Assignment

Paper name- Eastern India in transition: Ecology, State and Culture

(c.1200-1850)

Paper code- 123102329

Topic- The Inner-Asians were the principal catalyst of "early

modernity in India" comment.

Submitted to- Prof Vipul Singh

Submitted by -

Name- Neha yadav

Course -MA History final

Semester -3rd Semester

Campus -North campus

College - Indraprastha college for women

Roll no. - MA21/HIS/15

Examination roll no.- 21029716014

 After 1500 we see change in worlds economy, which was resulted
of the expensive dynamism of European early modern capitalist
societies and evolutionary progress in human organisation that
appears to reach a critical threshold across Eurasia- if not the entire
world.
The renaissance, the scientific inventions which introduce
machines and technologies , allowed gradual shift of irrationality
with rationality which ultimately led to the Industrial revolution.
Western Europe unquestionably played a larger role in shaping the
early modern world and with the centralisation of state, control on
almost more than half on everything-more of agriculture, more of
military, more of maritime was under the state. We see with the
growth of capital and maritime control Europe started regional
natural exploitation. Europe’s products were already in demand
which accelerated with colonisation.
James Blaut talked about how Europe acquired three additional pre
conditions :-
1) How the wealth was acquired from the mines of America and
traded with Asia and Africa
2) How the products were imported and re-exported
3) How Political power played an important role.
This, the bourgeois revolution, allowed the emerging capitalist class
-community to mobilise state power towards its further rise.

Patrick O’Brien says trade was not the real capital formation but by
the internal economic forces. Later he added, if European never
expanded in Asia, Africa and Americas European’s economy would
have been poorer. 1
Early modern Western Europe to the lead in systematic
understanding of the natural world. It was primarily European who
sent immense information back to European capital by letter, report
and word of mouth. And with the movable type printing and growth
of publishing industry, made it easy in comparison of hand copied

1
Richards, F. John, The Unending Frontier : An Environmental History of the Early Modern World, University of California
Press, California, 2003, 17-18
manuscript and it was cheap too. Universities students in their
researches consumed knowledge. Rulers and trading companies
also accomplished geographical information which had other
aid.When it comes to writers some were official, some unofficial
,some were independent and others were dependent all together
they provide wide range of data about the world.
European were continuously engaged in massive taxonomical
exercise in which they named the parts and inhabitants of the world,
sea, wind pattern, headlands, harbours, rivers, lakes, mountains, hill
ranges and passes, deserts, rainforest, fertile planes and river
deltas, varied climate and seasonal regimes.They also formulate a
new way to locate that is through longitude and latitudes, navigation
became more accurate and sophisticated due to all these research.
Also encountered, observed, classified and name the world's trees,
bushes, grasses and flowers with due attention to possible
economic uses also encountered observed classified and name the
world's domestic and wild animal birds and fish and made a
beginning at similar taxonomies of insects. knowledge of natural
world conferred power over previously unused natural resources
across the globe.2
By 18th century some intellectual begin to perceive the impact of
human activity on natural world how deforestation triggered
concerned about climate change and energy sources. Resource
extraction was driven by early modern world economy to take
control on world's land and ocean. Human intervention though
created a dramatic change in landscapes, ecosystem and habitat
around the World between 1500 and 1800.
Scientific insight and technical advancement helped them to
evaluate the resources to exploit. Proper organisation, investment

