anterior pituitary

 Thyrotropic hormone stimulates thyroxine secretion.

 Gonadotropic hormone stimulates secretion of Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

and Leuitenizing hormone (LH). In females, FSH stimulates ovarian follicle
development while in males it stimulates spermatogenesis. LH stimulates secretion
of estrogen by the ovaries and testosterone by the testes.

 Prolactin hormone stimulates milk production by the breasts following birth of the
infant.

 Growth hormone promotes growth during adolescence. Deficiency of growth

hormone results in pituitary dwarfism while excessive secretion of the hormone
causes pituitary gigantism.

 Corticotropin releasing hormone stimulates secretion of corticosteroids by the

adrenal cortex.

 Melanophore stimulating hormone (MSH) stimulates melanin secretion by

melanocytes.

 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles

(females) and spermatogenesis (males).

51
  Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates secretion of estrogen (females) and
testosterone (males).

Posterior pituitary

 Oxytocin triggers contraction of smooth muscles such as during child birth (labor).

 Vasopressin (Antidiuretic hormone) increases water reabsorption at the upper

collecting duct of the nephrotubules.

52
8. Digestive system

Digestion starts in the mouth. Here, both mechanical and chemical breakdown of the food
takes place. Saliva plays an important role in digestion in the mouth. First, it lubricates the food
to facilitate mechanical digestion. Second, it contains the digestive enzyme amylase which
digests starch into smaller polysaccharides. Saliva also contains thiocyanate ions (SCN -) which
help to kill some harmful bacteria. There are three salivary glands in the mouth – sublingual,
submandibular (submaxillary), and parotid. The adult human produces 1 – 1.5 lit of saliva in a
day.

Salivary glands

Before the food is swallowed, it is formed into a ball-like structure called bolus by the back of
the tongue. During swallowing, food is pushed to the pharynx. The epiglottis closes the air
passage to avoid entry of food into the air passage which could cause choking.

53
 The swallowing process

The alimentary canal (the entire tubular structure of the digestive system) has four layers:
 Mucosa- inner most layer made of connective tissue and muscle layer.
Also contains mucus glands.
 Submucosa – found below the mucosa and contains blood vessels
connective tissue, nerve endings, and mucus glands.
 Muscularis externa –layer of smooth muscle bundles that are circularly
arranged internally and horizontally arranged externally.
 Serosa – an outer protective layer of fibrous connective tissue.

Food progresses to the stomach by peristaltic contraction of the esophageal wall. The
contraction is created by smooth muscles of the mucosa and muscularis externa.
Once the food gets at the anterior end of the stomach, it is allowed to the inside by opening of
valves that are controlled by sphinister muscles.

54
The stomach has folded mucosa. It contains thousands of gastric pits surrounded by chief cells
that produce pepsin- the gastric enzyme that digests proteins. Another group of cells known as
parietal cells are also found surrounding the gastric pit which secrete HCl. Mucus produced by
the mucosa protects the stomach from being digested by its own HCl and digestive enzymes.
Some people secrete excessive amount of HCl which results in damage of the surface of the
stomach. The resulting ulceration is called peptic ulcer. It is believed that the stomach is
triggered to produce excess acid to kill the bacteria helicobacter pylori which inhabits the
stomach.

Once the food enters the stomach, HCl and pepsinogen are secreted. H+ from dissociated HCl
converts pepsinogen to its active form pepsin. Smooth muscles contract and churn the food to
facilitate digestion. Sugar, salt, and alcohol are absorbed in stomach.

Submucosa

Layers of the stomach

Digestion in the stomach will be completed within 3 to 4 hrs. At this time the food is converted
into a semi-liquid structure called chyme. The digestive activity of the stomach is inhibited
after the food is digested by an enzyme known as gastric inhibitory peptide. The chyme then
55
moves bit by bit to the small intestine thorough the lower opening of the stomach called
pyloric sphincters.

The small intestine is the main organ of digestion and absorption. The human intestine is 4 cm
in diameter and around 7 m in length. It has extensive foldings, and tiny finger-like projections
known as villi and microvilli. These structures help to increase the absorptive surface area of
the intestine enormously. For example, the surface area of the human small intestine is 300
m2. The upper part of the small intestine with a length of 30 cm is the duodenum and it is the
digestive part. It secretes the digestive enzymes lactase, sucrase, and maltase, that digest the
disaccharides lactose, sucrose and maltose respectively.

The pancreas produces protein digesting enzymes - trypsin and chymotrypsin, fat digesting
enzymes - lipases, nucleotide digesting enzymes - nucleases, as well as amylase. These
enzymes are transported into the duodenum to digest the food. The release of trypsin and
chymotrypsin by the pancreas is stimulated by a substance known as cholecystokinin which is
secreted by the small intestine. The intestine itself is stimulated to release cholecystokinin in
the first place by aminoacids that come from the stomach with the chyme.

The liver produces bile which contains cholesterol, bile salts and pigments. Bile is stored in the
gall bladder and secreted into the duodenum to assist in the digestion of fats. Before the fats
are digested, they have to dissolve (broken down into smaller fat droplets) in a process known
as emulsification. Bile is the agent of emulsification at this point.

Chyme becomes a whitish watery solution in the duodenum and becomes chyle. While the
chyme is acidic as it is released from the stomach, the duodenum is alkaline with a pH of 7.8.
As the acidic chyme enters the duodenum, it stimulates intestinal cells to release an enzyme
called secretin. Secretin in turn stimulates the pancreas to release HCO3- (bicarbonate) into the
duodenum which converts the pH into alkaline.

56
 Parts of the digestive tract

Once the digestion process is completed, the food is passed to the lower parts of the intestine
which is subdivided as jejunum (3m) and ileum (4m). Absorption of sugars, aminoacids, nucleic
acids, bases, water, minerals, and all other products of digestion takes place here. Glucose is
absorbed by the mechanism of coupled transport (Refer to Cell Biology Chapter on Material
Transport across the Cell Membrane).

57
Absorbed nutrients are first transported to the liver by the hepatic portal system. In the liver,
micromolecules are used to synthesis large molecules (macromolecules – carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, nucleic acids), poisons and alcohol are degraded into harmless substances.
90% of water is absorbed in the small intestine and the remaining is absorbed in the large
intestine. The large intestine (colon) is 6.5 cm in diameter and 2 m in length. But it lacks
extensive foldings of the small intestine - the villi and microvilli. The large intestine absorbs
water and minerals and forms the feces from undigested food. Symbiotic bacteria of the large
intestine such as Escherrichia coli metabolize the undigested food and release some
aminoacids and Vit.K that can be absorbed by the large intestine.

58
 9. Respiratory system
The trachea is the main air pipe and it divides into two smaller pipes called bronchi (singular
bronchus). The bronchi further divide into smaller networks of tubes called bronchioles. The
bronchioles end up with blind sacs which store fresh air that are also sites of gaseous exchange.
These sacs are the alveoli (singular alveolus). The trachea and bronchi are strengthened by a ‘C’
shaped cartilage on the front side to protect them from collapsing.

The total surface area of gas exchange in both lungs is around 100 – 200 m 2 in the adult human.
The lungs are enveloped with pleural membranes – the inner one is the parietal pleura and the
outer one is the visceral pleura. There is lubricating fluid within the cavity formed by the two
membranes. The cavity is called pleural cavity. Before the lungs start functioning at birth, the
film of water that surrounds the alveoli has to be broken down. A surface active agent
(surfactant) known as diplmitoyl lecithin is produced during the final stages of pregnancy which
breaks down this film of water. Babies born before 7 months of gestation are unable to produce
the surfactant and develop a respiratory condition called respiratory distress syndrome.

59
Breathing movements Parts of the respiratory system
During inhalation (breathing in), the thoracic cavity increases in volume due to contraction of
the diaphragm which results in downward stretching of it and also the forward and upward
movement of the rib cage due to contraction of external intercoastal muscles of the ribs.
This expansion of the ribcage decreases air pressure in the cavity causing air to be rushed into
the lungs.