2
Richards, F. John, The Unending Frontier : An Environmental History of the Early Modern World, University of California
Press, California, 2003, 19-22
and planning could convert domesticated landscapes suitable for
human habitation. The ultimate civilisation mission became that of
exploring, comprehending and controlling the wild places of the
earth in order to make them agreeable to human life and work.By
the 15th century human institution had reached an evolutionary
threshold and were poised to attain a new level of complexity and
capability
Vincent Cornell’s conclusions about 16th century Morocco, how it
was developed like 17th century European state where we find
remarkable boundaries and proper working from taxation to
expenditure, would signify the existence of a nation.
Political success with economic growth, latter demographic growth
intensified international trade and expanding literacy(with or
without the aid of printing) military strength was also strengthened
in context of new handgun and artillery technology.
Around Eurasia and Africa evolutionary progress improved and
speeded trade, markets and monetisation and raised human
productivity in industry and agriculture. Early modern states
increased industrial production directly in state owned enterprises.
They created more reliable and useful monetary systems based on
coinage minted with new world silver and gold. 3
During 17th century the Mughal empire in India and the Dutch
Republic in Western Europe were among the most successful state
in the world. The complex institutions of the Mughal Empire were
the product of a millennium of Indo-Muslim state building in
Southern Asia. India's dense population powered a subcontinental
economy of prodigious productivity. While Dutch Republic’s
population and territories were but a tiny fraction of those of
Mughal emperor. However the Dutch Oligarchies presided over the
3
Richards, F. John, The Unending Frontier : An Environmental History of the Early Modern World, University of California
Press, California, 2003, 22-25
richest, most active and aggressive Maritime trading nation at that
time. Also nurtured what has been termed the world's first modern
economy. Moreover the Mughal empire and the Dutch republic were
closely tied together in a symbiotic trading relationship mediated by
the Dutch East India company.
Development were taking place in South Asia same as Europe,
particularly to China and Japan. In South Asia also territorial writ of
successive polities expanded fiscal system improved, military
organisation grew more efficient. If we talk about this time period in
the context of Indian subcontinent there were some changes-
expansion of agrarian activities, cultural integration, a surge in state
formation, coming up of powerful states for example- the Delhi
Sultanate(1526-1565), the Vijayanagar Empire(1336-1565), the
Mughal Empire(1526-1706) followed by the era of decline. The era
benefited from economic intensification, firearms ,new cultural
synthesis and cumulative expertise.
As far as our question concerned with the role of Inner Asians in the
beginning of early modernity in India, we shall deal in the following
manner.
Unlike the protected zone of South Asia the Indo-Gangetic plains of
the subcontinent lay open to the repeated invasions by the inner
Asians chiefly the Turkish and the allied people from the Northwest.
The same area was open to Britishers in the 18th century by the
sea.4
Indian Empire was more easy to break-in, compare to China as it
offers suitable geography rural militarisation, pacelized sovereignty,
elite education-were less sympathetic
There has been Civilisational connections between India and Inner-
Asia. Trade relations during the Harappan period, the incursions of
4
Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830-Volume 2: Mainland Mirrors: Europe,
Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009, 631-633
Aryans, the invasion of Inner-Asians( Sakas, Hunas, kushanas, etc.)
the silk route trade system the spread of Buddhism in Inner-Asia
from India, etc. in The ancient times and the invasion of Turks and
the Mongols in the early medieval and medieval periods, shows a
continuous engagement of Inner-Asia with the subcontinent
throughout the history.
Ancient India witness centralise states such as the Mauryas etc.
But during the Gupta rule India witnessed the decentralisation of
power in the form of emerging feudal lords. This process of sub-
infudation give rise to multiple centres of powers (polycentrism)
This polycentrism done away only after the Turkish conquest of the
northern plain. After successive raiding of more than 100 years, the
inner-Asians finally settled in indo-Gangetic plain. And in 1206
founded the Delhi sultanate which not only became the first Perso-
Islamic state in Northern India but also subdued Gujarat and
Deccan.
The sultanate ruler expanded the boundary of the Empire up to
Madurai in the South, the issues such as over extension, patrimonial
appropriation of benefices, dangers from the Northwest etc. led to
the decline of Delhi sultanate in the late 1300.
The attack of Taimur in 1398 completed the task of decline, it was
around this time many local kingdoms emerges such as
Vijayanagara Empire,The Bahamani Kingdom, the Sultanate of
Gujarat, Malwa and the Bengal etc.The glory and the authority of
Delhi sultanate was later restored by the Lodhi clan of Afghans. 5
A second more important wave of InnerxAsian under the command
of Babur invaded the Indo-Gangetic plains, defeated the Lodhis and
founded one of the most important and powerful empire of that
time i.e., the Mughal empire. In a short period of 4 years of his reign
5
Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830-Volume 2: Mainland Mirrors: Europe,
Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009,633-637
Babur defeated the chief ruler of subcontinent including Rana
Sanga of Mewar, and formed the roots of the Mughal empire in
India. His death followed the usurpation of power by SherShah Suri
in 1535. SherShah Suri had much to credit for what the Mughal
emperor Akbar did.
The death of SherShah Suri in 1645 and death of his son IslamShah
Suri in 1564, left the seat of power(Delhi) in utter miss management,
disorder likewise in Eurasia, India in mid 16th century witness the
consolidation of power. In India it was the work of the
Mughals(especially Akbar) the administrative system improved, the
military was reorganised, alliances were forged and from 1560 to
1690 Mughal armies added territories.
The Muslim and the non-Muslim polities in South Asia resembled
on many facets such as efficient revenue system, reliance on long
distance trade, expanded military recruitment.
Andre Wink's claim that islamic fiscal rationalisation "vastly
enhanced" the mobilisation of Indian agrarian resources.
Kulke' observation "there has always been wide agreement among
historians that the establishment of the Delhi sultanate and the
Mughal Empire initiated and new phase of a state formation in
Indian history"
The selection of the capital city of Delhi by Inner Asians as a great
economical significance such as- to secure the access to agrarian
wealth, warrior, war animals of the Gangetic India and to maintain
trade relations with the outer world. The inner Asians mediated
transition from the medieval period to early modern period in
various form.The Turks learnt the art of paper making from the
Mongols. They brought this art in India, there was a shift from palm
leaf to paper record keeping. This paper record keeping nourished a
vibrant scribbles, subculture, by 1300 there circulated handbooks. 6
Paper was not only limited to the court and administrative purpose
but it also revolutionised education in a way, such an innovation by
the Turks further added to Mughal administrative success.
During the Mughal rule they developed a system of written records,
the use of paper was so extensive during the Mughal period that
some historians have even called the “Mughal Empire” as “Paper
Empire”.
The term early modern aptly applies to the Mughals. Akbar being
the chief architect of Mughal centralisation whose reforms were all
more remarkable. He expanded the zabt system(land assessment)
of SherShah Suri which formed the basis of revenue assignment
called jagirs. Akbar modified this jagir system.
the Mughal strengthen not only fiscality, but broader system of
coordination, the taxation system was so much in place that
Ludden calls the Mughal Empire as- “South Asian’s first empire of
agrarian taxation”.
They also built multiple forts, improved roads, standardised titles,
weight and coinage.
From the mid 1600 there was a greater emphasis of the military and
fiscal measurements, legal standardisation etc.
from the above discussion we see that South Asia has benefited,
economically, culturally, socially, technologically etc. from the
external intervention by the inner Asians. These benefits have
demonstrated improvement in many fields specially those in fiscal
and military capacity7