Exhalation (breathing out) occurs when the diaphragm and rib muscles relax resulting in
decrease of the volume of the chest cavity and increase in the internal air pressure.

Capturing of Oxygen
Oxygen is selectively captured and absorbed through the thin layer of the alveoli by the
hemoglobin molecule carried in red blood cells. Millions of hemoglobin molecules are densely
packed in each red blood cell. Hemoglobin is a protein with four peptide chains and a heme
group (iron containing). The heme group is the actual oxygen binding site.

The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries that carry deoxygenated blood from the
pulmonary artery. Therefore, the oxygen concentration in this blood is very low.
Oxygen concentration in the blood is measured by oxygen partial pressure (PO2). The PO2 in
the lung capillaries is one of the lowest before gas exchange takes place and it is usually around
40 – 45 mmHg. In the alveoli, on the other hand, the PO2 is very high just after inhalation and it
reaches 100mmHg. Therefore, O2 diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries so that the
deoxygenated blood now becomes oxygenated. At this point, the oxygen binding sites of the
hemoglobin molecules are 98% saturated. The oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the
pulmonary vein and it is pumped and distributed throughout the body.

60
 Alveoli surrounded by a capillary network

As the blood circulates, oxygen is released to the tissue spaces based on their oxygen demand.
Areas where the PO2 is less, will get more oxygen than those which have higher PO2.
Therefore, the oxygen binding affinity of hemoglobin (whether it releases or retains oxygen) is
dependent on the oxygen demand of a particular part of the body. Parts of the body which are
continuously using oxygen such as the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles require constant
supply of oxygen.

The oxygen affinity of hemoglobin is also affected by three factors:

 H+ ion concentration – high concentration of H+ decreases the
oxygen affinity of hemoglobin and helps to make it release more
oxygen. H+ concentration increases due to accumulation of CO2
that could lead to blood acidity upon its conversion to H2CO3
(carbonic acid). This is an indicator of oxygen starvation, hence
it is advantageous to release more oxygen as a result of H+
61
 increase. The effect of H+ on the hemoglobin affinity for oxygen
is called Bohr Effect named after the Denish physiologist
Christian Bohr who first described it in 1904.
 2,3, Diphosphoglycerate – it has the same effect as H+ by
reducing the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen and facilitating
the release of oxygen. The importance of this effect is
demonstrated by an experimental measurement. In the absence
of 2,3 diphosphoglycerate, hemoglobin stayed 50% saturated in
parts of the body where the PO2 was only 19%. However, in the
presence of it, the hemoglobin saturation went down to 29%
after releasing 21% of its oxygen load. This indicates that in the
absence of 2,3 diphosphoglycerate the tissues could face oxygen
starvation in spite of high oxygen load of hemoglobin.
 Carbonmonoxide (CO) – this is a poisonous gas and it has the
reverse effect of the above two i.e. it increases the oxygen
affinity of hemoglobin thereby causing oxygen starvation. In
addition to its effect on oxygen retention, CO also binds on
oxygen binding sites of hemoglobin and reduces the chance of
new oxygen molecules binding on the hemoglobin. If you are
exposed to CO for an extended period of time, most of the
hemoglobin will be affected and this could lead to loss of
consciousness and subsequent death. There are several reports
of accidents due to exposure to CO when people sleep in closed
spaces without proper ventilation. That is why it is advised to
put off burning charcoal or open windows and doors for proper
ventilation.
Removal of CO2
CO2 is first collected by the erythrocytes. Then it will be converted to carbonic acid by the
enzyme carbonic anhydrase:
62
 CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (carbonic acid) HCO3- (Bicarbonate) + H+

Then HCO3- is removed from the cell by the anion exchange protein. When HCO3- is removed
from the red blood cell, Cl- enters in its place. In the lungs, HCO3- is again picked up by the red
blood cells and Cl- is removed using the anion exchange protein once again. Then, the HCO 3- is
converted to CO2 in the reverse direction of the reaction shown above. Eventually, the CO 2 is
removed from the body during exhalation. The mechanism of CO2 removal described above is
used to remove 67% of the total CO2 that is to be removed. Of the remaining 33%, 25% binds on
hemoglobin and transported to the lungs, and 8% will be transported as dissolved gas in the
blood. Note that only small amount is allowed to freely mix with blood, while 92% is
transported as HCO3- or CO2 bound on hemeoglobin. This is because, high concentration of CO2
in the blood could seriously affect the physiological (neutral) pH of the blood by converting it to
acidic.

63
 10. Circulatory system
Blood vessels
There are three types of blood vessels; arteries take blood away from the heart, veins return
blood to the heart, capillaries allow material exchange between the blood stream and tissue
spaces (interstitial spaces).

Arteries and veins have four layers – endothelium (inner most), elastic fiber, smooth muscle,
and connective tissue (outer most). Capillaries on the other hand are single layered only having
the endothelium. The smallest arteries are called arterioles and the smallest veins are venules.
Capillaries make complex networks and their total length reaches astronomic figures. For
example, the total length of capillaries in the adult human is estimated to reach a staggering
100,000 km. Veins have valves to inhibit back flow of blood. This is particularly important since
the blood pressure is low in the veins due to fading of the pumping force of the heart when the
blood gets to the veins. Especially blood returning from the lower parts of the body is pushed
against gravity by peristaltic wave of contractions of smooth muscles concentrated around the
valves.

Valves in veins

64
The Heart and blood circulation
The mammalian circulatory system has double route – the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
Deoxygenated blood is collected by the veins and brought to the right atrium (right auricle) of
the heart. The small veins from the lower part of the body merge together to form the inferior
vena cava and veins in the upper body form the superior vena cava.
The deoxygenated blood flows downwards to the right ventricle when the heart is relaxing
which is called diastole. The deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery. The back flow of blood into the right atrium is prohibited by the tricuspid
valves which shut the atrio-ventricular opening between the two chambers of the heart.
Once the blood is oxygenated in the lungs, it returns back to the heart via the pulmonary vein
into the left atrium (auricle) of the heart. The circulatory route thus far is what is called
pulmonary circulation. The oxygenated blood flows down to the left ventricle which pumps the
blood through the aorta to be distributed throughout the body. The pumping phase through
the aorta is systole. The highest pumping force of the heart is generated by the left ventricle to
make sure blood reaches all parts of the body. As a result, the left ventricle has the thickest
muscular wall of all the chambers of the heart followed by the right ventricle. The two atria are
thin walled. The back flow of blood into the left atrium is prohibited by yet another group of
valves known as bicuspid or mitral valves. There are valves at the base of the aorta and
pulmonary artery that prohibit backflow of blood to the respective ventricular chambers. These
valves are called semilunar valves.

Contraction of the heart is stimulated by its own pace maker known as the sinoatrial node – a
small patch of muscular tissue in the right atrium. The pace maker pulsates 75-80 times/min
which is also considered as the heart beat. Note that the pace maker beats on its own without
stimulation by the nervous system. The contractile wave generated by the pace maker in the
atrium reaches to the ventricles and a secondary pace maker known as the atrio-ventricular
node receives the contraction and distributes it to the lower parts of the heart. Even though
the heart can beat with its own pace maker, it also depends on the control of the autonomic
nervous system to maintain the right pumping force of its muscular wall. The vagus nerve tends
65
to slow down heart beat to normal levels while the accelerator speeds up the heart rate during
exercise or excitement.

Parts of the heart

Material exchange
The purpose of the circulatory system is to distribute nutrients, oxygen, and other necessary
supplies to the tissues and absorb secreted products and remove wastes. In order to achieve
this, materials are exchanged between the circulatory system and the tissue fluids (interstitial

fluids). This exchange takes place through the thin walls of the capillaries. At the arterial end of
the capillary network (capillary bed), the blood pressure (also considered as hydrostatic
pressure) is higher than the venous end of the capillary bed, and it is around 25mmHg. The

hydrostatic pressure at the venous end is around 10mmHg. The hydrostatic force has a
tendency of pushing blood contents out of the capillaries. Thus, nutrients such as glucose,
aminoacids, fatty acids and others are filtered out to be eventually absorbed by the tissue cells.