6
Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830-Volume 2: Mainland Mirrors: Europe,
Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009,637-647
7
Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830-Volume 2: Mainland Mirrors: Europe,
Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009, 647-685,646
The inner Asian regime promoted long distance trade and bullion
flows and added agriculture with a view to fiscal maximisation.
Towns and cities have spread up after the Turkish invasion.
Mohammad Habib has even gone this extent to call the coming of
Turks as “Urban Revolution” in India. Mughal towns and cities
formed an urban grid supporting 7 to 15% of the population. These
towns served as centre of finance, crop marketing and artisnery .
Cash cropping urban and rural handicraft grew more specialised.
From the late 1500 in Southern India a class of portfolio capitalist
grew who traded in a host of local and imported goods, farmed
revenue, and supplied credit for military operations-became a
characteristic feature of political economy.
The long distance foreign trade fuelled internal growth. Southwest
and South East India exchange bullions, horses and spices for
Indian food stuff, industrial crop and textiles. The increase in the
amount of foreign trade drew more foreign merchant towards the
subcontinent and empower overseas Indian trade diaspora. During
the 15th and 18th century Indian economy was spurred owing to:- a)
Maritime demand stimulated handicrafts and commercial
reorganisation, especially in silk and Bengali cottons. b) New World
maize, tobacco, chilies, and tomatoes diversified agriculture. (But
according to Sucheta Mazumdar, the demographic impact was less
marked than in China, because lower man-to-land ratios rendered
peasants less dependent on agrarian intensification.) c) From West
Asia came the Persian waterwheel, the dome arch, the draw loom,
and novel accounting techniques. d) Most critical, rising bullion
production (chiefly silver, but also gold and copper) in central
Europe, Japan, Africa, and especially the Americas ended Eurasia’s
“bullion famine.” Although India produced virtually no precious
metals, New World silver flowing overland via West Asia and by sea
in Iberian and Muslim ships contributed to a tripling of circulating
silver rupees from 1591 to 1639 alone. 8
It is evident that after 1500 South Asia has a strong international
linkage joined which advanced in agrarian and handicraft technique.
the Mughal state promoted growth not only by various economic
measures but also by ensuring domestic peace, building roads,
bridges and sarais and thus linking ports and other cities to
Hinterland. Mughals have also offered tax incentive and land grants
to developed cities, reclaimed land and cultivated highly valued crop.
One of the edict of Aurangzeb from 1665 declared that the emperor
devotes his attention towards the increasing population and the
cultivation of the Empire.
Market system, revenue system, monetisation etc., like a giant
pump which sucked resources from the countryside into the towns
and cities.
The elite class(imperial family and nobles) use their large income to
purchase goods and services from the market which ultimately
supported private workshops.
Mughal Nomothesis joined the archival propensities of Hindu
traders to foster a cultural of commercial rationality that Bayly
suggest loosely resembled state-capital synthesis in Early Modern
Europe.9
Textile industries was the major industries in India. Bengal, Madurai,
Nashik, Nagpur etc were the famous centres of cotton textile.
Punjab and Kashmir were famous for woollen clothes, Dhaka was
famous for silk, Cotton clothes were the largest exported
item.Indian cotton clothes were called “calicos” , salt was produced

8
Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830-Volume 2: Mainland Mirrors: Europe,
Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009, 685-695
9
Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830-Volume 2: Mainland Mirrors: Europe,
Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009,696-697
from Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan and Lahore, gunpowder was
produced from Bihar, Tanjore was famous for bronze cutlery items.
Some famous merchants of Mughal period were Veerji Bohra,
Abdul Gaffar, Meer Jumla, Malay Chetty, Kashi Viranna etc. It is said
that Abdul Gaffar has traded equivalent to the whole of East India
company in the first part of the 17th century, Veerji Bohra of Surat
is said to be the “richest person” of the world of the time Mughal
themselves are said to own large fleets.
From the above-mentioned it can be concluded that the inner asians
provided a critical stimulus to the territorial consolidation and other
various developments discussed above.
Mughals were benefitted from the post 1500 agrarian expansion,
firearms, cumulative administrative expertise, rising domestic and
global trade, circulation of goods and people. These benefits along
with the Mughals territorial expansion and political successes after
generations of fragmented polities, justifies our early modern rubric.
That is to say, the inner asian and Mughals in particular played the
role of catalysts in bringing pre modernity in India. This can also be
validated by the fact that the Mughal empire resembled its
counterparts in France, Vietnam, siam, etc.