Plasma proteins are not filtered out due to their large size. Apart from the hydrostatic pressure,
66
there is the osmotic pressure that has a tendency to absorb fluids from the interstitial spaces.
The osmotic pressure is around 15mmHg at both ends of the capillary bed. Therefore, there is a
net pressure in favor of the hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end resulting in the filtration just
mentioned above. But at the venous end, the osmotic pressure is higher than the hydrostatic
pressure which results in reabsorption of fluid into the blood stream. It is during this time that
secreted products and metabolic wastes are taken up by the circulatory system. This
reabsorption process ensures return of most of the plasma into the blood stream so that there

will not be loss of blood volume. It is not 100% of the fluid, however, that is returned back into
the circulation. There will be some extra remaining fluid which is collected by the lymphatic
vessels. These are vessels similar to veins that have valves to inhibit backflow of fluid. The
lymphatic vessels merge to form large vessels. Eventually, they form one large vessel which
reruns the lymphatic fluid back into circulation by joining a vein at the neck region.

Accumulation of plasma fluid which is called edema can result due to some factors:
 Obstruction of the venous end of capillary beds
 High blood pressure which results in increased volume of plasma
filtrate which cannot be reabsorbed fully
 Renal (kidney) problem resulting due to inability of the kidneys to
remove excess fluid from the body as urine. This will indirectly
increase the amount of plasma fluid that is filtered

Atherosclerosis
Material exchange at the capillary bed
67
Atherosclerosis the narrowing of arteries due to accumulation of hardened deposits known as
plaques. This narrowing is also called stenosis. Narrowing of blood vessels reduces the amount
of blood supply to different parts of the body. This reduced blood supply is called ischemia.
Ischemia of the heart muscles causes myocardial infraction, a kind of heart attack caused due
to the death of cardiac muscles. The condition is serious and could lead to sudden death if a
large area of the heart is affected. In the brain, ischemia causes stroke again due to lack of
blood supply to the brain cells.

Plaques can also cause blood clots known as thrombi (singular thrombus) in the arteries. These
blood clots block arteries and cause ischemia. In the heart, this causes a myocardial infraction
known as coronary thrombosis. The thrombus can be dislodged from its point of formation and
freely swim in the blood stream. This time, it is referred to as embolus. The embolus can be
stack in the narrow arteries and cause ischemia resulting in serious health hazards such as
stroke if this happens in the brain.

Sedentary life style (lack of exercise), high fat diet, smoking, excessive alcohol, diabetes, and
stress are among the main risk factors of atherosclerosis.

Blood flow Plaque

Normal (left) and atherosclerotic (right) arteries

( 11. Reproductive system
68
Male reproductive system
The testes are the male gonads found suspended in the scrotum (membranous sac) outside of
the body cavity. This is because, the core body temperature inhibits spermatogenesis. The
temperature in the testes is 2-4 oC lower.

Sperm is produced in folded tubules of the testes known as seminiferous tubules and their
total length could reach upto 100m in each testis. The Leydig cells (also known as interstitial
cells) produce the male sex hormone -testosterone. Sperm is stored and matured in the
epididymis. The maturation process includes acquiring resistance to acidic pH, high
temperature, and capacity to swim. Secretions from the wall of the epididymis stimulate the
maturation. The epididymis leads to the spermatic duct known as vas deference. The vas
deference rises upwards and makes a loop around the bladder and joins the seminal vesicles
and later on the prostate gland. The seminal vesicles secrete 2/3 of the ejaculatory fluid
(semen) and this fluid from the seminal vesicles contains fatty acids, mucus, and fructose. The
fatty acids and fructose are used as energy source for the sperm while the mucus helps to
provide moisture. The prostate gland secretes alkaline solution which assists to neutralize the
acidic pH of the female reproductive tract.

69
 Male reproductive system

Female reproductive system

The female gonads are the pair of ovaries that are suspended in the abdominal cavity. Eggs are
first received by fingerlike projections of the oviduct called fimbrae. The eggs are pushed
downwards by cilia on the wall of the oviduct. Fertilization takes place in the upper part of the
oviduct (fallopian tube). The uterus is muscular and opens at the cervix which leads to the
vagina.

Fimbrae
70
 Female reproductive system

Spermatogenesis and oogenesis

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis (production of sperm cells) starts during puberty. The sperm germ cells are
the spermatogonia. They divide mitotically. The resulting cells will either mature into other
spermatogonia or become primary spermatocytes. The primary spermatocytes divide
meiotically (meiosis) and when they complete meiosis I, they produce two secondary
spermatocytes. The two secondary spermatocytes under go meiosis II to produce four
spermatids. The spermatids are haploid cells which eventually mature into the sperm cells
(spermatozoa) by a process of spermiogenesis. Spermiogenesis is a process of sperm cell
formation where the circular spermatids grow a whip-like tail and a narrow pointed head.

Oogenesis
The egg germ cells are the oogonia that start developing during embryonic development.
In humans, the oogonia divide mitotically between the 2nd and 7th months of pregnancy. During
this period, their number reaches upto 7 million. After the 7th month, most of them die and
their number decreases significantly. The remaining oogonia start dividing meiotically and stop
at prophase stage of meiosis I. The female is born with hundreds of thousands or few millions
of such cells known as primary oocytes. The primary oocytes resume meiosis at the time of
sexual maturity. In humans, this is during puberty at the age of 12 or so. However, not all

71
primary oocytes complete meiosis. Instead, few selected cells (a single oocyte in humans)
mature periodically during the estrus cycle (menstrual cycle in humans) and complete meiosis
to become the viable egg.

In the human female, only 400 or so primary oocytes mature during her reproductive time
which is between puberty and menopause. When they resume meiosis, the primary oocytes
complete meiosis I and produce two cells. Unlike spermatogenesis, only one of these two cells
becomes the secondary oocyte. The cell that becomes the secondary oocyte will get most of
the cytoplasm and becomes the larger of the two daughter cells. The other cell will receive only
a small portion of the cytoplasm and appears smaller. This smaller cell becomes the first polar
body. The secondary oocyte proceeds and completes meiosis II to produce two daughter cells
again receiving disproportionate volume of the cytoplasm. The larger cell this time becomes the
matured egg (Ovum) and becomes the female gamete available for fertilization. The two polar
bodies usually disintegrate at the end of meiosis II.

In humans and some other animals, the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II and produces
ovum and secondary polar body only if fertilized. Therefore, when spermatogenesis and
oogenesis are compared, the former produces four viable gametes from each dividing
gametocyte while the latter produces a single gamete per gametocyte.

72
 2 Oogonia
n
Meiosis I arrested at prophase

Primary spermatocyte
2
n Meiosis I completed
Secondary oocyte
n
n
First polar body

Meiosis II
(Spermiogenesis)
n n
Second polar body
Egg (Ovum)

Oogenesis

Spermatogenesis

Hormonal control of reproduction

The hypothalamus produces gonadotropin realizing hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the
anterior pituitary to release Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH).

Males
LH stimulates production of testosterone by the interstitial (Leydig) cells. Once enough
testosterone is produced, it inhibits production of LH. Testosterone stimulates development of
secondary sexual characters and libido (sexual desire). FSH stimulates spermatogenesis. Inhibin
is a hormone released by the testes after secretion of enough sperm. It inhibits FSH secretion
by the pituitary.
Females

73
In females, there is a cyclic change of reproductive status that determines the time of fertility.
This cycle is called the menstrual cycle or simply period in humans and it takes about 28 days.

Day one of the cycle is the beginning of menstrual bleeding. The bleeding stops within 3-5 days
with individual variations. During this early period of the cycle, the concentration of FSH and LH
increases. LH stimulates estrogen secretion, and FSH stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles.
The ovarian follicles contain the egg which is eventually going to be available for fertilization.
Estrogen induces pubertal changes and also increases libido. The developing follicle secrets
another female hormone - progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone stimulate thickening of
the wall of the uterus by vasocongestion (vascularaization) making it ready for attachment of an
embryo if there is going to be fertilization. After adequate amount of estrogen and
progesterone are produced, the two hormones inhibit secretion of LH and FSH respectively.

At around day 14 of the cycle, the follicle bursts open and the egg is released into the fallopian
tube. Just prior ovulation, the estrogen level is very high (surging). This is due to stimulation of
the ovaries by LH. Note that LH secretion has been inhibited as the estrogen level increased.
However, the estrogen surge during ovulation is stimulated by LH secretion mechanism that is
not controlled by estrogen concentration. After bursting and releasing the egg, the follicle
becomes corpus luetum (yellow Body) and continues secreting progesterone until around day
23 of the cycle. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum disintegrates because the FSH
responsible for its development is no more available at this time. Following the disintegration
of the corpus luteum and lack of estrogen and progesterone, the endometrial thickening starts
to disintegrate because estrogen and progesterone are necessary to maintain its
vascularization. The endometrial wall continues falling apart until the end of the cycle and a
new cycle starts when it is discharged as a menstrual bleeding. Note that birth control pills
contain progesterone and estrogen which inhibit LH and FSH. In the absence of LH and FSH
there is no ovulation and maturation of an egg.

Fertilization and pregnancy

74
Upto 300 million sperm cells are released in a single ejaculate. But, only few hundreds reach the
oviduct. Fertilization can take place only if the sperm meets the egg in the oviduct. The egg
completes its journey on the oviduct in about 24 hours, therefore sperm has to be available
within this window of opportunity if fertilization has to take place.

The egg is enveloped with a tough cover of glycoprotein known as zona pellucida. On top of the
zona pellucida, there is a cell layer known as the corona radiata. The cells of this layer originate
from the ovarian follicle.

The sperm cells have to first erode or digest the zona pellucida before entering the egg and
fertilize it. That is why several hundred sperm cells are required to work together and break a
gate way through this tough cover. For this purpose, sperm cells have an enzyme in their tip
part (acrosome) which helps to digest the zona pellucida.

Once an entrance is made, the fortunate sperm enters and fertilizes the egg. A second sperm
cannot enter into the egg once fertilization takes place. There are small sacs known as cortical
granules in the egg. They release an enzyme that makes the wall impenetrable any further.

Mature
Upon fertilization, egg or ovum
the resulting (left)
embryo will and
have spermset(right)
a complete of chromosomes by 50%
contribution of each parent. Few days after fertilization, the embryo makes its way into the
75
uterus and implants itself with its placental tissue. Remember that the wall of the uterus is
prepared for this by the endometrial thickening stimulated by estrogen and progesterone.
The placenta produces the human chorionic gonadotropic hormone (HCG) few days after
fertilization. This hormone helps to maintain the corpus luteum for the first three months of
pregnancy. Therefore, instead of disintegrating, the corpus luteum survives and continues
producing progesterone and also estrogen. This will help to maintain the endometrial
thickening. HCG urine test is used as pregnancy test within a week of unprotected sex.
After three months, the HCG level drops and the corpus luteum disintegrates while the placenta
starts producing its own progesterone and estrogen.

During labor (giving birth), oxytocin is secreted to induce contraction of the musclular wall of
the uterus to push the baby out through the birth canal. In the months of pregnancy, the
breasts accumulate fat and significantly increase in size by the influence of progesterone,
estrogen, and the chorionic somatommamotropin hormone of the placenta. However, milk
production is inhibited during pregnancy by the prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) produced
by the hypothalamus. The production of this hormone is stimulated by estrogen and
progesterone. When the placenta is removed following birth, the level of estrogen and
progesterone also drops and PIH is no more secreted. Instead, prolactin is secreted by the
pituitary and stimulates lactogenesis (milk production). Oxytocin stimulates the flow of milk
through the nipples. Milk flow is maximized by suckling and the psychological stimulation from
just seeing the baby.

76